Progress in Implementing the European Union Coordinated Plan on Artificial Intelligence (Volume 1): Netherlands

Table of contents

• Set enabling conditions for AI development and uptake in the European Union
• Make the European Union the right place: Excellence from lab to the market
• Ensure AI technologies work for people
• Build strategic leadership in priority sectors

The European Union (EU) Coordinated Plan on Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a strategic initiative by the European Commission and EU Member States to promote AI development, investment and co-operation. In 2024, the OECD conducted a survey and interviews to take stock of implementation progress made by the EU Member States in implementing the actions set in the EU Coordinated Plan on AI. Drawing on the information collected, the OECD prepared country notes for each EU Member State. This document presents the country note for the Netherlands, which summarises key initiatives and implementation progress.

Key messages

• Artificial intelligence (AI) governance: The Netherlands has launched its work on AI with the Strategic Action Plan for Artificial Intelligence (SAPAI) first published in 2019. Updates, focusing on innovation, education and ethical AI use, have been integrated into the broader Dutch Digitalisation Strategy of 2021, the Value-Driven Digitalisation Work Agenda of 2022 and the Digital Economy Strategy of 2023.

• Generative AI policy: In January 2024, the Netherlands became one of the first European Union (EU) member states to publish a government-wide vision on generative AI, outlining key principles such as safety, equity, human welfare and sustainability, along with specific action points for regulation, collaboration and innovation.

• Collaborative innovation hubs: The country fosters AI innovation through several regional AI hubs, including collaborations between businesses, governments and research institutions. These hubs drive AI adoption across various sectors, including manufacturing and energy.

• Data and cloud infrastructure: The Netherlands is promoting secure and efficient data sharing, advancing cloud infrastructure and investing in high-performance computing (HPC) capacities to enhance its digital economy and support cross-sector data exchange.

• AI talent development: The Netherlands places a strong emphasis on education and skills development, with initiatives like the National Education Lab AI (NOLAI) and the Human Capital Agenda ICT (HCA ICT), aiming to build a knowledgeable workforce and close the AI skills gap.

• Focus on AI in agriculture: The country is a leader in leveraging AI for the agriculture sector, with numerous initiatives targeting precision farming, AI-driven livestock management and smart agricultural systems to enhance sustainability and efficiency.

Set enabling conditions for AI development and uptake in the European Union

Acquire, pool and share policy insights

The Netherlands’ AI strategy was first outlined in the Strategic Action Plan for Artificial Intelligence (SAPAI), published in 2019 (Government of the Netherlands, 2019[1]). SAPAI was built around three strategic pillars: i) capitalising on societal and economic opportunities by encouraging AI adoption in both the public and private sectors; ii) creating the right conditions for AI by supporting education, skills development, research and access to data; and iii) addressing ethical concerns such as trust, human rights and safety. Since 2021, AI efforts have been integrated into the broader Dutch Digitalisation Strategy (NDS) (Government of the Netherlands, 2021[2]), which has been updated with, among other initiatives, the Value-Driven Digitalisation Work Agenda and the Digital Economy Strategy (Strategie Digitale Economie, SDE) (Government of the Netherlands, 2023[3]) (Government of the Netherlands, 2022[4]). The SDE focuses on priority sectors like agriculture, healthcare, smart industry and energy. This integration makes it challenging to precisely quantify the country’s expenditure on AI-specific initiatives.

The AI efforts within the NDS aim at stimulating digital innovation and skills through public-private collaborations. Additionally, the strategy emphasises the implementation of the EU AI Act, the acceleration of small and medium-sized enterprise (SME) digitalisation and the creation of regulatory sandboxes to foster SME innovation.

Additionally, in January 2024, the Netherlands introduced a government-wide vision on generative AI (Government of the Netherlands, 2024[5]) (see Box 1).

Box 1. In focus: Government-wide vision on generative AI

In January 2024, the Dutch government became one of the first EU member states to release a comprehensive government-wide vision on generative AI. This policy document outlines how the Netherlands plans to address the opportunities and challenges posed by generative AI, emphasising a balanced approach to innovation and regulation. The vision is built around four core principles that guide the deployment of generative AI: i) safety, ensuring AI systems are secure and do not pose risks to individuals or society; ii) equity, promoting fairness and equal opportunities in AI development and use; iii) human welfare and autonomy, prioritising the well-being and rights of individuals; and iv) sustainability and prosperity, aiming to use generative AI to support economic growth while fostering environmental responsibility.

To operationalise these principles, the vision sets out six key action points. First, it emphasises the need for collaboration between public and private sectors, including international partnerships, to shape the future of generative AI. Second, the government commits to closely monitoring developments in AI technologies, ensuring that policies remain up-to-date and effective. Third, it focuses on shaping and applying laws and regulations, aiming to adapt existing legal frameworks to the unique challenges of generative AI while ensuring compliance with EU regulations. The fourth action point is to increase knowledge and skills across society, enhancing education and training in AI to build a knowledgeable workforce. Fifth, the vision encourages innovation with generative AI, supporting research and pilot projects to explore the technology’s potential benefits. Finally, the Dutch government stresses the importance of strong and clear supervision and enforcement, ensuring that AI systems operate within defined ethical and legal boundaries.

Source: Government of the Netherlands (2024[5]), Government-wide Vision on Generative AI of the Netherlands, https://www.government.nl/documents/parliamentary-documents/2024/01/17/government-wide-vision-on-generative-ai-of-the-netherlands.

The Dutch Ministry for Digitalisation has a co‑ordinating role regarding digital policy between the Dutch ministries, besides its own competence of overseeing the use of AI and digital governance in the Dutch public sector. The Ministries of Economic Affairs (EZ), of Digitalisation (BZK) and of Justice and Security (JenV) are jointly responsible for government-wide AI policy, including preparing negotiations for EU or international AI regulations. However, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (BZ) has an overall responsibility for the co‑ordination of the Dutch positions in global fora and the European Union, and is itself also more directly involved in global AI and cybersecurity governance and diplomacy. Other ministries will provide input on AI-related issues when it comes to their specific policy areas. The Ministry of Education, Culture and Science (OCW) is responsible for Dutch positions in the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), and is – besides its own competences regarding culture, media, education and science policies – the co‑ordinating ministry regarding emancipation policy.

Monitoring AI policies is integrated into broader digitalisation efforts, with key performance indicators aligned with the EU Digital Decade policy programme (EC, 2023[6]) and ongoing evaluations through an annual SDE reporting cycle.

The Netherlands also has seven regional AI hubs that drive AI innovation at the local level, fostering collaboration between businesses, governments and knowledge institutions. These hubs include AI-hub Amsterdam, AI-hub Brainport, AI-hub Brightlands, AI-hub Midden-Nederland, AI-hub Noord-Nederland, AI‑hub Oost‑Nederland and AI‑hub Zuid-Holland (AIC4NL, 2024[7]). They focus on sectors such as healthcare, energy, sustainability and industry, helping to accelerate AI’s societal and economic impact across the country.

Tap into the potential of data and foster critical computing capacity

The Netherlands is promoting secure and efficient data sharing, advancing cloud infrastructure and providing HPC capacities. Efforts focus on enabling cross-sector data exchange, improving digital services and aligning with EU frameworks to ensure data sovereignty and security. Moreover, the Dutch government aims to strengthen its digital economy by supporting education, research and industry with advanced information and communication technology (ICT) infrastructure and promoting collaboration at both the national and EU levels.

Table 1. Set enabling conditions for AI development and uptake in the European Union: Key initiatives

Name	Start year	Short description (main goals)	Funding (including EU funding use)
Centre of Excellence for Data Sharing and Cloud (CoE-DSC)	2023	The CoE-DSC was launched in 2023 as a merger of GAIA-X Hub the Netherlands, the Data Sharing Coalition (launched in 2020) and the data sharing working group of the Netherlands AI Coalition. It supports the development of data spaces, which allow organisations to securely exchange data across sectors. These data spaces, such as the Smart Connected Supplier Network (SCSN, 2024[8]) and Hypotheken Data Netwerk (HDN, 2024[9]), have the potential to drive innovation and economic growth (CoE-DSC, 2024[10]).	Not reported
Dutch Vision on Data Sharing Between Companies	2019	Published by the Dutch government, this framework for responsible data sharing between businesses aims to create economic and societal value while safeguarding security and privacy. The vision focuses on voluntary data sharing to boost innovation and avoid risks like fragmentation and vendor lock‑in, while still allowing for potential mandatory data sharing in the future. The government encourages an ecosystem that maximises the use of data, ensuring that businesses can securely exchange information across sectors (Government of the Netherlands, 2019[11]).	Not reported
GAIA-X Hub the Netherlands	2021	GAIA-X Hub the Netherlands focuses on creating a federated and secure data infrastructure for the European Union, in line with the broader GAIA-X initiative (Gaia-X, 2024[12]). This Dutch hub acts as a facilitator for businesses, governments and organisations to develop cloud and data services that meet EU standards for privacy, security and interoperability. It contributes to the development of trusted data spaces across sectors, including energy, healthcare and industry, fostering cross-border data collaboration (Gaia-X, 2024[13]).	Not reported
Important Project of Common European Interest for Cloud Infrastructure and Services (IPCEI-CIS)	2021	The IPCEI CIS initiative supports projects in cloud infrastructure, services and software development through national subsidies. Its main goal is to enhance EU co‑operation in cloud technologies, encouraging innovation and the adoption of secure cloud infrastructures. The programme provides funding to Dutch businesses working on projects that align with the broader EU cloud strategy, helping to build a robust and competitive digital economy (RVO, 2023[14]).	Not reported
SURF	1986	SURF is a co‑operative for Dutch education and research institutions, offering ICT services and solutions to improve digital infrastructure, research and education. The organisation plays a key role in driving innovation in education and research through ICT, and its current strategy (2022-27) (SURF, 2022[15]) focuses on enhancing service transparency, fostering ICT-related innovation and testing new technologies in its innovation lab.	Not reported

Make the European Union the right place: Excellence from lab to the market

The Netherlands is fostering the transfer of research excellence to the market through initiatives aimed at bridging the gap between academia, industry and public institutions. These efforts focus on developing AI talent, supporting innovation in both public and private sectors, and enabling SMEs to adopt cutting-edge technologies. Overall, these initiatives aim to create a robust ecosystem where research outcomes can be translated into practical applications, contributing to societal and economic transitions.

Table 2. Make the European Union the right place: Excellence from lab to the market: Key initiatives

Name	Start year	Short description (main goals)	Funding (including EU funding use)
AiNed	2021	AiNed is a multi-year public-private initiative that helps Dutch companies and public institutions capitalise on AI’s economic and social opportunities. Funded by the National Growth Fund, AiNed focuses on AI investments in Ethical, Legal and Societal Aspects Laboratories (ELSA Labs), learning communities, innovation labs and SME innovations. It also supports research grants and the development of a robust AI ecosystem through start-ups and SMEs, aligning with the EU approach to AI in a responsible and beneficial manner for Dutch society (AiNed, 2024[16]).	EUR 189 million of public funding
European Digital Innovation Hubs (EDIHs) in the Netherlands	2023	The Netherlands hosts six EDIHs, with five focusing on private-sector digitalisation and one on public sector support. These hubs aim to accelerate AI and digital adoption in businesses and public services (EC, 2024[17]).	EUR 30 million
Innovation Center for Artificial Intelligence (ICAI)	2018	The ICAI aims to position the Netherlands as a leader in AI knowledge and talent development. It aims to create a national AI ecosystem, leverage AI expertise across sectors, nurture academic and industry partnerships, and ensure the sustainable use of AI resources (ICAI, 2024[18]).	Not reported
Invest-NL	2020	Invest-NL provides financing to promising Dutch companies that contribute to societal transitions, including in deep technology sectors like AI. It focuses on providing equity and debt financing, particularly for SMEs that struggle to secure funding (Invest-NL, 2024[19]).	Not reported
ROBUST	2022	The ROBUST consortium, initiated in 2022, is a ten-year research project focusing on reliable and trustworthy AI. Comprising 54 partners in AI labs, including knowledge institutions, private companies and civil society organisations, ROBUST aims to enhance AI systems across five dimensions: accuracy, reliability, repeatability, resilience and safety. It seeks to formalise AI reliability through contracts and develop methods to foster trust in AI systems (NWO, 2024[20]).	EUR 45 million

Ensure AI technologies work for people

Nurture talent and improve the supply of skills necessary to enable a thriving AI ecosystem

The Netherlands is advancing AI integration in education and talent development through several key initiatives. These efforts focus on embedding AI technologies in schools, enhancing academic programmes with AI, and reskilling the workforce to address the growing demand for digital and AI expertise. Additionally, projects explore the ethical use of AI in the humanities, addressing societal challenges such as bias and inclusivity, ensuring AI development benefits both education and society as a whole.

Table 3. Ensure AI technologies work for people: Key initiatives

Name	Start year	Short description (main goals)	Funding (including EU funding use)
Cultural AI Lab	Not reported	The Cultural AI Lab explores the intersection of AI and the humanities. It focuses on using AI to study cultural artifacts while also ensuring that AI development is informed by public values such as diversity and inclusivity. The lab aims to address ethical challenges, such as bias in AI systems, and promotes the use of AI to enhance cultural research (Cultural AI, 2024[21]).	Not reported
Human Capital Agenda (HCA) ICT	2015	The HCA ICT, led by the Platform Talent for Technology, addresses the growing need for ICT talent in the Netherlands, including AI specialists. This initiative works to attract and retain digital talent through training, reskilling and initiatives aimed at closing the AI skills gap in the workforce (HCA ICT, 2024[22]).	Not reported
Netherlands AI Coalition (NL AIC) training platform	Not reported	The NL AIC launched a platform that provides an overview of over 600 university programmes, both ICT-focused and non-ICT, aimed at incorporating AI into higher education. This initiative seeks to align and improve AI-related curricula, ensuring that AI skills are integrated across disciplines to prepare students for the growing demand for AI expertise in various fields (NL AIC, 2024[23]).	Not reported
NL AIC Human Capital Working Group	Not reported	As part of the NL AIC, the Human Capital Working Group focuses on improving AI education and reskilling efforts in the Netherlands. By collaborating with various stakeholders, this working group aims to develop a workforce ready to capitalise on AI’s societal and economic opportunities, with particular attention to filling talent gaps in AI across sectors (NL AIC, 2024[24]).	Not reported
National Education Lab AI (NOLAI)	2022	NOLAI is a 10-year government-funded initiative that brings together academics, businesses and schools to explore the potential of AI in education. It focuses on integrating smart technologies in primary, secondary and special education to improve learning outcomes and develop AI-based educational tools (Radboud University, 2024[25]).	EUR 91 million from the National Growth Fund (NWO), of which EUR 36 million are refinanced by the EU Recovery and Resilience Facility (RRF); EUR 53 million are reserved from the NWO

Build strategic leadership in priority sectors

The Netherlands is advancing AI-driven innovation across key sectors. Several initiatives are promoting the responsible use of AI for improving energy efficiency and aligning AI technologies with ethical, legal and societal standards. In the public sector, efforts are being made to enhance transparency and accountability in the use of algorithms. Additionally, AI is being integrated into mobility and agriculture, supporting innovations in traffic management, precision farming and food production to optimise resources and minimise environmental impact.

State of AI in healthcare

The development of health data governance in the Netherlands has shifted significantly over the past two decades, evolving from an initial focus on privacy under the 2001 Personal Data Protection Act to a more structured approach aimed at interoperability and AI readiness. Fragmented data exchange had previously limited healthcare innovation, with healthcare organisations using different electronic health record (EHR) systems, creating barriers to effective data use and sharing (TEHDAS, 2023[26]). The Healthcare Information Building Block (ZIB) initiative in 2015 established technical standards to improve data compatibility, but lacked enforceable authority. This gap was addressed in the 2023 Electronic Data Exchange in Healthcare Act (Wet elektronische gegevensuitwisseling in de zorg, Wegiz), which mandates standardised EHRs, aligning national efforts with the European Health Data Space and enhancing data interoperability for AI applications (Zorginstituut Nederland, 2024[27]). By standardising health data, the Netherlands is improving AI model accuracy and enabling broader adoption in healthcare settings (Nictiz, 2024[28]).

The Dutch Healthcare Authority (NZa) centrally co‑ordinates the healthcare system and, despite the strong central co‑ordination, data storage remains decentralised. This creates data silos, which the Personal Health Train project has sought to address by allowing algorithms to analyse data directly at decentralised locations, preserving data privacy (DTLS, 2024[29]). Strategically, the national vision on health information systems and the Ministry of Health, Welfare and Sport’s Valuable AI for Health programme (2019-21) emphasises creating trusted, accessible and well-governed data systems to support AI-driven healthcare (ZonMw, 2024[30]). AI initiatives in healthcare are primarily co‑ordinated at a strategic level, with organisations like the Netherlands AI Coalition’s Healthcare Taskforce guiding the implementation. Moving forward, the Netherlands plans to reinforce trust and transparency in AI with a forthcoming guideline for AI in healthcare, creating a robust, accountable framework for AI’s role in transforming healthcare (ZonMw, 2024[30]).

Table 4. Build strategic leadership in priority sectors: Key initiatives

Name	Start year	Short description (main goals)	Funding (including EU funding use)
Climate and environment
AiNed	2021	AiNed is a public-private multi-year programme. Under its application area “AI for energy and sustainability”, it aims to establish AI innovation labs that address how AI can accelerate the energy transition. The project also aligns with the EU AI Act and broader frameworks for sustainable energy transformation, offering practical solutions for a fair and reliable energy transition. This initiative is expected to play a crucial role in achieving the Netherlands’ climate goals by 2030 and beyond (AiNed, 2024[16]).	EUR 189 million
Sustainable Digitalisation Action Plan	2024	The Netherlands is advancing its twin transition goals under the European Green Deal through the national Sustainable Digitalisation Action Plan. This comprehensive plan outlines 44 targeted actions to integrate digitalisation with sustainability. Key priorities include addressing the energy and water consumption of AI systems. As part of this effort, the Ministry of Economic Affairs has commissioned research to assess the carbon footprint of AI technologies and explore strategies to enhance their energy efficiency, ensuring that digital innovation aligns with climate goals.	Not reported
Health
AI in Protontherapy	2024	A collaboration between Maastricht University Medical Center +, University Medical Center Groningen (UMCG) and medical technology company Raysearch have developed an AI proton therapy treatment plan, where the AI developed the plan rather than a radiotherapy planning technician. This treatment is specifically for patients with health and neck cancer. The new technology is able to develop the treatment plan within 2.5 hours with clinical review, rather than 2 days (UMCG Protonentherapiecentrum, 2024[31]).	Not reported
AI triage for general practitioners	2021	Huisartsencoöperatie West-Brabant (HCWB) began rolling out a general practitioner AI triage tool to reduce administrative workload and improve the job satisfaction of general practitioners (Huisartsencoöperatie West-Brabant, 2024[32]).	Not reported
Cross-sectoral Care Agreement	2023	NZa published the policy rule for funding of integrated care transformation plans with a budget of EUR 2.40 billion for 2023-27. The objective of the funding is to support the implementation of the novel bundled funding model of healthcare in the Netherlands – the Integrated Care Agreement (IZA) – by accelerating the processes in which healthcare providers, healthcare professionals, patient organisations, health insurers and municipalities together develop and realise plans for impactful healthcare transformation (European Observatory on Health Systems and Policies, 2023[33]).	EUR 2.40 billion
Integrating AI into electronic health records (EHRs)	2023	At UMCG and the Elisabeth-TweeSteden Hospital (ETZ), work is underway to integrate generative AI into the EHR system to draft answers to patients’ questions. The aim is to save healthcare provider time (ETZ, 2024[34]), (UMCG, 2023[35]).	Not reported
Juvoly, AI Speech Recognition for Medical Consults	2023	Juvoly is a speech model that transcribes the conversation between patient and general practitioner reducing administrative tasks and freeing up time to focus on the patient. The product, QuickConsult, is integrated into the Sanday EHR system and there are planned integrations with Medicom and MicroHIS (Juvoly, 2024[36]).	Not reported
Public sector
Algorithm and AI register	2024	The Netherlands launched an algorithm and AI register to enhance transparency in the public sector’s use of AI technologies. This register is designed to align with societal demands, ensuring the responsible use of algorithms across governmental institutions. A survey was conducted to gather feedback from different stakeholder groups to inform this effort (Government of the Netherlands, 2024[37]).	Not reported
Pilots for the Impact Assessment on Human Rights and Algorithms (IAMA)	2021	The Dutch government conducted 18 pilot projects in public sector organisations to promote the use of IAMA. These pilots were aimed at ensuring that the deployment of algorithms aligns with human rights principles and helps prevent unintended negative consequences.	Not reported
Mobility
A12 motorway traffic forecaster	2024	The A12 traffic forecaster is a machine learning-based application developed to predict traffic levels on the A12 motorway, providing real-time updates to avoid congestion. By incorporating historical data, roadwork schedules and holiday periods, the system helps commuters plan their routes more effectively (A12 Slim Reizen, 2024[38]).	Not reported
BikeSafeAI	2024	The BikeSafeAI initiative focuses on improving bicycle safety by using AI to analyse traffic and identify risky situations for cyclists. The project aims to reduce accidents and enhance safety in urban environments (SIA, 2024[39]).	EUR 600 000
Smart Traffic Analysis and Traffic Safety (STATS)	2024	The STATS project applies AI to analyse and improve traffic safety in urban areas. The project aims to use computer vision and data science to enhance the safety of cyclists and pedestrians by analysing traffic patterns (NHL Stenden, 2024[40]).	EUR 40 000
Agriculture/forestry/rural development
Action Program Digitalisation (APD)	2023	The Ministry of Agriculture’s APD focuses on creating the conditions for digital transformation in the agricultural sector. The programme supports training and developing AI systems for smart farming, autonomous greenhouses and precision agriculture, contributing to sustainable and efficient food production (Government of the Netherlands, 2024[41]).	Not reported
AI in Animal and Terrestrial systems -	2019	This research project focuses on the application of AI in animal and terrestrial systems to enhance sustainability and efficiency in agriculture. The initiative includes various AI projects aimed at improving livestock management and land‑use optimisation (WUR, 2024[42]).	Not reported
Knowledge and Innovation Agenda for Agriculture, Water and Food (KIA LWV)	2024	KIA LWV focuses on developing key technologies, including AI, to enhance the agriculture, horticulture and water sectors. The programme aims to make these systems more efficient, intelligent and environmentally friendly by integrating technologies like sensors, robots and digital twins to meet sustainability goals (KIA-LWV, 2024[43]).	Not reported
National Field Lab for Precision Farming (NPPL)	2018	The NPPL helps farmers adopt precision farming techniques, including AI-driven solutions like automated crop monitoring and precision irrigation. By using open data on weather and soil conditions, this initiative promotes sustainable agricultural practices and offers valuable insights for policy development (NPPL, 2024[44]).	Not reported
NXTGEN Hightech – Agrifood	2023	NXTGEN aims to contribute to the automation of the agrifood sector through collaboration with experts in robotics, automation and AI. It focuses on creating autonomous agricultural machinery and smart production lines to minimise waste and optimise resource use, ensuring safer and more efficient farming practices (NXTGEN Hightech, 2024[45]).	Not reported

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The full book is available in English: OECD (2025), Progress in Implementing the European Union Coordinated Plan on Artificial Intelligence (Volume 1): Member States’ Actions, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/533c355d-en.

 

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