Environment at a Glance: Türkiye
Table of contents
The OECD Environment at a Glance Country Notes are designed to support transparent, evidence-based information. They provide concise and descriptive overview of progress across major environmental issues, including climate, air quality, freshwater resources, waste and the circular economy, and biodiversity conservation. They feature selected environmental indicators, building on harmonised datasets available on OECD Data Explorer. Differences with national data sources can occur due to delays in data treatment and publication, or due to different national definitions and measurement methods. See the Reader’s guide to the Environment at a Glance Country Notes for more information.
Türkiye is one of the largest OECD economies and has experienced rapid economic, population and urban growth. However, Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per person remains below the OECD average. Following the May 2023 elections, fiscal and monetary policies have become restrictive, contributing to an economic slowdown in 2024 (OECD, Economic Surveys: Türkiye, 2025). Agriculture accounts for a larger share of the economy than in most OECD countries, while the private industrial sector has expanded rapidly in areas such as basic industry, construction, transport and communication. Population density is on average well above the OECD average, but is rather low in most parts of the country.
Türkiye is a mountainous and largely coastal country, spanning Europe and Asia across the Sea of Marmara and the Bosporus and the Dardanelles. It possesses relatively few natural resources, mainly lignite, coal, iron, borate and copper. It is water-scarce and erosion-prone. Its geographical location and varied topography make it a hotspot of biodiversity. Situated at the intersection of the Mediterranean and Near Eastern areas, it is genetically very diverse.
Environmental governance is highly centralised. Most powers are exercised by the national government and its territorial institutions, with environmental responsibilities split across several ministries, notably the Ministry of Environment, Urbanisation and Climate Change and the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry.
Carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from fuel combustion and total energy supply have grown at a slower pace than GDP since the 2008 financial crisis, resulting in a relative decoupling. Although per person production-based (i.e. produced within the territory) and demand-based (or footprint, i.e. including emissions incorporated in imported goods) greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions remain well below the OECD averages, they have increased since 1995, unlike for most OECD countries.
Unlike most OECD countries, total GHG emissions have increased, by a staggering 90% during 2000-24, when excluding land use, land-use change and forestry (LULUCF), and by 116.2% when including LULUCF. Fluctuations in the emissions are mainly driven by population and economic growth, and associated rising energy demand.
The sectoral composition of emissions has not evolved since 1990, with all sectors displaying an increase in emissions since 2000. The largest source of emissions is fuel combustion in the energy industry and transportation sector, followed by the residential sector. The industrial process and product use sector represented 12.9% of the total in 2024, mainly the mineral industry, followed far behind by the metal industry. Most of emissions in the agricultural sector are due to enteric fermentation. The land use, land-use change and forestry (LULUCF) sector has consistently acted as a net sink, representing 11.5% of total emissions in 2024 (Türkiye, 2026).
Türkiye is endowed with large reserves of lignite and some hard coal, but has few oil and gas resources. Rapid economic and population growth in the past two decades have driven strong growth in energy demand and in the associated import dependency (OECD, Environmental Performance Reviews: Türkiye, 2019). The share of renewable energy sources in the energy mix has slightly increased since 2000, but fossil fuels remain largely dominant, at almost 80.8% of total energy supply in 2025. The share of renewables in electricity production has fluctuated but overall increased, to reach 45.4% in 2025.
Emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOx), non-methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOC) and fine particles (PM2.5) have declined, while emissions of sulphur oxides (SOx) and ammonia (NH3) have increased. The bulk of SOx emissions is produced by power generation, followed far behind by industrial combustion. More than half of NOx emissions come from power stations and road transport. Industrial and other combustion represents the bulk of carbon monoxide emissions, while industrial production and agriculture are responsible for more than two-thirds of non-methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOCs) (OECD, Environmental Performance Reviews: Türkiye, 2019). SOx emission intensities are high while emissions intensities of other pollutants are below the OECD average.
Air quality is a concern, especially in large cities and industrialised regions (OECD, Environmental Performance Reviews: Türkiye, 2019). Average population exposure to fine particulates (PM2.5) is high and well above the 2021 guideline value of 5 µ/m3 recommended by the World Health Organization.
Türkiye is not a water-rich country and water resources are not distributed evenly. Population growth, urbanisation and expansion of irrigation areas generate high water demand and increase pressures on water resources. Total abstractions have increased since 2007, putting the country under medium-high to high water stress. Agriculture is the sector that uses the most abstracted freshwater. Abstractions for public supply per person have been increasing since 1995.
Data on wastewater treatment levels are incomplete. Connection rates to public wastewater treatment plants have increased significantly but remain below the OECD average. Only about 41% of the population benefits from tertiary (“advanced”) treatment.
Generation of municipal waste per person in Türkiye is below the OECD average and has been decreasing since 2000. The share of the population served by municipal waste services increased to over 90% (OECD, Environmental Performance Reviews: Türkiye, 2019). However, most municipal waste is sent to landfills; only small quantities are composted or recycled.1
Türkiye possesses some natural resources, such as antimony, coal, chromium, mercury, copper, borate, sulphur and iron ore. Material productivity increased over the past decade thanks to high economic growth and has surpassed the OECD average. Domestic material consumption (DMC) intensity per person peaked in 2011 and decreased afterwards, despite a rebound in 2015-17. Türkiye’s material footprint intensity has grown faster than DMC intensity, reflecting the increase in imports of intermediate goods.
As in many OECD countries, construction minerals constitute the bulk of the materials used. The share of fossil energy carriers, especially coal, lignite, oil and natural gas, increased since 2000.
Türkiye’s geographical position and geomorphological configuration make it a hotspot for biodiversity. Natural and semi-natural areas have expanded since 1992 mainly thanks to afforestation and reforestation. However, rapid urbanisation, which led to urban sprawl, mainly around major cities, and transport and industrial expansion, exert growing pressures on the natural environment. The main factors affecting wildlife are soil artificialisation, habitat loss and fragmentation, pollution, water use, climate change and invasive species.
Türkiye has an exceptionally rich biodiversity, both in flora and fauna species, 31% of which are endemic. About three-quarters of European flora and fauna species can be found on its territory. Türkiye's seas are among the most biologically diverse areas in the Mediterranean Basin. Thanks to their distinct hydrogeological, oceanographic and biogeographical characteristics, the Black Sea, the Sea of Marmara, the Aegean Sea and the Mediterranean Sea provide habitats for hundreds of species of marine fish. However, climate change, anthropogenic impacts and invasive alien species pose a major threat to this rich biological diversity. Many domestic animal species were originally bred in Anatolia and spread to other regions of the world. Türkiye is also located on two major bird migration routes, making it an important place for feeding and breeding.
This section shows selected policy instruments based on data available for most OECD countries and does not provide a complete overview of countries’ policy mix to achieve their environment-related objectives. Interpretation should consider the country specific context.
Revenue from environmentally related taxes in GDP have been declining since 2010 but remain above the OECD average. The relative proportion of revenues raised from energy taxes decreased significantly over the past two decades, with more revenue raised from motor vehicle and transport taxes. Pollution and resource taxes do not raise much revenue.
In total, 31.4% of GHG emissions in Türkiye were subject to a positive Net Effective Carbon Rate (ECR2) in 2023. Fuel excise taxes, an implicit form of carbon pricing, covered 31.4% of emissions in 2023. Direct fossil fuel subsidies cover 16% of emissions. About 2% of GHG emissions have a Net ECR above EUR 60 per tonne of CO2 equivalent, a mid-range estimate of current carbon costs. Net Effective Carbon Rates are highest in the road transport sector, which accounts for 15.3% of the country's total GHG emissions. The Net ECR is zero or negative in electricity and other GHG emissions sectors. Together, these sectors account for 47% of GHG emissions (OECD, Pricing Greenhouse Gas Emissions 2024: Gearing Up to Bring Emissions Down, 2024).
Within the framework of Türkiye’s carbon pricing strategy and following the enactment of the Climate Law, a pilot Emissions Trading System (ETS) will be implemented during the 2026-2027 period, covering GHG emissions from relevant sectors.
The share of environmentally related government research and development (R&D) budget allocations is below the OECD average and decreasing, to reach 0.2% in 2025. By contrast, the share of renewables in research, development and demonstration (RD&D) budget for energy is relatively high, at 41.4% in 2025.
In terms of environmentally related patent applications, Türkiye is a marginal player with respect to the size of its economy and population, both in terms of absolute number of patent applications and in terms of share in total inventions.
Development co-operation is key component of Türkiye’s foreign policy. Its international development co-operation is delivered primarily through technical co-operation, training and advisory services, finance of infrastructure projects, and the extension of humanitarian assistance. Initially focused on Central Asia and the Caucasus, Türkiye’s development co‑operation extends to more than 170 countries. Türkiye’s total official development assistance (ODA) (USD 7.5 billion, preliminary data) decreased in 2025, representing 0.5% of gross national income (OECD, 2026).
References
OECD. (2019). Environmental Performance Reviews: Türkiye. OECD Publishing, Paris. doi:10.1787/9789264309753-en
OECD. (2024). Pricing Greenhouse Gas Emissions 2024: Gearing Up to Bring Emissions Down. OECD Series on Carbon Pricing and Energy Taxation, OECD Publishing, Paris. doi:10.1787/b44c74e6-en
OECD. (2025). Economic Surveys: Türkiye. doi:10.1787/d01c660f-en
OECD. (2026). Development Co-operation Profiles. OECD Publishing, Paris. Retrieved from https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/development-co-operation-profiles_04b376d7-en/turkiye_09a14591-en.html
Türkiye. (2026). Retrieved from Greenhouse gas inventory of Türkiye 1990-2024: https://unfccc.int/documents/656425
Further reading
CBD, Country profiles: Türkiye, https://www.cbd.int/countries/profile/?country=tr#facts
IEA (2021), Türkiye 2021 Energy Policy Review, IEA Energy Policy Reviews, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/0633467f-en
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Note by the Republic of Türkiye
The information in this document with reference to “Cyprus” relates to the southern part of the Island. There is no single authority representing both Turkish and Greek Cypriot people on the Island. Türkiye recognises the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC). Until a lasting and equitable solution is found within the context of the United Nations, Türkiye shall preserve its position concerning the “Cyprus issue”.
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← 1. Türkiye's municipal waste treatment data are incomplete.
← 2. Effective Carbon Rate (ECR) is the sum of fuel excise taxes, carbon taxes and tradeable permits that effectively put a price on carbon emissions. The Net ECR equals the ECR minus fossil fuel subsidies that decrease pre-tax fossil fuel prices.