This country profile features selected environmental indicators from the OECD Core Set, building on harmonised datasets available on OECD Data Explorer. The indicators reflect major environmental issues, including climate, air quality, freshwater resources, waste and the circular economy, and biodiversity. Differences with national data sources can occur due to delays in data treatment and publication, or due to different national definitions and measurement methods. The OECD is working with countries and other international organisations to further improve the indicators and the underlying data. A large part of the text of this country profile is drawn from the OECD Environmental Performance Reviews: Slovak Republic 2024.
Environment at a Glance: Slovak Republic
The Slovak Republic is a land‐locked Central European country where population and economic activity are heavily concentrated in the Bratislava and Western Slovakia regions. Regional economic disparities remain high, with the Eastern part lagging the rest of the country. The economy is small, open and strongly integrated into the EU market. Heavily dependent on industrial exports (particularly cars), it is highly exposed to external shocks. After a deep contraction during the COVID-19 crisis, the economy rebounded in 2021 and has grown moderately since.
Slovakia spans two biogeographic regions: the Carpathian Mountains and the Pannonian Lowlands, allowing for a rich diversity of flora and fauna and a diversified landscape. Renewable natural resources are abundant. The predominant ecosystems are forests, cultivated land and grasslands. Except for magnesite and construction materials, domestic geological reserves are limited. The country depends largely on imports for fossil fuels and metals, as well as for most raw materials.
Slovakia is a unitary State composed of 8 regions and 2 890 municipalities. Environment-related responsibilities are fragmented. The Ministry of Environment develops and implements environmental policies through its specialised agencies. The Ministry of Economy and Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development are responsible for energy policy and forestry, respectively.
Slovakia met its obligations under the first and second period of the Kyoto Protocol. Its emissions decreased at the same rate (-20%) as in the European Union over 2010-20, though they rebounded faster in 2021, after the lifting of COVID-19 restrictions. The country also achieved its 2020 target for emissions not covered by the EU ETS (Emissions Trading System) (OECD, 2024[1]).
However, national projections (as of October 2023) indicate the country is not on a net-zero pathway. Most of the emission reductions by 2030 are expected to come from energy industries (with increased nuclear energy production) and to a lesser extent from industrial processes. GHG emissions in non-ETS sectors, especially transport, are projected to increase over 2020-30, while net carbon removals are expected to decline (OECD, 2024[1]).
The per person production-based and demand-based (or footprint) greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions remain below the OECD averages. While production-based emissions have declined, demand-based emissions have remained relatively stable during since 1995.
Although predominant, fossil fuels represent a smaller share of Slovakia's energy supply than the OECD average due to the importance of nuclear energy. Over the past decade, the energy mix saw a shift from coal to renewables (mainly biofuels and waste), which still account for a moderate percentage of supply. Slovakia has committed to phase out coal mining and coal-fired power generation by 2023 (OECD, 2024[1]).
Despite improvements in energy efficiency and economic restructuring, the Slovak economy is 40% more energy intensive than the OECD Europe average, due to its larger industrial base. Since 2014, energy consumption has risen steadily, except during the COVID-19 crisis, reaching in 2021 a level equivalent to 2010 (OECD, 2024[1]).
After strong reductions in the previous decade due to industrial restructuring, fuel switching, stricter legislations and the implementation of abatement technologies, the decline in emissions has slowed since the mid-2010s. Slovakia met its 2020-29 emission reduction commitments under the NEC (National Emission Ceiling) Directive and is on track to meet its 2030 targets, only with additional measures for ammonia emissions. Improved manure management reduced ammonia emissions, but growth in inorganic nitrogen fertiliser use has increased emissions over 2011-18 (OECD, 2024[1]).
While the average annual population exposure to PM2.5 has been declining since 2000, it remains above the 2021 guideline value of 5 µg/m3 recommended by the World Health Organization and among the highest in OECD Europe. The Central Slovak region is the most exposed and Bratislava the least. Solid fuel combustion for domestic heating, road transport and metal production are the main sources of particulate matter pollution (SHMU, 2021[2]).
Slovakia enjoys abundant freshwater resources and generally experiences low water stress. Nevertheless, climate change puts the southwest region, including the biggest sources of drinking water in Central Europe, at severe risk of drought. Freshwater abstractions have remained broadly stable in the past decade. Abstractions per person for public supply are among the lowest in the OECD, and only 1% of renewable freshwater resources are abstracted annually against 10% in OECD Europe (OECD, 2024[1]).
Population connected to public wastewater treatment plant increased from less than 60% in 2010 to more than 70% in 2023. This rate is one of the lowest in the OECD and is even lower in small municipalities. In 2018, 93% of urban wastewater (load generated) was treated according to requirements of the EU Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive, above the EU average of 82%. However, only a very small share of the population benefits from tertiary (advanced) treatment. Slovakia will face challenges in complying with more stringent requirements due to the large share of the population living in small municipalities and the expected population decline, which will affect the revenues from utilities and investment planning (OECD, 2024[1]).
With 463 kg of municipal waste generated per person in 2023, Slovakia was slightly below the OECD Europe average. Although separate collection has improved in the past decade, municipal waste generation increased faster than GDP, and a large share of this waste still ends up in landfills. Data quality issues call into question apparent progress in recycling (EC, 2023[3]). Break in time series in 2020.
Domestic material consumption (DMC) and material footprint per person are below the OECD respective averages. DMC fell between 2010 and 2022, improving material productivity of the economy. As in many OECD countries, non-metallic minerals account for the largest share of DMC, driven by construction materials.
With about 40% of its territory covered by forests, Slovakia is among the most forested countries in Europe. Infrastructure development is the predominant driver of land-use change and has come largely at the expense of agri-ecosystems. Built-up areas in the Slovak Republic have been growing, and as a share of total land are higher than the EU and the OECD averages (OECD, 2024[1]).
Slovakia is home to about 11 300 plant and 28 800 animal species. Approximately 28% of the habitat types and 425 species protected under EU law are found in Slovakia.
The conservation status of most habitats and species is unfavourable. Approximately 60% of habitats and 75% of species of European interest are in a poor or bad state (EEA, 2021[4]). The share of habitats with an unfavourable conservation status is lower than the EU average, while the share of species with an unfavourable status is higher.
Numerous plant and animal species are threatened with extinction. According to the Red List, almost one quarter of Slovakia’s vertebrates are threatened, including 44% of amphibians, 42% of reptiles and 24% of birds. Approximately 7% of the country’s known invertebrate species face extinction.
The main pressures on biodiversity include unsustainable agricultural practices, invasive alien and other problematic species, forestry (e.g. high volume of incidental logging in some forest areas), infrastructure development, which contributes to habitat fragmentation and soil sealing, and natural processes such as erosion and secondary succession (OECD, 2024[1]).
Slovakia has an extensive protected area network. With over 37% of its territory designated for protection, it has already exceeded the 2030 target of 30% under the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (Target 3) of protecting 30% of terrestrial and inland water areas. Slovakia’s protected area coverage is significantly higher than the OECD average. However, only a limited number of sites have strict management objectives (IUCN categories I and II) and its network is not functioning optimally, with a complex system of different types, often low level of protection. Management plans are also lacking for most protected areas or are not implemented effectively due to lack of capacity (OECD, 2024[1]).
This section shows selected policy instruments based on data available for most OECD countries and does not provide a complete overview of countries’ policy mix to achieve their environment-related objectives. Interpretation should consider the country specific context.
In real terms, revenue from environmentally related taxes (ERT) increased until 2019, driven by road fuel consumption while inflation eroded fuel taxes. Then, ERT remained broadly stable before falling in 2022 with the surcharge on electricity. As a share of GDP, revenue from ERT remains above the OECD Europe average. Like most countries, the bulk of these taxes has an energy base, followed by transport (OECD, 2024[1]).
A significant part of Slovak Republic’s total support estimate is due to the increasing trend of the feed-in tariff support for domestic lignite. There are also measures for the consumption of coal which sets out tax exemptions when used for specific purposes (e.g. for electricity generation, metallurgical purposes, residential heat generation). Besides coal, natural gas is also fully exempt from taxation for a number of purposes, such as the processing of minerals and in combined-heat-and-power plants as final energy prices (electricity, gas or heat) are then subject to VAT. The regulated tariffs scheme on the energy market is representing an important cost for the Slovakian government, namely for natural gas and electricity, as well as the price cap that has been set in 2022 for these two same energy sources in response of the energy crisis (OECD, 2023[5]).
In total, 69.5% of GHG emissions in the Slovak Republic were subject to a positive Net Effective Carbon Rate (ECR) in 2023. Explicit carbon prices in the Slovak Republic consist of emissions trading system (ETS) permit prices, which cover 43% of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in CO2 eq. Fuel excise taxes, an implicit form of carbon pricing, cover 32.7% of emissions in 2023. Direct fossil fuel subsidies cover 10% of emissions. Net Effective Carbon Rates are highest in the road transport sector, which accounts for 15.9% of the country's total GHG emissions. The Net ECR is on average negative in the buildings sector. The buildings sector accounts for 10.9% of GHG emissions (OECD, 2024[6]).
The share of environmentally-related government R&D budget in total budget has fluctuated since 2000, but remains relatively high by OECD standards. The share of renewables in total public energy RD&D has fluctuated even more widely and is now at a very low level.
Slovakia is not a major player in environmentally-related inventions, but the share of environmentally-related inventions is in line with the OECD average.
The Slovak Republic’s development co-operation programme is based on its own transformative experience of building independent state institutions, developing a market economy and fulfilling the principles of democracy. Most of the Slovak Republic’s official development assistance (ODA) is delivered multilaterally through European Union (EU) institutions. The Slovak Republic’s total official development assistance (ODA) increased in 2024 to USD 191.4 million (preliminary data), representing 0.14% of gross national income (GNI).
In 2022-23, the Slovak Republic committed 7.9% of its total bilateral allocable ODA in support of the environment and the Rio Conventions, down from 12% in 2020-21. The DAC average was 39% in 2022-23. Two per cent of screened bilateral allocable ODA focused on environmental issues as a principal objective, compared with the DAC average of 9.6%. Six per cent of total bilateral allocable ODA focused on climate change overall, up from 4.5% in 2020-21 (the DAC average was 34.8%). The Slovak Republic had a greater focus on mitigation (4.7%) than on adaptation (3.6%) in 2022-23. Two per cent of screened bilateral allocable ODA focused on biodiversity overall, down from 2.7% in 2020-21 (the DAC average was 7.6%). (OECD, 2025[7]).
References
[3] EC (2023), The early warning report for Slovakia, European Commission, Brussels, https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A52018SC0424.
[4] EEA (2021), Conservation status of habitat types and species: Datasets from Article 17, Habitats Directive 92/43/EEC reporting, European Environmental Agency.
[7] OECD (2025), Development Co-operation Profiles, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/development-co-operation-profiles_04b376d7-en/slovak-republic_f7504622-en.html.
[1] OECD (2024), OECD Environmental Performance Reviews: Slovak Republic 2024, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/108238e8-en.
[6] OECD (2024), Pricing Greenhouse Gas Emissions 2024: Gearing Up to Bring Emissions Down, OECD Series on Carbon Pricing and Energy Taxation, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/b44c74e6-en.
[5] OECD (2023), OECD Inventory of Support Measures for Fossil Fuels: Country Notes, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/5a3efe65-en.
[2] SHMU (2021), A brief overview of the development of PM10 air pollution from 2005 to 2020, Slovak Hydrometeorological Institute, Bratislava, https://www.shmu.sk/File/Infridgement_podklady_fin4opr.pdf.
EEA (2023), Member States' greenhouse gas (GHG) emission projections (accessed 24 October 2023).
MoE/SEA (2023b), State of the Environment Report of the Slovak Republic 2021, Ministry of Environment of Slovak Republic/Slovak Environment Agency, https://www.enviroportal.sk/spravy/detail/11741. An updated version is available in Slovak only (https://www.sazp.sk/novinky/envirorezort-vydal-jubilejnu-30-spravu-o-stave-zivotneho-prostredia released on 14/12/2023)
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