Environment at a Glance: Japan
Table of contents
The OECD Environment at a Glance Country Notes are designed to support transparent, evidence-based information. They provide concise and descriptive overview of progress across major environmental issues, including climate, air quality, freshwater resources, waste and the circular economy, and biodiversity conservation. They feature selected environmental indicators, building on harmonised datasets available on OECD Data Explorer. Differences with national data sources can occur due to delays in data treatment and publication, or due to different national definitions and measurement methods. The text of this country profile is complementary to and has benefited from the OECD Environmental Performance Review of Japan 2025. See the Reader’s guide to the Environment at a Glance Country Notes for more information.
Japan is one of the largest economies in the world and one of the most densely populated countries. It is an archipelago of over 14 000 islands. The four main islands (Honshu, Hokkaido, Kyushu and Shikoku) represent 98% of Japan’s total area.
Japan is one of the largest merchandise exporters, with particularly strong performance in vehicles, machines and electronic equipment. Its industries are globally recognised for their high-quality products and technological advances. Population and economic activities are extremely concentrated in dense metropolitan areas and along coastal plains, while two-thirds of the archipelago is mountainous and covered with forests. Japan has the 3rd largest forest area (as share of total land) in the OECD after Finland and Sweden.
Japan’s large range of latitude results in a wide diversity of flora. Vegetation ranges from subtropical to temperate and cold temperate, and even alpine. Natural forests make up about half of the total area. Complex coastlines with many bays and small islands provide an abundance of marine life. Japan is relatively poorly endowed in natural resources. It has enough resources in magnesium, gold and silver to meet its needs, but has to import a wide variety of minerals. It is also a very large importer of wood and wood products, as well as of living marine resources, which constitute a large share of the diet. For its energy supply, Japan is heavily reliant on imported fossil fuels, in particular since the 2011 Fukushima accident, which led to a total suspension of the nuclear power production (which is being gradually restarted since 2018).
Japan has achieved absolute decoupling between real gross domestic product (GDP), energy supply and production-based (i.e. produced within the territory) carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions growth since the 2010s. Still, Japan is among the largest greenhouse gas (GHG) emitters in the OECD and worldwide.
The per person production-based and demand-based (or footprint, i.e. including emissions incorporated in imported goods) GHG emissions have started to decline since 2013. They are below the OECD averages. Demand-based emissions are higher than production-based ones, meaning that Japan is a net importer of GHG emissions embodied in its final demand (i.e. demand for goods and services by all residents).
The primary source of GHG emissions are energy industries, followed by manufacturing industries and transport. Emissions from energy industries have been decreasing since 2013, mainly due to lower emissions from solid and gaseous fuel consumption for electricity power generation. Emissions from manufacturing industries and construction have been declining since 2000, driven by reduced solid fuel consumption in the iron and steel industry. Transport emissions also have been decreasing gradually since 2000, mainly due to lower diesel emissions from road transport (Japan, 2026).
Despite a large forest area, the LULUCF sector provides a modest carbon sink with respect to total emissions. The long-term declining trend in removals is largely due to the maturity of forests (Japan, 2026).
Japan has negligible fossil-energy resources and relies almost entirely on imported fuels. Japan is the fifth-largest oil consumer in the world, the third-largest net importer of crude oil, and the largest net importer of liquefied natural gas (OECD, Environmental Performance Review of Japan, 2025). Its energy mix is therefore dominated by fossil fuels, with 82.8% of total energy supply in 2025.
Japan has diversified its energy mix through the gradual expansion of renewable energy and the restart of some nuclear power plants. Renewables provided 25.2% of electricity in 2025 which, along with energy efficiency improvements, has helped reducing Japan’s GHG emissions since 2013 (IEA, 2021).
Air emissions have been steadily decreasing since 2000, with sulphur oxide (SOx), nitrogen oxide (NOx) and non-methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOC) dropping by about half. As a result, emission intensities, both per person and per GDP, are well below the OECD average.
Population exposure to PM2.5 is still well above the 2021 World Health Organisation threshold of 5 µg /m3. There are also important regional differences, from 10 µg/m3 in Tohoku to 14 µg/m3 in Okinawa.
Japan is not a water-rich country and is under moderate water-stress, with gross freshwater abstractions representing around 18% of total renewable resources. On the other hand, gross freshwater abstractions per person remain below the OECD average.
82% of population are connected to wastewater treatment plants, but only 39% are connected to advanced, tertiary treatment.
Japan has made good progress reducing municipal waste generation. With 313 kg per person in 2023, Japan is well below the OECD average, and the amount has been steadily decreasing since 2000. Waste management approaches have remained largely unchanged since 2000, characterised by the continued dominance of incineration with energy recovery and the marginal use of landfilling.
Per person domestic material consumption (DMC) is low by OECD standards, but has stagnated since 2008 and the material footprint is much higher. On the other hand, Japan is among the most resource efficient country, with a material productivity far above the OECD average. Like in most countries, non-metallic minerals – which are mainly used in construction – represent more than half of DMC.
Japan has a rich biota. The number of known species is estimated to be over 90 000, exceeding 300 000 if unclassified species are included. It also has a high rate of endemic species. The surrounding seas also have a rich diversity of species, containing 50 of the world’s 127 marine mammals, 122 of the world’s 300 sea birds and 3 700 marine fish species. Much of the natural vegetation (consisting of natural forests and natural grassland), which currently accounts for nearly 20% of total land area, is distributed in the mountain area. In addition to its four main islands, Japan has over 14 000 islands. These unique ecosystems possess distinctive biota and are highly vulnerable, being affected by the destruction of habitats and the introduction of invasive species.
The main threats generated by human activities include illegal digging, overexploitation of resources for ornamental or commercial uses, destruction or deterioration of habitats due to land reclamation/development in coastal areas, and changes in land use (CBD).
Japan’s official national records show a terrestrial coverage of protected areas of 20.8% and a marine coverage of 13.3% in 2024. Both are below the 2030 Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF) target (under the Convention on Biological Diversity) to protect at least 30% of land area, coastal and marine areas.
This section shows selected policy instruments based on data available for most OECD countries and does not provide a complete overview of countries’ policy mix to achieve their environment-related objectives. Interpretation should consider the country specific context.
The share of environmentally related tax revenues in GDP has been declining since 2010 and is below the OECD average. Their share of total revenues has also declined and is now below 4%. Revenues are mainly energy and transport based, with limited taxes on pollution or on resource use.
In total, 63.9% of GHG emissions in Japan were subject to a positive Net Effective Carbon Rate1 (ECR) in 2023. Explicit carbon prices in Japan consist of emissions trading systems (ETS) permit prices and carbon taxes, which cover 70.2% of GHG emissions in CO2 equivalent. With roughly 70% of total GHG emissions, coverage is largest for carbon taxes. Fuel excise taxes, an implicit form of carbon pricing, covered 73.1% of emissions in 2023. Direct fossil fuel subsidies cover 11.3% of emissions. About 8% of GHG emissions have a Net ECR above EUR 60 per tonne of CO2 equivalent, a mid-range estimate of current carbon costs. Net ECRs are highest in the road transport sector, which accounts for 14.1% of the country's total GHG emissions. The Net ECR is zero or negative in the agriculture and fisheries, off-road transport, buildings, industry and other GHG emissions sectors. Together, these sectors account for 50.4% of GHG emissions (OECD, Pricing Greenhouse Gas Emissions 2024: Gearing Up to Bring Emissions Down, 2024).
Japan is among the world leaders in energy research and development (R&D), with direct public spending on energy research as a percentage of its GDP being one of the largest among OECD countries. Recent boosts in research funding were seen after the 2011 earthquake, particularly on developing technologies relating to the extraction of natural gas from frozen methane hydrate in Japan’s Nankai Trough.
Japan is also a major player in environmentally related inventions, with one of the highest numbers of per person inventions by residents in OECD countries. The share of environmentally related in total inventions follows closely the OECD average, at 8.4% in 2023.
Japan’s official development assistance (ODA) focuses on poverty eradication, peace and stability. It provides more than half of its ODA in the form of loans, the highest share among Development Assistance Committee (DAC) members in 2024, and its share in gross national income is relatively low (0.35%). The share of Japan’s bilateral ODA for climate change has been increasing in the past decade, to reach 56.4% in 2023-24, a high share by DAC standards. By contrast, its share for biodiversity has been declining, to stand at a mere 1.7% (OECD, 2026).
References
CBD. (n.d.). Country profiles: Japan. Retrieved from https://www.cbd.int/countries/profile?country=jp
IEA. (2021). Japan 2021 Energy Policy Review. OECD Publishing, Paris. doi:10.1787/72bb987a-en
Japan. (2026). National Greenhouse Gas Inventory Document. Center for Global Environmental Research, Earth System Division, National Institute for Environmental Studies, Japan. Ministry of the Environment, Japan. Retrieved from https://unfccc.int/documents/656415
OECD. (2024). Pricing Greenhouse Gas Emissions 2024: Gearing Up to Bring Emissions Down. OECD Series on Carbon Pricing and Energy Taxation, OECD Publishing, Paris. doi:10.1787/b44c74e6-en
OECD. (2025). Environmental Performance Review of Japan. OECD Publishing, Paris. doi:10.1787/583cab4c-en
OECD. (2026). Development Co-operation Profiles. OECD Publishing, Paris. Retrieved from https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/development-co-operation-profiles_04b376d7-en/japan_705ac350-en.html
Further readings
JAPAN 2024, Center for Global Environmental Research, Earth System Division, National Institute for Environmental Studies, Japan, 2024. Available at: GHG Inventories｜Greenhouse Gas Inventory Office of Japan｜National Institute for Environmental Studies (nies.go.jp)
This work is published under the responsibility of the Secretary-General of the OECD. The opinions expressed and arguments employed herein do not necessarily reflect the official views of the Member countries of the OECD.
This document, as well as any data and map included herein, are without prejudice to the status of or sovereignty over any territory, to the delimitation of international frontiers and boundaries and to the name of any territory, city or area.
The statistical data for Israel are supplied by and under the responsibility of the relevant Israeli authorities. The use of such data by the OECD is without prejudice to the status of the Golan Heights, East Jerusalem and Israeli settlements in the West Bank under the terms of international law.
Note by the Republic of Türkiye
The information in this document with reference to “Cyprus” relates to the southern part of the Island. There is no single authority representing both Turkish and Greek Cypriot people on the Island. Türkiye recognises the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC). Until a lasting and equitable solution is found within the context of the United Nations, Türkiye shall preserve its position concerning the “Cyprus issue”.
Note by all the European Union Member States of the OECD and the European Union
The Republic of Cyprus is recognised by all members of the United Nations with the exception of Türkiye. The information in this document relates to the area under the effective control of the Government of the Republic of Cyprus.
Kosovo: This designation is without prejudice to positions on status, and is in line with United Nations Security Council Resolution 1244/99 and the Advisory Opinion of the International Court of Justice on Kosovo’s declaration of independence.
© OECD 2026
Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0)
This work is made available under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International licence. By using this work, you accept to be bound by the terms of this licence (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Attribution – you must cite the work.
Translations – you must cite the original work, identify changes to the original and add the following text: In the event of any discrepancy between the original work and the translation, only the text of original work should be considered valid.
Adaptations – you must cite the original work and add the following text: This is an adaptation of an original work by the OECD. The opinions expressed and arguments employed in this adaptation should not be reported as representing the official views of the OECD or of its Member countries.
Third-party material – the licence does not apply to third-party material in the work. If using such material, you are responsible for obtaining permission from the third party and for any claims of infringement.
You must not use the OECD logo, visual identity or cover image without express permission or suggest the OECD endorses your use of the work.
Any dispute arising under this licence shall be settled by arbitration in accordance with the Permanent Court of Arbitration (PCA) Arbitration Rules 2012. The seat of arbitration shall be Paris (France). The number of arbitrators shall be one.
← 1. Effective Carbon Rate (ECR) is the sum of fuel excise taxes, carbon taxes and tradeable permits that effectively put a price on carbon emissions. The Net ECR equals the ECR minus fossil fuel subsidies that decrease pre-tax fossil fuel prices.