Environment at a Glance: Italy
Table of contents
The OECD Environment at a Glance Country Notes are designed to support transparent, evidence-based information. They provide concise and descriptive overview of progress across major environmental issues, including climate, air quality, freshwater resources, waste and the circular economy, and biodiversity conservation. They feature selected environmental indicators, building on harmonised datasets available on OECD Data Explorer. Differences with national data sources can occur due to delays in data treatment and publication, or due to different national definitions and measurement methods. See the Reader’s guide to the Environment at a Glance Country Notes for more information.
Italy’s economy is among the largest in the OECD. Its productive structure is dominated by small and medium-sized enterprises, often organised in industrial districts, concentrated mainly in the northern and central regions. These districts play a key role in manufacturing exports and innovation.
Following the contraction caused by the COVID-19 pandemic, economic activity has recovered, with tourism still representing one of the fastest-growing and most profitable sectors. It contributes significantly to employment and regional development, particularly in coastal areas, historic cities and islands. At the same time, it exerts pressure on natural resources and urban infrastructure.
Italy faces pronounced regional disparities in income, infrastructure and access to essential services, including waste management, water supply and public transport. Population density is relatively high by OECD standards, but unevenly distributed, with strong concentrations in urban areas, coastal zones and major plains, increasing exposure to climate-related risks such as coastal erosion, flooding and sea-level rise. Urban sprawl has expanded in recent decades, contributing to increased car dependency, traffic congestion and air pollution.
Italy hosts a wide diversity of ecosystems and landscapes, reflecting substantial climatic variation—from Mediterranean conditions in the south and coastal areas to Alpine and continental climates in the north. Domestic mineral and energy resources are limited. While some oil, gas and coal resources are produced domestically, they account for only a small share of national energy consumption, reinforcing Italy’s structural dependence on energy imports.
Greenhouse gas emissions (GHG), excluding land use, land use change and forestry (LULUCF), have been decreasing by 35% since 2000. This drop is mainly due to lower combustion of energy from energy industries, transport and the residential sector, due a shift away from petroleum products toward natural gas, following the introduction of the EU Emissions Trading System. Emissions declined further after the economic recession of 2008, when reduced industrial activity lowered energy demand, and in 2020 during the Covid-19 pandemic. Carbon dioxide (CO2), the most significant greenhouse gas, represented 81.4% of total emissions in 2024, while CH4 and N2O contributed 11.8% and 3.8%, respectively.
Transport emissions increased between 2000-2007 as vehicle fleet and distances grew, but fell afterwards as economic conditions weakened and fuel consumption declined. Emissions from buildings have fluctuated but generally decreased, mainly reflecting changes in heating needs, weather patterns, and a growing use of biomass and biogas for residential heating. The LULUCF sector is strongly influenced by forest conditions, fire events and other natural disturbances. Its net sink role increased considerably thanks to the increase of carbon stock in forest land. The industrial processes and product use sector accounted for 5.5% of total emissions (excluding LULUCF) in 2024. Its emissions decreased by 47% since 1990, mostly due to a decrease in the chemical, mineral and metal production. The agriculture sector accounts for 7.7% of the total and the decrease in its emissions is mostly due to the decrease of CH4 emissions from enteric fermentation and manure management. Emissions from the waste sector accounted for 5.5% of total emissions (excluding LULUCF) in 2024. These emissions originated mainly from solid waste disposal, which represented 77.2% of sectoral emissions. Their increase was partly offset by declining emissions from wastewater treatment (ISPRA, 2026).
According to the most recent projections, Effort Sharing Regulation emissions in 2030 are expected to drop by around 41% from 2005 levels, compared to a target of 43.7%1.
The per person production-based (i.e. produced within the territory) and demand-based (or footprint, i.e. including emissions incorporated in imported goods) GHG emissions remain below the OECD averages and have declined since 1995.
Energy supply decreased due to the reduction of energy consumption and industrial production following the 2008 economic crisis and the relocation of some industries, but also to improved energy efficiency. Fossil fuels continue to dominate the energy mix, with 77.7% of total energy supply in 2025. Natural gas represents the largest share, closely followed by oil, while the share of coal is very small and declining. The share of renewables in total energy supply is slowly increasing but is growing faster in electricity production, reaching 48% in 2025.
Italy has reduced its reliance on Russian gas imports. It has diversified its natural gas sources and supply routes – signing new contracts with alternative suppliers, and making good use of the pipeline and liquefied natural gas infrastructure that it has built up over the last decade (IEA, 2023). This in turn has provoked soaring regional natural gas prices and higher costs of liquefied natural gas imports.
Italy reached the target set for 2020 of reducing small particulates (PM2.5) by 24% compared to 2005. In 2024, PM2.5 emissions were 40% below 2000 levels. Non-industrial combustion, mainly wood burning for residential heating, is the dominant source, accounting for 57% of PM2.5 emissions in 2024, up from 33% in 20002.
Sulphur oxide (SOx) emissions are among the main cause of acidification of the atmosphere, with negative effects on ecosystems and materials. The reduction target for sulphur oxides (SOₓ) established for 2020 (-35%) was already achieved in 20093. In 2024, SOx emissions were reduced by about 90% compared to 2000, mainly due to the new limits on the sulphur content in fuels.
Emission of non-methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOC), mainly originating from solvent use, decreased by 49% between 2000 and 2024, surpassing the 2020 legislative reduction target of 35%.
Nitrogen oxides (NOₓ) emissions reached the 2020 legislative reduction target of 40% as early as 2014. The contribution of road transport remains fairly stable over the years (40.3% in 2024). NOx emissions from other mobile sources, although decreasing, represent the second largest source of emissions nationally. Other combustion, on the other hand, is the only sector that increased.4
In 2024, the entire Italian population was exposed to levels of small particulate matter above the World Health Organization recommended threshold value (5 μg/m3): 83% of the population was exposed to levels above the interim target of 10 µg/m3; 33% was exposed to levels above 15 µg/m3. In the latter case, the exposed population is mainly concentrated in the Po Valley area (Lombardy, Veneto, Piedmont and Emilia-Romagna)5. No municipality recorded levels above 25 μg/m3 in 2024. In the period 2016-2024, an overall decreasing trend in Population Weighted Exposure values was observed, with the sole exception of 2017, when a higher average value was recorded (16 µg/m3). The national average decreased from 15 µg/m3 in 2016 to 12 µg/m3 in 2024.6
Precipitation patterns are highly uneven across regions and seasons, with southern regions and islands experiencing more arid conditions and increasing water stress. In 2024, 8.9 billion m3 were abstracted for public water supply. This represents 150 m3 per year per inhabitant. Eighty four point seven percent of the volume was abstracted from groundwater (48.5% from wells, 36.2% from springs), 15.2% from surface water and the remaining 0.1% from marine water, concentrated mainly in Sicily, to supply the smaller islands.7.
Despite a slight reduction in the volume abstracted, Italy still tops the OECD ranking in per inhabitant abstractions for public supply. Regional differences in abstractions are significant and generally depend on different water requirements, water basins, water transport infrastructures and leakages. Interregional water exchanges are mainly operated in the South: the abstractions of Basilicata and Molise regions, net of the losses in supply and any local wholesale uses for industry and agriculture, are partly channelled to neighbouring regions to supply areas where local water availability is insufficient.
In 2022, the percentage of resident population connected to urban wastewater collecting system was 88.8%. The service was active in 99.5% of municipalities, covering either all or part of the territory. In 41 municipalities, home to 397 thousand residents (0.7% of the total population), the service was completely absent. Approximately 6.6 million residents were not connected to the sewerage.
Not all the wastewater produced was treated in urban wastewater treatment plants (UWWTPs). In 2020 96.3% of municipalities were connected, partially or entirely, to an UWWTP. Treatment service was completely lacking in 296 municipalities (3.7%), representing 1.3 million inhabitants. The share of population connected to UWWTPs is about 70% according to latest available data (2018).
Although the share of urban wastewater treatment plants with at least secondary treatment is low, these plants have a larger treatment capacity, being capable of processing more than 94% of the pollutant loads carried by the public sewer system. In 2020, the relative average actual polluting load that flowed into the plants corresponded to about 67 million total population equivalents, of which 29.2% was treated with secondary treatment and 65.2% with advanced treatment.
The total amount of wastewater treated in wastewater treatment plants was approximately 6.7 billion m3 in 2020, corresponding to about 114 m3 per year per inhabitant. 70% of the wastewater treated in urban plants underwent an advanced type of treatment. Connection to independent wastewater collecting and treatment systems can occur in sparsely populated areas and far from urban centres. Unlike the UWWTPs for which there is a dedicated biannual survey (urban water census), data on "other wastewater treatment plants" (not urban) are incomplete.
The generation of municipal waste stood at 29.5 million tonnes in 2024, a 9% decrease compared to 2010. The corresponding per inhabitant figure decreased by 8%. At 497 kg per person per year, Italy’s municipal waste production is at the OECD-Europe average.
The share of landfilling decreased considerably, from 77.5% in 2000 to 17.4% in 2024. In 2024, the recycling and composting rates of municipal waste reached 60.5%, above the 50% target established by EU legislation for 2020.
In contrast to the decrease in material consumption (-32.6%), real gross domestic product (GDP) increased between 2000 and 2025, resulting in improved resource productivity., at 6.15 USD/kg (PPP, 2020 prices) in 2024, well above the OECD-Europe and OECD values.
Forests and cropland cover each almost a third of land. Between 2012 and 2018, there was a general increase in artificial areas mainly at the expense of agricultural areas and, to a lesser extent, wooded and semi-natural areas. As in the rest of Europe, cultivated areas show a contraction linked to cultivation abandonment or urbanisation, while urban areas continue to expand.
Italy is extremely rich in biodiversity; it has the highest number and density of both animal and plant species within the European Union (EU), as well as a high rate of endemism. This rich biodiversity is in large part due to its range of biogeographic regions (CBD).
Italian fauna is estimated at over 58 000 species, of which about 55 000 invertebrates and 1 812 protozoa, which together represent about 98% of the total species richness, as well as 1 258 species of vertebrates, which represent 2%. The International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) assessments and the demographic trends of populations highlight rather worrying threat levels for the Italian fauna, even if the risk of extinction is quite variable among the different taxonomic groups. Of the 672 species of vertebrates (576 terrestrial and 96 marine), 6 are extinct and 161 are threatened with extinction (representing 28% of the species assessed).
Italy ratified several international conventions and agreements and is committed to the implementation of the EU directives on the protection of biodiversity, such as the Habitats and Birds Directives and the Marine Strategy Framework Directive, as well as monitoring the achievement of the objectives of the European Biodiversity Strategy 2030. Protected areas cover 11.6% of territorial waters and Ecological Protection Areas, and 21.6% of the territory. Despite the increase in the number of protected areas since 1991, 22% of the marine area and 8% of the land area are still to be protected in order to reach the 2030 target of 30%.
This section shows selected policy instruments based on data available for most OECD countries and does not provide a complete overview of countries’ policy mix to achieve their environment-related objectives. Interpretation should consider the country specific context.
The share of environmentally related tax revenue in GDP has been declining significantly in recent years but, at 2.7% in 2024, is still above the OECD average. Like most OECD countries, energy is the largest tax base, followed by transport. Pollution based taxes are negligible and resource-based taxes non-existent.
Italy’s energy prices are among the highest in the International Energy Agency (IEA). They generally increased between 2010 and 2020, with differences across sectors and fuels. The relatively high prices are the result of high energy taxes (including value-added tax). The tax shares of the prices of natural gas, electricity and automotive fuels are generally higher than in most IEA countries, except for taxes on electricity used in industry. Energy excise duties are levied within the framework of the 2003 EU Energy Tax Directive and are generally well above the minimum rates set by the directive (IEA, 2023).
In total, 81.1% of GHG emissions in Italy were subject to a positive Net Effective Carbon Rate8 (ECR) in 2023. Explicit carbon prices in Italy consist of emissions trading system (ETS) permit prices, which cover 33.9% of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in CO2 equivalent. Fuel excise taxes, an implicit form of carbon pricing, covered 72.2% of emissions in 2023. Direct fossil fuel subsidies cover 28.2% of emissions. About 67% of GHG emissions have a Net ECR above EUR 60 per tonne of CO2 equivalent, a mid-range estimate of current carbon costs. Net ECRs are highest in the road transport sector, which accounts for 24.3% of the country's total GHG emissions. The Net ECR is on average positive in all sectors (OECD, 2024).
The share of environmentally related government research and development (R&D) budget has been fluctuating and stood at 3.8% in 2024. The share of renewables in public energy research, development and demonstration (RD&D) has also fluctuated but overall increased since 2000.
With an annual average of less than 10 environmentally related inventions per million inhabitants in 2021-23 (filed for protection in at least two jurisdictions), less than half the OECD average, Italy is a minor player in the patenting sector. The share of environmentally related inventions has followed the more general OECD area trend and is now below the OECD average, 8% on average in 2021-23.
Italy’s development co-operation is shaped by a political commitment to Africa, with a focus on agriculture and food security, environment and climate change, risk reduction and energy, health, and water and sanitation. Italy’s total official development assistance (ODA) represents 0.3% of gross national income, a relatively low share compared to other Development Assistance Committee (DAC) countries. However, when measured in volume, Italy ranked 8th among DAC members in 2025. Despite a significant drop in 2021-22, Italy’s share of bilateral ODA for climate change has been increasing during the past decade, to reach 35.6% in 2023-24, at about the DAC average. By contrast, the share for biodiversity shows an overall declining trend, standing at 13.4% in 2023-24, though still above the DAC average (OECD, 2026).
References
CBD. (n.d.). Country profiles: Italy. Retrieved from https://www.cbd.int/countries/profile?country=it
IEA. (2023). Italy 2023 Energy Policy Review. OECD Publishing, Paris. doi:10.1787/278dd18f-en
ISPRA. (2026). Italian Greenhouse Gas Inventory 1990-2024. The Institute for Environmental Protection and Research (ISPRA). Retrieved from https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/NID_Italy_Rapporto_428_2026.pdf
OECD. (2024). Pricing Greenhouse Gas Emissions 2024: Gearing Up to Bring Emissions Down. OECD Series on Carbon Pricing and Energy Taxation, OECD Publishing, Paris. doi:10.1787/b44c74e6-en
OECD. (2026). Development Co-operation Profiles. OECD Publishing, Paris. Retrieved from https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/development-co-operation-profiles_04b376d7-en/italy_53431c59-en.html
Further reading and national sources
https://indicatoriambientali.isprambiente.it/
https://indicatoriambientali.isprambiente.it/it/core-set/oecd-environment-at-glance
https://www.arera.it/fileadmin/EN/PRESS/2024/240709eng.pdf
Istat, Press release https://www.istat.it/en/press-release/istat-water-statistics-years-2020-2023/
Istat, Press release https://www.istat.it/en/press-release/water-statistics-years-2020-2024/
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← 1. Source: ISPRA (https://indicatoriambientali.isprambiente.it/it/core-set/oecd-environment-at-glance)
← 2. Source: EMEP (https://www.ceip.at/status-of-reporting-and-review-results/2026-submission)
Source: ISPRA (https://indicatoriambientali.isprambiente.it/it/emissioni/emissioni-di-particolato-fine-pm25-trend-e-disaggregazione-settoriale)
← 3. Source: ISPRA (https://indicatoriambientali.isprambiente.it/it/emissioni-di-sostanze-acidificanti-sox-nox-nh3-trend-e-disaggregazione-settoriale https://indicatoriambientali.isprambiente.it/en/emissions/emissions-acidifying-substances-sox-nox-nh3-trend-and-sector-breakdown )
← 4. Source: ISPRA (https://indicatoriambientali.isprambiente.it/it/emissioni/emissioni-di-precursori-di-ozono-troposferico-nox-e-covnm-trend-e-disaggregazione-settoriale https://indicatoriambientali.isprambiente.it/en/emissions/national-emissions-tropospheric-ozone-precursors-ozone-formation-potential-tofp-trend-and-sectoral)
← 5. Source: ISPRA (https://indicatoriambientali.isprambiente.it/it/qualita-dellaria/esposizione-della-popolazione-agli-inquinanti-atmosferici-outdoor-pm2.5
← 6. Source: ISPRA (https://indicatoriambientali.isprambiente.it/it/qualita-dellaria/esposizione-della-popolazione-agli-inquinanti-atmosferici-outdoor-pm2.5
← 8. Effective Carbon Rate (ECR) is the sum of fuel excise taxes, carbon taxes and tradeable permits that effectively put a price on carbon emissions. The Net ECR equals the ECR minus fossil fuel subsidies that decrease pre-tax fossil fuel prices.