Environment at a Glance: Germany
Table of contents
The OECD Environment at a Glance Country Notes are designed to support transparent, evidence-based information. They provide concise and descriptive overview of progress across major environmental issues, including climate, air quality, freshwater resources, waste and the circular economy, and biodiversity conservation. They feature selected environmental indicators, building on harmonised datasets available on OECD Data Explorer. Differences with national data sources can occur due to delays in data treatment and publication, or due to different national definitions and measurement methods. The text of this country profile is complementary to and has benefited from the OECD Environmental Performance Review of Germany 2023. See the Reader’s guide to the Environment at a Glance Country Notes for more information.
Germany is in the world’s five largest economies by nominal gross domestic product (GDP) and has one of the highest GDP per person in the OECD. It is also among the world's largest exporters of goods. Germany has a social market economy, supported by a highly skilled workforce, a large capital stock and strong innovation capacity. Its automotive industry is the fourth largest globally by production and plays an important role in employment. Germany is also a leading exporter of machinery, vehicles, chemicals and household equipment.
Germany is the fourth-largest country in the European Union (EU) by area, and its most populous member. Located in the heart of Europe, it shares borders with nine countries and has coastlines on the North Sea and the Baltic Sea. It is a federal country with 16 states (Länder), which have primary responsibility for implementing environmental policy. Germany is a densely populated country with several major urban agglomerations.
Germany has abundant groundwater resources and important reserves of brown and hard coal, iron ore and mineral salts. The government has committed by law to end coal-fired power generation by 2038 (2030 in North-Rhine Westphalia) and “ideally by 2030”. However, as part of emergency measures to prevent energy shortages, following Russia’s war of aggression against Ukraine, the government temporarily brought some coal and oil power plants back into operation. Germany remains heavily dependent on imports of many other raw materials.
Despite significant emission reduction efforts, Germany is still among the ten largest greenhouse gas (GHG) emitters in the world. This is mainly due to the high share in GDP of carbon-intensive industries such as steel, cement and chemicals, and to the continued reliance on fossil fuels for transport, heating and electricity production. At the same time, Germany has one of the strongest records of emissions reduction in the OECD since 1990, having decoupled total energy supply and carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from economic growth.
The per person production-based (i.e. produced within the territory) and demand-based (or footprint, i.e. including emissions incorporated in imported goods) GHG emissions have both declined steadily since 1995, albeit at a slow pace compared with other OECD countries. Demand-based emissions remain above the OECD average and exceed production-based emissions, indicating that Germany is a net importer of GHG emissions embodied in final demand (i.e. demand for goods and services by all residents).
Total GHG emissions (excluding land-use, land-use change and forestry - LULUCF) decreased by 37.7% since 2000. CO₂ emissions continued to account for the largest share of GHG emissions in 2024, representing 88.3% of the total. These emissions were largely generated by stationary sources and mobile combustion of fossil fuels. Methane emissions, caused predominantly by animal husbandry, fuel distribution and landfills, accounted for 6.8% of the total in 2024. Emissions of nitrous oxide, caused primarily by agriculture, industrial processes and burning of fossil fuels, contributed 3.5%. Reductions of CO2 emissions (in particular from energy industries) were due to a shift from solid to cleaner fuels, improvements in plant efficiency, reduced demand for energy from industry and commerce (including a fall in industrial output) and consumers (reduced heating needs).
The relative shares of different sectors have remained remarkably stable over time. Energy industries remain the largest source of GHG emissions, at around 28.5% of the total (excluding LULUCF), with small annual variations due to temperature changes. Transport represents the second largest source of GHG emissions. Emissions from the sector grew between 2014 and 2019 driven by increasing traffic volumes and distances travelled. They dropped since 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic and subsequent changes in mobility behaviour, an increase in the number of electric vehicles and in the biofuel quota. The residential sector is the third largest source of emissions, followed by agriculture and industrial processes. Pronounced reductions occurred in the chemical industry and in waste-related emissions. Chemical industry emissions were affected especially by emissions reductions in the area of adipic acid production, tied to measures carried out in 1997 and in 2009, and by emissions reductions in solvent and product use, tied primarily to decreases in use of N2O in anaesthesia. In the waste sector, increased recycling of recyclable materials and reuse of materials, such as compost, have led to a sharp reduction in the quantity of waste that is landfilled and therefore to continuous reductions related emissions. The LULUCF sector remains a relatively large emitter (Germany, 2026).
Despite a significant increase of renewables in the energy mix, Germany still depends largely on fossil fuels (77.5% of total energy supply in 2025). Coal remains a major source of electricity generation (22.4% in 2025). The expansion of renewables mainly contributed to replacing nuclear energy for electricity production.
Domestic production of oil and natural gas is small, and the country relies heavily on imports. Coal still accounts for the largest share of Germany’s energy production, but the country has a legally binding goal to phase out coal by 2038 at the latest. Germany has achieved remarkable growth in renewable electricity over the past decade. The government has set a legally binding target to increase the share of renewable energy sources to 80% of electricity production by 2030 (previously fixed at 65%) (OECD, Environmental Performance Reviews: Germany, 2023).
Prior to the Russia’s war of aggression against Ukraine, Germany was highly dependent on Russian oil and coal. In response to the global energy crisis, the government has taken emergency measures, including to accelerate the roll-out of renewables (OECD, Environmental Performance Reviews: Germany, 2023).
Emissions of all major air pollutants have decreased and have been decoupled from GDP growth. Reductions have slowed down since 2010 due to increased economic activity. Germany complied with its EU emission reduction commitments for all pollutants and reached its 2020 Gothenburg Protocol objectives for sulphur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx), non-methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOC) and ammonia (NH3) emissions.
Road transportation is the major source of NOx, CO, NMVOC and fine particulates (PM2.5). Emissions decreased due to stricter regulations. SOx emissions, of which power stations are the main source, decreased thanks to a switch from sulphur-rich solid fuels to liquid and gaseous fuels. Emission intensities per unit of GDP and per person are all lower than the OECD average (OECD, Environmental Performance Reviews: Germany, 2023).
Emission reductions went on par with air quality improvements. Average population exposure to PM2.5 is below the OECD average but nonetheless above the 2021 guideline value of 5 µg/m3 recommended by the World Health Organization. Air pollution remains a major health concern for citizens as people in bigger cities are much more exposed to PM2.5 than the national average. Despite progress, five air quality zones still exceeded the EU limit value for NO2 in 2020 (OECD, Environmental Performance Reviews: Germany, 2023).
Germany’s water resources are relatively abundant, although there are shortages in some regions (e.g. North and East) due to low groundwater levels and high demand from energy producing industries (for cooling). Although declining, water stress is still moderate. Cooling related to electricity generation represents about a third of total water abstractions. Public water supply accounted for 29% in 2022. Irrigated agriculture is negligible, representing less than 2% of gross abstractions.
Between 1991 and 2013 the drinking water use declined by about 15% due to water saving household- and sanitation technologies, information and awareness raising among citizens as well as to a water tariff that is largely consumption dependent. As a result, the per person intensity of abstractions of freshwater for public supply is well below that of most OECD countries and slightly decreased over the past decades (OECD, Environmental Performance Reviews: Germany, 2023).
Connection rates to public wastewater treatment plants, which were already high in 2001, have continued to increase. Most (96%) households are connected to plants with tertiary (“advanced”) treatment. Only a tiny fraction of the population does not benefit from a connection and 2% has independent treatment systems. The quality of drinking water is good to very good. However, groundwater pollution, due to diffuse agriculture pollution, remains a major challenge (OECD, Environmental Performance Reviews: Germany, 2023).
Generation of municipal waste decreased until 2005 and generally increased since. It started to fall again in 2022. The related per person intensity is above the OECD and OECD-Europe averages, partly reflecting high consumption levels.
Germany has one of the highest recovery rates (recycling, composting and incineration with energy recovery), as well as recycling rate in the OECD area. This is mainly due to a ban of municipal waste landfilling since 2005 but also to proactive waste management at local levels. As of 2023, suppliers of takeaway food and drinks must offer products in reusable packaging at no extra cost (OECD, Environmental Performance Reviews: Germany, 2023).
Germany’s consumption of materials has been decreasing since 2000 while GDP continued to grow, resulting in an improved material productivity, well above the OECD average. The material footprint per person has remained relatively stable, yet much higher than material consumption per person.
As in many countries, non-metallic minerals account for the largest share of the material mix, followed by biomass. The consumption of non-metallic minerals has significantly decreased between 2000 and 2010, mainly due to reduced investments for construction. After 2010, construction investments increased again, due to increased economic activity after the 2008 financial crisis, leading to higher consumption of mineral-based raw materials. Consumption of materials from fossil energy carriers has decreased, in particular since 2013, mainly reflecting a reduction of coal production (OECD, Environmental Performance Reviews: Germany, 2023).
Germany is composed of three major landscape regions: the northern lowlands, which contain a substantial number of lakes and wetlands; the central uplands, with hills and mountains rising to 1 000 metres; and the Alps, a mountainous southern area with hills, large lakes and the Alp mountains, where elevations reach up to 3 000 metres. Agricultural land covers almost half of the total land area and forests about a third. Habitat fragmentation and urban sprawl remain among the main pressures on biodiversity, along with intensive farming and forestry, as well as soil sealing and pollutants (e.g. acidifying chemicals and nutrients). Land-take for settlements and transport infrastructure has decreased over the past decade and still represented 54 hectares of land per day between 2017 and 2020, well above Germany’s 2030 goal of reducing the increase of sealed soil to less than 30 hectares per day (UBA, 2022).
Germany is home to about 48 000 animal and 10 300 plant species. More than one third of the species found are endangered. Reptiles, amphibians and lichens show the highest share of threatened species. Bird species typical of agricultural landscapes have declined by about 30% on average since 1990. In addition to harmful agricultural practices, the loss of meadows, fallows and land have contributed to biodiversity loss (OECD, Environmental Performance Reviews: Germany, 2023).
Germany already achieved the 2030 Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF) target to protect at least 30% of terrestrial and inland water areas, and of marine and coastal areas. The country has among the highest shares of protected areas in OECD countries. However, only a very small proportion of terrestrial protected areas have strict management objectives (IUCN categories I-II) and about 0.6 % of the country’s land is covered by protected areas that have had management effectiveness assessments.1 The share (15 %) of the exclusive economic zone with Protected Area Management Effectiveness evaluations is much higher.
This section shows selected policy instruments based on data available for most OECD countries and does not provide a complete overview of countries’ policy mix to achieve their environment-related objectives. Interpretation should consider the country specific context.
The share of environmentally related tax revenue in GDP decreased and is below the OECD-Europe average but remains above the OECD one. As in many countries, most receipts come from taxes on energy products and on transport. Excise duties on energy products have remained virtually unchanged during the past decade.
In total, 85.3% of GHG emissions in Germany were subject to a positive Net Effective Carbon Rate2 (ECR) in 2023. Explicit carbon prices consist of the EU Emissions Trading System (ETS) and the national ETS permit prices, which cover 85.6% of GHG emissions in CO2 equivalent. Fuel excise taxes, an implicit form of carbon pricing, covered 43.2% of emissions in 2023. Direct fossil fuel subsidies cover 17.2% of emissions. About 62% of GHG emissions have a Net ECR above EUR 60 per tonne of CO2 equivalent, a mid-range estimate of current carbon costs. Net ECRs are highest in the road transport sector, which accounts for 18.7% of the country's total GHG emissions. The Net ECR is on average positive in all sectors (OECD, Pricing Greenhouse Gas Emissions 2024: Gearing Up to Bring Emissions Down, 2024).
The share of environment-related research and development (R&D) in total government R&D budgets has been slowly decreasing over the past decades, despite a temporary rebound in 2021 as part of Germany’s Resilience and Recovery Plan (OECD, Environmental Performance Reviews: Germany, 2023).
The share of environment-related patents in total patents increased until 2011 and, despite a rebound in 2018, generally decreased afterwards. However, it has remained above the OECD and OECD-Europe averages until 2020. Most inventions are filed for protection in the field of climate change mitigation.
In 2025, Germany was the Development Assistance Committee’s (DAC) largest development co‑operation provider. Bilateral co-operation constitutes the bulk of Germany’s official development assistance (ODA). Environment and climate are not an explicit part of the overarching objectives of Germany’s aid programme. On the other hand, in 2023, Germany adopted its first-ever Strategy on Climate Foreign Policy, reiterating its existing climate finance target of EUR 6 billion annually by 2025. It also advocates for fair and sustainable globalisation, including in the G7 and G20. Additionally, the 2025 OECD-DAC mid-term review praised Germany for its emphasis on climate action. The share of bilateral ODA for climate has been increasing in recent years, and stands at almost 50%, much higher than in most DAC countries and, unlike many of them, mostly focussing on mitigation. In 2024, Germany committed the highest volume of ODA for biodiversity (USD 2.5 billion), which represented 13.8% of total bilateral ODA in 2023-24, higher than in most DAC countries (OECD, 2026).
References
Germany. (2026). National Inventory Report for the German Greenhouse Gas Inventory 1990 – 2024. Retrieved from https://unfccc.int/documents/656482
Hockings, M., & al, e. (2006). Evaluating Effectiveness. A framework for assessing management effectiveness of protected areas. 2nd Edition. IUCN. Retrieved from https://portals.iucn.org/library/efiles/documents/PAG-014.pdf
OECD. (2023). Environmental Performance Reviews: Germany. OECD Publishing, Paris. doi:10.1787/f26da7da-en
OECD. (2024). Pricing Greenhouse Gas Emissions 2024: Gearing Up to Bring Emissions Down. OECD Series on Carbon Pricing and Energy Taxation, OECD Publishing, Paris. doi:10.1787/b44c74e6-en
OECD. (2026). Development Co-operation Profiles. OECD Publishing, Paris. Retrieved from https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/development-co-operation-profiles_04b376d7-en/germany_460a37b1-en.html
UBA. (2022). Environmental indicators: Land-take for settlements and transport infrastructure. Retrieved from https://www.umweltbundesamt.de/en/data/environmental-indicators/indicator-land-take-for-settlements-transport#at-a-glance
Further reading
CBD (2022), Country profiles: Germany, https://www.cbd.int/countries/profile/?country=de#facts
DESTATIS (2022), “25% less plastic waste exported in 2021 year on year” Press release, https://www.destatis.de/EN/Press/2022/06/PE22_N035_51.html
IEA (2020), Germany 2020 Energy Policy Review, IEA Energy Policy Reviews, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/cedb9b0a-en
OECD (2021), Effective Carbon Rates 2021: Pricing Carbon Emissions through Taxes and Emissions Trading, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/0e8e24f5-en
UBA (2022b), National Inventory Report for the German Greenhouse Gas Inventory 1990 – 2020, https://unfccc.int/documents/461930
UBA (2022c), Environmental indicators: Raw material consumption, https://www.umweltbundesamt.de/en/data/environmental-indicators/ndicator-raw-material-consumption#at-a-glance
UBA (2021), Water resource management, https://www.umweltbundesamt.de/en/topics/water/water-resource-management#undefined
UNEP-WCMC (2024), “Protected Area Profile for Germany”, the World Database of Protected Areas, www.protectedplanet.net
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← 1. Protected Area Management Effectiveness evaluations, can be defined as: “the assessment of how well protected areas are being managed – primarily the extent to which management is protecting values and achieving goals and objectives" (Hockings & al, 2006).
← 2. Effective Carbon Rate (ECR) is the sum of fuel excise taxes, carbon taxes and tradeable permits that effectively put a price on carbon emissions. The Net ECR equals the ECR minus fossil fuel subsidies that decrease pre-tax fossil fuel prices.