Environment at a Glance: Switzerland
Table of contents
The OECD Environment at a Glance Country Notes are designed to support transparent, evidence-based information. They provide concise and descriptive overview of progress across major environmental issues, including climate, air quality, freshwater resources, waste and the circular economy, and biodiversity conservation. They feature selected environmental indicators, building on harmonised datasets available on OECD Data Explorer. Differences with national data sources can occur due to delays in data treatment and publication, or due to different national definitions and measurement methods. See the Reader’s guide to the Environment at a Glance Country Notes for more information.
Switzerland has an open economy with high living standards and has benefited from the international flow of ideas, people and capital. Its population is healthier than in many countries and is well educated. This contributes to high employment rates and relatively narrow wage differentials. Switzerland boasts world-class industries and attracts highly skilled international talent.
A small mountainous and landlocked country at the centre of the Alpine arc, Switzerland is known as the water tower of Europe for its abundant water resources. By contrast, it is poorly endowed with mineral raw materials. Its rich variety of natural and cultural landscapes, support tourism and contribute to economic development. Population density is high, particularly on the Swiss Plateau.
Switzerland’s climate is temperate, but conditions vary across regions, from glacial freeze and frequent cold spells on the mountain tops to near-Mediterranean climate at the southern tip. Precipitation is spread evenly throughout the seasons, with little variations.
Rising income and consumption result in higher waste generation, but much of the Swiss environmental impact is estimated to be embodied in imported goods and services.
Both energy supply and production-based (i.e. produced within the territory) carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions have been decoupled from real gross domestic product (GDP) since the late 2000s.
Since 2010, both the per person production-based and demand-based (or footprint, i.e. including emissions incorporated in imported goods), greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions have been declining. Demand-based emissions are higher than production-based ones, meaning that Switzerland is a net importer of GHG emissions embodied in its final demand (i.e. demand for goods and services by all residents).
Transport is the largest source of GHG emissions, followed by the residential sector and agriculture. The land use, land-use change and forestry (LULUCF) sector is nearly neutral, contributing little with respect to total emissions. In the years 2000, 2018 and 2022–2024, LULUCF acted as a net source rather than a net sink. CO2 is the main contributor to total GHG emissions followed by CH4, N2O and F-gases.
Total GHG emissions have been declining since 2005, mainly driven by the residential sector, thanks to improved energy efficiency of buildings and the increasing use of electricity (mainly from hydro, nuclear and imported electricity), in connection with heat pumps. Emissions in the agricultural sector are mainly due to livestock and fertiliser use. Since 2008, energy efficiency improvements in passenger vehicles have been mostly offset by rising traffic volumes and heavier cars. The drop in transport emissions between 2014 and 2015 was mainly due to reduced “fuel tourism”, driven by the stronger Swiss franc. The sharp drop in emissions between 2019 and 2020 was mainly due to the COVID-19 pandemic, which led to lockdowns and reduced passenger car traffic. The main emission sources in the industrial processes and product use sector are the mineral and construction industries. Emissions from industrial processes have dropped in recent years, mainly due to stricter regulations on F-gases and the installation of a catalytic converter at a niacin plant in late 2021, which significantly reduced N₂O emissions. Emissions from solid waste disposal decreased following a 2000 law that banned landfill disposal of combustible waste. A similar drop occurred in wastewater treatment, mainly due to better nitrogen removal in centralised treatment plants (FOEN, 2026[1]).
The Swiss energy mix is less carbon intensive than most OECD countries, with more than half of total energy supply being sourced from nuclear and renewables sources in 2025. The share of coal is negligible, while the shares of oil and natural gas have decreased.
As a landlocked country with limited oil reserves, Switzerland relies heavily on hydroelectricity and nuclear power to meet the bulk of its electricity needs. The Government has announced that nuclear power will gradually be phased out, with Swiss voters having backed the proposal in a May 2017 referendum. In the wake of this electoral decision, the Mühleberg nuclear power plant went off-line in December 2019, marking the first of five Swiss nuclear power reactors to be decommissioned. Due to the scarcity of domestic fossil fuel resources and the gradual phase-out of nuclear power, Switzerland remains heavily dependent on energy imports, which accounted for about two third of total energy supply in 2024 (FOEN, 2025[2]).
Emissions of most major air pollutants, especially sulphur oxides (SOx), have been steadily decreasing since 2000. Emissions of ammonia (NH3) have declined much less than other pollutants, due to the continued importance of agriculture.
These reductions result in emission intensities, both per person and per unit of GDP, which are much lower than the OECD and OECD-Europe averages.
Population exposure to fine particulates PM2.5 concentrations, albeit higher than the recommended World Health Organisation global air quality guidelines 2021 level of 5 µg/m3, remains below the average of many OECD countries. Regional exposure is rather uniform, except for the Ticino region.
Even though there are no recent data, water stress (freshwater abstractions as percentage of total renewable resources) does not seem to be an issue in Switzerland as the country has relatively abundant freshwater resources. Abstractions for public supply have been steadily declining since 2000 but remain relatively high by OECD standards. Yet, the country is not immune to local and seasonal water scarcity due to climate events, as the recent summer 2026 drought exemplified.
Ninety-eight per cent of the Swiss population is connected to a wastewater treatment plant, of which the vast majority with tertiary (advanced) treatment levels. In order to protect aquatic flora and fauna, as well as drinking water resources, the largest treatment plants in the catchment area of lakes, and other treatment plants on polluted water bodies, are to be equipped with additional processes for the removal of organic substances.
Switzerland has embarked on a long-term endeavour to rehabilitate its rivers to their natural functioning and counteract aquatic biodiversity loss. It is one of the first countries implementing a national policy to reduce micro-pollutants in municipal sewage treatment plant effluents, and measures have been taken to tackle diffuse pollution from agriculture (Council, 2023[3]). As of 2024, 15% of the Swiss population was connected to a wastewater treatment with micro-pollutant removal. This makes of Switzerland one of the best performers in the OECD (Council, 2023[3]).
Switzerland produces far more municipal waste per person than the OECD average and this amount has remained relatively stable since 2000. It partly reflects the high consumption levels of the population. Almost half of it is incinerated with energy recovery. The other half is either composted, with the amount having more than doubled since 2000, or sent to recycling, the amount of which has not increased much since 2000.
Seeking to reduce the volume of household waste, the vast majority of municipalities have introduced a tax per bag used. The policy has been effective in reducing waste production and encouraging participation in recycling and composting (Council, 2023[3]). In 2000, Switzerland banned landfill disposal of combustible waste, leading to increased incineration of municipal waste with energy recovery.
Domestic material consumption per person has been declining since 2000 and is below the European Union (EU) and OECD averages, whereas its productivity is much higher. This performance also reflects Switzerland’s reliance on imported materials, with its material footprint significantly exceeding the OECD and EU averages.
About a third of Switzerland is covered with forests, whereas almost 40% is made up of cropland and permanent meadows and pastures. Switzerland has a rather low degree of endemism. Species diversity is particularly high on the northern and southern limits of the Alps, due to altitudinal differences providing numerous habitats for plants and animals. Low diversity is observed in the Central Plateau. Since 1960, the rate of human-induced extinction has clearly exceeded the natural rate. Pressures on biodiversity come from soil loss and intensive land use, the fragmentation of natural habitats by infrastructure and urban areas, and excessive inputs of nitrogen and plant protection products. In addition, biodiversity is under pressure from climate change and invasive alien species (animals, plants and fungi) (Council, 2023[3]).
In 2024, the Federal Council commissioned the Federal Office of the Environment (FOEN) to implement the second phase of the Biodiversity Action Plan from 2025 to 2030 (AP SBS II) (FOEN, 2026[4]). The Federal Council also published, in the annex of AP SBS II, the list of biodiversity-relevant areas aligned with the target 3 of the Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF) of the Convention on Biological diversity (CBD). This Annex thus aligns the Swiss reporting to the CBD. Currently, Switzerland reserves approximately 21.4% of its land area for biodiversity.
Protected areas occupy 12.4% of the national territory and other “effective area-based conservation measures” 8% (FOEN, 2026[4]).
This section shows selected policy instruments based on data available for most OECD countries and does not provide a complete overview of countries’ policy mix to achieve their environment-related objectives. Interpretation should consider the country specific context.
Environmentally related tax revenues as percentage of GDP have been historically lower than OECD and OECD-Europe averages. Due to the decline of revenues in OECD countries since 2016, the Swiss value has almost reached the OECD average, at 1.44% in 2024, but is still below the OECD-Europe average. Like in many other countries, energy, followed by transport, makes up the vast majority of environmentally related tax bases.
In total, 75.1% of GHG emissions in Switzerland were subject to a positive Net Effective Carbon Rate1 (ECR) in 2023. Explicit carbon prices consist of emissions trading system (ETS) permit prices and carbon taxes, which cover 42.9% of GHG emissions in CO2 equivalent. With roughly 32.5% of total GHG emissions, coverage is largest for carbon taxes. Fuel excise taxes, an implicit form of carbon pricing, covered 66% of emissions in 2023. About 75% of GHG emissions have a Net ECR above EUR 60 per tonne of CO2 equivalent, a mid-range estimate of current carbon costs. Net ECR are highest in the road transport sector, which accounts for 31.5% of the country's total GHG emissions. The Net ECR is on average positive in all sectors (OECD, 2024[5]).
Environmentally related government research and development (R&D) budget has increased from 0.17% in 2000 to 0.28% of total government R&D budget in 2024, a rate well below the OECD average. Renewables make up 24.4% of public energy research, development and demonstration (RD&D) budget.
The percentage of environmentally related technology in total inventions is well below the OECD average and, after an increase around 2010, it dropped below its 2000 level.
Switzerland’s development co-operation combines long-term engagement in fragile contexts with a strong humanitarian and peace focus, alongside significant support to civil society. It plays an active role in multilateral organisations to address global challenges, deliver emergency relief and promote sustainable and climate-resilient development. Switzerland’s total official development assistance (ODA) decreased in 2025, representing 0.46% of gross national income.
In 2023-2024, Switzerland committed 22.7% of its total bilateral allocable ODA in support of the environment and the Rio Conventions, down from 33.3% in 2021-2022, below the Development Assistance Committee (DAC) average. After increasing during 2019-21, the share of bilateral ODA for climate has decreased and stands at about 20%, which is relatively low by DAC standards. Similarly, at about 6%, the share targeting biodiversity remains below the DAC average (OECD, 2026[6]).
References
[3] Council, F. (2023), Environment Switzerland 2022, Swiss Government, https://www.bafu.admin.ch/dam/en/sd-web/GjWv4YDOaKui/umweltbericht2022.pdf.
[4] FOEN (2026), Areas for biodiversity. Indicators, Federal Office for the Environment. Switzerland, https://www.indikatoren.admin.ch/public/v2/detail?ind=BD161&lng=en.
[1] FOEN (2026), Switzerland’s Greenhouse Gas Inventory 1990–2024: National Inventory, https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/NID-CHE-2026.pdf.
[2] FOEN (2025), Foreign energy dependency - Gross imported energy as a percentage of total energy supply, https://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/en/home/statistics/sustainable-development/monet-2030/indicators/energy-dependency.assetdetail.36214749.html.
[6] OECD (2026), Development Co-operation Profiles, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/development-co-operation-profiles_04b376d7-en/switzerland_e711cffb-en.html.
[5] OECD (2024), Pricing Greenhouse Gas Emissions 2024: Gearing Up to Bring Emissions Down, OECD Series on Carbon Pricing and Energy Taxation, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/b44c74e6-en.
[7] OECD (2023), OECD Inventory of Support Measures for Fossil Fuels: Country Notes, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/5a3efe65-en.
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← 1. Effective Carbon Rate (ECR) is the sum of fuel excise taxes, carbon taxes and tradeable permits that effectively put a price on carbon emissions. The Net ECR equals the ECR minus fossil fuel subsidies that decrease pre-tax fossil fuel prices.