This country note features selected environmental indicators from the OECD Core Set, building on harmonised datasets available on OECD Data Explorer. The indicators reflect major environmental issues, including climate, air quality, freshwater resources, waste and the circular economy, and biodiversity. Differences with national data sources can occur due to delays in data treatment and publication, or due to different national definitions and measurement methods. The OECD is working with countries and other international organisations to further improve the indicators and the underlying data. The text of this country profile is complementary to the OECD Environmental Performance Review of the United States 2023.
Environment at a Glance: United States
The United States (US) is the world’s largest economy based on nominal gross domestic product (GDP) and has one of the highest GDP per person in the world. The economic downturn caused by the COVID-19 pandemic hit the economy hard, with GDP contracting by 2.8% in 2020. In 2021, the economic recovery (+5.9%) has been more rapid than in most OECD countries due to unprecedented policy support combined with a rapid vaccination rollout. The US is a service-based economy, with strong wholesale and retail trade, information and communication, real estate, financial and insurance sectors.
With about 330 million of inhabitants, the US is among the most populous countries in the world. The population is ageing, but continues to grow, mainly driven by immigration. Population density is below the OECD average and varies considerably across the country, with densely populated cities, in particular along the coasts and more sparsely populated rural areas in the interior.
The United States is the third-largest country in the world. It has a diverse landscape that ranges from beaches to mountains, plains, forests and deserts. The range of climatic zones and ecosystems is correspondingly wide, including tropical and temperate forests, grasslands, deserts, wetlands, tundra, coral reefs, kelp forests, and sandy and rocky intertidal zones.
The country is endowed with abundant natural resources. It is one of the largest energy producers in the world. The shale revolution that began in 2005, led by technological breakthroughs in hydraulic fracturing and horizontal drilling, has reduced oil and gas production cost and resulted in an unprecedented increase in production. It made the country the world’s largest producer of oil and gas and has turned it to a net energy exporter.
The United States is also one of the largest global producers of the metals and minerals powering manufacturing – from precious metals such as gold and silver to copper, nickel, iron, lead, uranium, bauxite, mercury, tungsten and zinc. The nation is also the leading producer and consumer of phosphates, a key ingredient in fertilizers used in agricultural production.
The US Constitution establishes a federal system of government, which divides power between the federal government and the 50 states as well as the District of Columbia. Shared responsibilities in economic policy, energy development, transportation, land use planning, and natural resource use, provides states with a considerable degree of authority to set policy and regulation.
The United States has decoupled CO2 emissions from fossil fuel combustion and total energy use from economic growth. This is mainly due to a continued shift away from coal towards less carbon- intensive energy sources (such as natural gas and renewables in the electric power sector) as well as technological changes, such as improved energy efficiency. The pandemic outbreak and associated reduction in activity and consumption led to a further decline of emissions in 2020.
Although per person production-based and demand-based (or footprint) greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions have been steadily declining since the mid-2000s, they remain well above the OECD averages. Despite being one the biggest oil producers, demand-based emission intensity remains higher than the production-based, meaning that the US is a net importer of emissions embodied in its final demand.
Fossil fuel combustion accounts for the bulk of CO2 emissions. Transport is the largest emitter of CO2 followed by electric power generation and manufacturing industry. More than 90% of the energy use in transportation comes from petroleum. Emissions from transport have remained fairly stable since 2000. The combined effect of increased demand for travel that led to generally increasing CO2 emissions, and improvements in average new vehicle fuel economy since 2005, have slowed the rate of increase of CO2 emissions. Emissions from industry have in general declined over the past decades, due to structural changes in the economy (i.e. shifts from a manufacturing-based to a service-based economy), fuel switching, and energy efficiency improvements. Other sources of GHG emissions come from, in order of magnitude, the agriculture, commercial, and residential sectors, plus emissions from US Territories (e.g. Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands and American Samoa) (OECD, 2023[1]).
Agricultural soil management activities, such as fertilizer application and other cropping practices, are the largest source of nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions, while the main sources of CH4 include enteric fermentation from domestic livestock, natural gas systems, landfills, domestic livestock manure management, coal mining, and petroleum systems. Emissions from agriculture increased mainly due to increased cattle stocks. Emissions from waste decreased due to increased landfill gas collection and control systems, and a reduction of biodegradable materials (i.e., paper and paperboard, food scraps, and yard trimmings) discarded in municipal solid waste landfills. The Land Use Land Use Change and Forestry (LULUCF) sector acts as a net carbon sink (OECD, 2023[1]).
Energy intensity per unit of GDP has been decreasing in recent decades, especially since the decline in the economy and energy consumption after the financial crisis in 2008-09, but remains one of the highest among OECD member countries.
Fossil fuels continue to dominate the energy mix and account for a larger share than in most other OECD countries. The shares of gas and renewables in the energy mix have increased since 2000, while the shares of oil and coal have declined. The United States is the world’s second-largest producer and consumer of energy. The shale revolution has turned it from a net energy importer to a net exporter in 2019. Moreover, the abundance of low-cost natural gas has resulted in gas-fired generation overtaking coal-fired generation in the power sector (IEA, 2019[2]).
Renewable energy is playing an increasingly important role, especially in power generation, but its share in the energy and electricity mix remains below the OECD average. Although wind and solar are growing rapidly, the major source of renewable energy is still bioenergy and waste, and the use of biogasoline (fuel ethanol). The United States is a world leading ethanol producer. Hydro is the third largest source of renewables.
Emissions of most major air pollutants have decreased since 2000, except for ammonia (NH3). The US EPA’s National Emissions Inventory (NEI), released every three years, includes methodology improvements during each NEI cycle. The 2020 NEI is the most recent and is available publicly on the EPA website.
Transport, industrial processes and energy production are the major sources of NO2. NMVOCs are emitted primarily from industrial processes and transportation. SO2 is primarily emitted from coal combustion for electric power generation and the metals industry. PM2.5 emissions are emitted primarily from agriculture, industrial processes, residential combustion, transport and waste.
Large reductions in pollutant emissions are due to implementation of regulations as part of the Clean Air Act in 1990. Announced in 2021, EPA’s Clean Trucks Plan represents the most protective set of EPA regulations ever for the on-road sector and is anticipated to lead to significant reductions of NOx, PM2.5, and VOCs. SO2 emissions have decreased in recent years, primarily as a result of electric power generators switching from high to low-sulphur coal and installing flue gas desulfurization equipment. Recent regulations under the power sector are projected to lead to further reductions of SO2, PM2.5 and NOx. Carbon monoxide (CO) and NMVOC emission intensities are above the OECD average. Mobile sources and agriculture are the major sources of CO emissions.
In 2024, the US EPA strengthened the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) for Particulate Matter (PM). The PM NAAQS primary annual PM2.5 standard was lowered to 9.0 micrograms per cubic meter to provide increased public health protection, consistent with the available health science. The average mean population exposure to PM2.5 is among the lowest in the OECD.
The United States have abundant freshwater resources: the Mississippi, Missouri and Ohio river systems, drain about 40% of the continental land area. Latest data show that the US is under moderate water stress, with a decreasing trend. However, the national average masks important sub-national variations. In the Southwest (Arizona, California, Colorado, Nevada, New Mexico, and Utah), which is the country’s most arid region, water demand for irrigation exceeds available water resources (OECD, 2023[1]).
Abstractions for public supply have decline since 2005, partly due to restrictions on public-supply water use in response to severe droughts and to more water-efficient household appliances (OECD, 2023[1]). However, per person total abstractions and abstractions for public supply remain high compared to other OECD countries. Information on recent trends and developments is not (yet) available, as surveys on freshwater abstraction are carried out every ten years.
The proportion of safely treated domestic wastewater flows was 89.9 % in 2018. Over 16% of households were not served by public sewers and depend on septic tanks to treat and dispose of wastewater (OECD, 2023[1]).
Generation of municipal solid waste (MSW) has risen in the past decade. The United States have the second highest per person generation intensity among OECD countries, partly reflecting the economy’s high level of consumption. In 2018 the US enhanced its food waste measurement methodology, which resulted in capturing more food waste than in previous years and thus a larger increase in MSW generation between 2017 and 2018.
The share of MSW landfilled decreased since 2000 but still represents 50% of amounts treated. At the same time, the share of recycling and composting increased to 23.6% and 8.5% respectively, slightly below the OECD average. About 12% of MWS are incinerated with energy recovery. In 2021, the US National Recycling Strategy set the goal to more than double the national recycling rate of municipal solid waste to 50% by 2030.
Consumption of materials decreased over 2000-2019 while GDP continue to increase, resulting in increased material productivity. Per person material consumption decreased until 2009 and has remained fairly stable since.
As in most OECD countries, domestic material consumption (DMC) is dominated by non-metallic minerals (dominated by construction materials), followed by biomass and fossil energy materials. The decrease of DMC over 2000-2009 is due to a drop in non-metallic minerals following the 2008 financial crisis, while consumption of biomass increased. Since then, DMC increased slightly increased.
With a mainland bounded by the Atlantic Ocean to the east, the Pacific Ocean to the west, Canada to the north, and Mexico and the Gulf of Mexico to the south, the United States is a large and diverse country. Ecosystems range from the Arctic tundras of northern Alaska to the tropical forests of Hawaii and the overseas United States territories.
Forests are common in the eastern United States, mountainous regions of the western United States, and Alaska. Cropland is concentrated in the mid-continent region of the United States, and grassland is more common in the western United States and Alaska. Wetlands are fairly ubiquitous throughout the United States, though they are more common in the upper Midwest and eastern portions of the country, as well as coastal regions. Settlements are more concentrated along the coastal margins and in the eastern states.
The United States is a megadiverse country, hosting more than 60 000 species. There are over 1 670 species listed as either endangered or threatened under the Endangered Species Act (ESA). Since 2000 about 445 species were added to the list: additions peaked between 2010 and 2016 with an average of 47 species added each year, but significantly decreased since, to about 6 species per year between 2017 and 2022. Recent years have seen a slight increase to 26 in 2023, and 16 in 2024. Under the ESA, US Fish and Wildlife Service reviews the status of species that are candidates for listing at least once every year. Five-year reviews of listed species subsequently allow for updating conservation and recovery efforts at the individual species level (OECD, 2023[1]).
13% of US lands and inland waters are protected with a primary intent for biodiversity management and an additional 17% is protected for multiple uses.19% of the exclusive economic zone (EEZ) is protected as Marine Protected Areas (the US classification includes the Great Lakes in marine waters, which increases the share of marine waters that are protected to 26%). Given the size of the country, the US has the second largest (after Australia) protected areas network among OECD countries, covering about one million km2 of land and 1.7 million km2 of waters. Although not a party to the Convention on Biological Diversity, the United States helped to develop and endorsed the 2010 Aichi targets. In January of 2021, the United States committed to conserving at least 30% of American land and waters, including freshwater ecosystems and ocean area, by 2030 (OECD, 2023[1]).
This section shows selected policy instruments based on data available for most OECD countries and does not provide a complete overview of countries’ policy mix to achieve their environment-related objectives. Interpretation should consider the country specific context.
The United States relies on a broad range of instruments to mitigate climate change and address broader environmental objectives. Examples for climate and air pollution include non-trade distorting subsidies for low emission technologies, the incorporation of climate change mitigation measures into public investments and regulatory instruments such as air pollution emission standards of coal fired-power plants, minimum energy performance standards for electric motors, electric appliances, passenger cars and heavy duty vehicles, energy efficiency mandates for large energy consumers, as well as energy efficiency labels for electric appliances and passenger cars. In 2022, the government passed the Inflation Reduction Act (IRA), that aims to reduce energy costs for households and create jobs while reducing GHG emissions, ensuring a future low-carbon energy supply, and increasing energy security. The IRA includes a set of subsidies for clean energy (clean electricity credits, individual green energy credits, wind and solar tax credits), clean manufacturing credits, the creation of a “green bank” and agricultural conservation. The IRA is expected to reduce US greenhouse gas emissions around 40% by 2030 (OECD, 2023[1]).
The share of environmentally-related tax revenue in GDP decreased since 2010 and is well below the OECD average, partly due to the fact that US energy taxation levels are relatively low. Fuel taxes are relatively low, and taxes on diesel and petrol for motor vehicles are the lowest in the OECD. As in many countries, most receipts come from taxes on energy products and on transport. Taxes on pollution and resource management such as landfill taxes, water pollution taxes and biodiversity-related taxes do not raise much revenue.
The United States does not have an explicit Federal carbon tax. However, carbon trading systems have been enacted at sub-national levels. For instance, the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative includes 12 states in a cap-and-invest program for the power sector. California has a multi-sectoral cap-and-trade program that covers approximately 85% of the state’s emissions (OECD, 2023[1]).
In total, 33.3% of GHG emissions in the United States were subject to a positive Net Effective Carbon Rate (ECR) in 2023. Explicit carbon prices in the United States consist of emissions trading systems (ETS) permit prices, which cover 8.1% of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in CO2 eq. Fuel excise taxes, an implicit form of carbon pricing, cover 28% of emissions in 2023. Direct fossil fuel subsidies cover 2.5% of emissions. About 6% of GHG emissions have a Net ECR above EUR 60 per tonne of CO2 eq., a mid-range estimate of current carbon costs. Net Effective Carbon Rates are highest in the road transport sector, which accounts for 23.8% of the country's total GHG emissions. The Net ECR is on average positive in all sectors (OECD, 2024[3]).
The United States is a leader in clean energy innovation and deployment, albeit it’s leadership worldwide is declining. The number of inventions in environmental technologies represent about 15% of inventions worldwide, down from 22% in 2000, and the share in USA total (all technologies) inventions at about 8% in 2021, is below OECD average.
The United States is by far the largest R&D-investing economy. As in many other countries most investments are made by the private sector, with public R&D on environmental technologies below 1% of total public R&D. The 2022 Inflation Reduction Act is doubling the Research and Development (R&D) Tax Credit for Small Businesses. It also creates a new Clean Energy and Sustainability Accelerator, which will seed state and local clean energy financing institutions, supporting the deployment of distributed zero-emission technologies like heat-pumps, community solar, and EV charging. This Accelerator will expand opportunities for clean energy entrepreneurship while prioritizing over 50% of its investments in disadvantaged communities (OECD, 2023[1]).
As the world’s largest provider of official development assistance (ODA) in 2023 and 2024, the United States has substantial development programmes in all sectors and regions. Foreign assistance priorities included global health and security, tackling the climate crisis, promoting democracy and good governance while countering authoritarianism and addressing discrimination and inequality. In 2024, the United States’ total ODA was USD 63.3 billion (preliminary data), representing 0.22% of gross national income (GNI), and marking a decrease compared to 2023.
In 2022-23, the United States committed 14.4% of its total bilateral allocable ODA in support of the environment and the Rio Conventions, up from 7.8% in 2020-21. The DAC average was 39% in 2022-23. Four per cent of screened bilateral allocable ODA focused on environmental issues as a principal objective, compared with the DAC average of 9.6%. Twelve per cent of total bilateral allocable ODA focused on climate change overall, up from 2.9% in 2020-21 (the DAC average was 34.8%). The United States had a greater focus on adaptation (10.4%) than on mitigation (4.9%) in 2022-23. Three per cent of screened bilateral allocable ODA focused on biodiversity overall, up from 1.9% in 2020-21 (the DAC average was 7.6%). United States committed USD 144.7 million in support of the conservation and sustainable use of the ocean in 2023, USD 13.1 million more than in 2022. The 2023 value is equivalent to 0.3% of the United States’ bilateral allocable ODA. (OECD, 2025[4]).
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