Environment at a Glance: Greece
Table of contents
The OECD Environment at a Glance Country Notes are designed to support transparent, evidence-based information. They provide concise and descriptive overview of progress across major environmental issues, including climate, air quality, freshwater resources, waste and the circular economy, and biodiversity conservation. They feature selected environmental indicators, building on harmonised datasets available on OECD Data Explorer. Differences with national data sources can occur due to delays in data treatment and publication, or due to different national definitions and measurement methods. See the Reader’s guide to the Environment at a Glance Country Notes for more information.
Greece has a small, service-based economy with trade, transport, accommodation and food, and real estate among its main activities. Tourism is a vital economic driver while agriculture accounts for a larger share of activity than in most OECD countries. Following the deep recession triggered by the 2008 financial crisis, Greece implemented extensive economic reforms. The recovery that began in 2017 was supported by rising exports of goods and tourism. Although the economy has rebounded from the COVID-19 shock, GDP per person remains well below the OECD average.
Greece’s, population has declined since 2010, due to a reduced fertility rate and, until 2015, negative net migration. Most people live in urban areas, and the metropolitan areas of Athens and Thessaloniki together account for 43% of the population. At the same time, about one third of the population lives in rural, often sparsely populated, areas.
Greece’s topographic diversity, including mountains, a lengthy coastline and thousands of islands, contributes to its rich biodiversity. The country hosts abundant European and Mediterranean flora and fauna, including many endemic species, and a wide variety of ecosystems and habitats of international interest. Greece is more generously endowed with freshwater resources than other Mediterranean countries.
Environmental governance is highly decentralised at the regional and municipal levels.
Greece managed to decouple production-based (i.e. produced within the territory) carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions and energy supply from economic growth. The per person production-based and demand-based (or footprint, i.e. including emissions incorporated in imported goods) greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions remain below the OECD averages, and have started to decline in 2007. Since 2013, production and demand-based emission intensities have been at the same level, meaning that Greece emits levels of GHGs equivalent to those embodied in its final demand (i.e. demand for goods and services by all residents).
Total GHG emissions, excluding land use, land-use change and forestry (LULUCF), peaked in 2007 and have since sharply declined (-46.1% between 2007and 2024), driven by reduced economic activity during the recession and structural changes in the energy system, including the gradual expansion of renewable energy sources, fuel switching away from lignite and improvements in energy efficiency. Greece remains carbon-intensive due to its reliance on coal and diesel for electricity generation, especially for non-interconnected islands.
Like most countries, CO2 makes up the bulk of emissions, 73.3%, followed by methane at 15.8%. Before 2007, rising living standards and a growing services sector boosted electricity demand, increasing emissions and methane leaks from lignite mining. From the late 1990s, a gradual shift to natural gas, expansion of renewables, and efficiency measures began lowering carbon intensity, with hydropower availability influencing annual variations. The majority of GHG emissions (53.8%) in 2024, excluding LULUCF, come from energy industries and transport.
The recession accelerated emission reductions, as lower consumption and declining lignite use decreased power-sector emissions from 2008. This trend accentuated in 2020 with a sharp drop in lignite operations, greater shares of gas and renewables, and reduced mobility during COVID-19. The planned phase-out of lignite plants, required by the 2022 National Climate law, with the last unit converting to gas by 2028, will reinforce this structural shift.
Transport is the second largest source of GHGs. Emissions rose until 2009 with increased mobility and car ownership, then fell sharply until 2012 and have since stabilised. Yet, transport is the only sector having increased emissions since 1990 (25.7%). Emissions from industrial processes and product use accounted for 12.1% of total emissions (excluding LULUCF) in 2024. Its emissions have fluctuated with heavy industry changes and plant closures. Emissions from agriculture, which accounted for 11.1% of total emissions in 2024 have declined due to the reduction in the use of synthetic nitrogen fertilisers and livestock number. This is in turn attributable to the increase in organic farming, the high price of fertilisers and the impact of initiatives to promote good practice in fertiliser use. Living standards improvements resulted in an increase of generated waste and related emissions. However, the increase of recycling along with the exploitation of the biogas, limited the increase of methane emissions. At the same time, emissions from wastewater management have considerably decreased, due to the continuous increase of the population served by aerobic wastewater facilities (MEE, 2026).
Over the past decade there has been a shift from oil and coal to natural gas and renewables. Renewables, mainly wind and solar photovoltaics, have increased thanks to feed-in tariffs and decreasing technology costs. Still, fossil fuels represented 81% of total energy supply in 2025.
The buildings sector is a key target of national energy policy, with large-scale renovation programmes, heating system upgrades and energy efficiency improvements, with the objective to reduce structural fossil fuel dependency.
Emissions of most major air pollutants have decreased mainly thanks to the reduction in energy consumption, abatement measures such as flue gas desulphurisation, changes in the electricity mix (increased use of gas and renewables, decommissioning of old coal power plants), reduction of fuels’ sulphur content and the scrapping of old vehicles. Greece reached its 2020 Gothenburg Protocol objectives for sulphur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides NOx, non-methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOCs) and ammonia (NH3) emissions.
In the past decade, concentrations of the main air pollutants have decreased on par with reduced economic and transport activity, disposal of old vehicles and increased use of natural gas. Average population exposure to fine particles (PM2.5) remains nevertheless well above the 2021 guideline value of 5 µ/m3 recommended by the World Health Organization.
Higher heating oil prices have pushed households to switch from oil to wood for heating, causing severe winter episodes of pollution by particulates. Natural PM sources, such as Saharan dust, are a significant factor for particulate pollution, especially in southern Greece.
Greece is endowed with relatively abundant freshwater resources, putting the country under only moderate stress at the national level, despite high abstraction levels. However, the recent incidence of wildfires and droughts is putting enormous pressure on available freshwater resources. Per person abstractions of water for public supply almost doubled since 2000.
Greece has made progress in wastewater treatment in large agglomerations. Most households are connected to plants with tertiary (“advanced”) treatment, while 5% of households have individual treating systems.
Municipal waste generation per person is relatively high compared to Greece’s low income levels. This is partly due to waste from tourism. After a decrease following the 2008 financial crisis, since 2013, generation of municipal waste is on the rise again, being higher than the OECD-Europe and OECD averages. Greece has one of the highest landfilling rates in the OECD, due to a lack of adequate infrastructure for waste treatment and insufficient sorting at the source, as well as low public awareness. The full implementation of adopted economic tools, such as a landfill fee, set to be progressively increased, and a pay-as-you throw scheme, is expected to significantly contribute to the reduction of landfilling and achieving higher performance rates in recycling.
During the economic crisis (2008-10), domestic material consumption (DMC) decreased faster than GDP as construction and coal extraction activities declined. Material productivity improved as a result and is now above the OECD average. Material footprint per person, while still above DMC, is below the OECD average.
Greece’s artificial land coverage is below the EU average but above the OECD one. The country has registered a shift from pasture and agricultural land to urban areas since 1990, resulting in habitat loss, degradation and fragmentation. Construction of tourist facilities and secondary residences in coastal areas, has been a strong driver of continued urbanisation. The motorway network has doubled between 2007 and 2017. These developments inhibit the natural functions of soils, contributes to the degradation of natural habitats and intensifies pressure on biodiversity.
Greece hosts abundant European and Mediterranean flora and fauna, and a wide variety of ecosystems and habitats, many of which are of international interest. Endemism is high and many endemic species have a limited habitat (e.g. a single island). Around 23 000 animal species have been recorded in terrestrial ecosystems, 17% of them endemic, while marine environments are home to around 3 500 animal species. In 2024 the updated Greek Red List of Threatened Species has been published, in which more than 11 470 species of animal, plants and fungi has been assessed using the categories and criteria of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) and 21,5% of them has been assessed as threatened.
According to national data, protected areas cover 35% of the territory, while marine protected areas account for 18,3% of the territorial water (corresponding to 5% of the exclusive economic zone - EEZ). The country achieved the 2030 Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF) target to protect at least 30% of terrestrial and inland water areas, but more efforts are needed to reach the 30% target for marine and coastal areas. In this respect, Greece is in the process of designating two large marine national parks, one in the Aegean Sea and one in the Ionian Sea, which will bring marine protected areas to exceed the 30% target. Furthermore, the country has recently ratified the Agreement under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea on the Conservation and Sustainable Use of Marine Biological Diversity of Areas beyond National Jurisdiction.
Only a limited number of sites have strict management objectives (IUCN categories I and II). Only about 1.4% of the country’s land is covered by protected areas that have had management effectiveness assessments1 and the same is true for 0.1% of the EEZ.
This section shows selected policy instruments based on data available for most OECD countries and does not provide a complete overview of countries’ policy mix to achieve their environment-related objectives. Interpretation should consider the country specific context.
After the 2008-09 financial crisis, Greece has undertaken major reforms to remedy its longstanding weakness in tax collection and compliance, as part of its economic adjustment programmes. As a result, in 2021 Greece recorded the highest levels in the OECD of revenue from environmentally related taxes as a share of GDP. The share increased from 2.66% in 2010 to 4.14% in 2021, due to increased energy taxation which, as in most OECD countries, accounts for the bulk of revenues from environmentally related taxes. The share in GDP has fallen to 2.86% in 2024. Taxes related to transport (excluding fuels) generate most of the remainder. Greece is among the few OECD countries that do not raise revenues from other environmentally related taxes (single-use plastic bags is a recent exception).
Greece has introduced new economic incentives to support the energy transition. Green certificates and emissions trading aim to promote clean energy and reduce carbon dioxide emissions. Energy subsidies and tax incentives (e.g., financing schemes, tax exemptions for installing solar panels) encourage citizens and businesses to invest in clean energy sources. The National Climate law aims at reducing dependence on fossil fuels and accelerating deployment of renewables and cleaner technologies.
In total, 62.4% of GHG emissions in Greece were subject to a positive Net Effective Carbon Rate2 (ECR) in 2023. Explicit carbon prices in Greece consist of emissions trading system (ETS) permit prices, which cover 43.1% of GHG emissions in CO2 equivalent. Fuel excise taxes, an implicit form of carbon pricing, covered 35.7% of emissions in 2023. Direct fossil fuel subsidies cover 10.7% of emissions. About 58% of GHG emissions have a Net ECR above EUR 60 per tonne of CO2 equivalent, a mid-range estimate of current carbon costs. Net ECRs are highest in the road transport sector, which accounts for 19.2% of the country's total GHG emissions. The Net ECR is on average negative in the buildings sector, which accounts for 8.2% of GHG emissions (OECD, Pricing Greenhouse Gas Emissions 2024: Gearing Up to Bring Emissions Down, 2024).
The share of government research, development (R&D) budget on environment has fluctuated in recent years and is on a declining trend, at 2.95% in 2024.
Greece is a marginal player in environmentally related inventions, with less than 20 patent applications in at least two jurisdictions annually by national inventors. Their share in total inventions is also below the OECD average.
Greece’s development co-operation seeks to support stability, sustainable development and poverty reduction with a focus on its neighbourhood and with countries that share close cultural and geographic ties. Greece’s development co-operation is primarily comprised of multilateral expenditure, principally to European Union (EU) institutions, and in-donor refugee costs. Greece’s total official development assistance (ODA) decreased in 2025, representing 0.13% of gross national income. Greece’s ODA does not target climate change specifically and its ODA is among the lowest in the Development Assistance Committee (DAC) countries, with a very limited bilateral programme. This is reflected in the share of climate in bilateral ODA close to zero, and just over 1% for biodiversity (OECD, 2026).
References
Hockings, M., & al, e. (2006). Evaluating Effectiveness. A framework for assessing management effectiveness of protected areas. 2nd Edition. IUCN. Retrieved from https://portals.iucn.org/library/efiles/documents/PAG-014.pdf
MEE. (2026). National Inventory Report of Greece for the years 1990-2024. Ministry of Environment and Energy. Retrieved from https://unfccc.int/documents/656305
OECD. (2020). Environmental Performance Reviews: Greece. OECD Publishing, Paris. doi:10.1787/cec20289-en
OECD. (2024). Pricing Greenhouse Gas Emissions 2024: Gearing Up to Bring Emissions Down. OECD Series on Carbon Pricing and Energy Taxation, OECD Publishing, Paris. doi:10.1787/b44c74e6-en
OECD. (2026). Development Co-operation Profiles. OECD Publishing, Paris. Retrieved from https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/development-co-operation-profiles_04b376d7-en/greece_35e05afc-en.html
Further reading
CBD (2022), Country profiles: Greece, https://www.cbd.int/countries/profile/?country=gr
IEA (2017), Energy Policies of IEA Countries: Greece 2017, Energy Policies of IEA Countries, IEA, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264285316-en
UNEP-WCMC (2024), “Protected Area Profile for Greece”, the World Database of Protected Areas, www.protectedplanet.net
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← 1. Protected Area Management Effectiveness evaluations, can be defined as: “the assessment of how well protected areas are being managed – primarily the extent to which management is protecting values and achieving goals and objectives" (Hockings & al, 2006).
← 2. Effective Carbon Rate (ECR) is the sum of fuel excise taxes, carbon taxes and tradeable permits that effectively put a price on carbon emissions. The Net ECR equals the ECR minus fossil fuel subsidies that decrease pre-tax fossil fuel prices.