Environment at a Glance: Netherlands
Table of contents
The OECD Environment at a Glance Country Notes are designed to support transparent, evidence-based information. They provide concise and descriptive overview of progress across major environmental issues, including climate, air quality, freshwater resources, waste and the circular economy, and biodiversity conservation. They feature selected environmental indicators, building on harmonised datasets available on OECD Data Explorer. Differences with national data sources can occur due to delays in data treatment and publication, or due to different national definitions and measurement methods. See the Reader’s guide to the Environment at a Glance Country Notes for more information.
The Netherlands is a small, densely populated country with a very open economy. It ranks among the largest economies in the euro area and its population enjoys high living standards. With the Port of Rotterdam, the largest in Europe, the country serves as a major trade and transit hub for oil, gas, electricity and coal.
Located on the south-eastern shore of the North Sea and downstream of three international river basins, the Netherlands is highly exposed to water-related risks. About 30% of its land area lies below sea level, particularly in the west and north, and is protected by barriers of dunes and dikes. The country’s highest point is only 321 metres above sea level and about half of the territory is prone to flooding. It also faces persistent challenges related to water scarcity and quality. The need to protect land from river and coastal flooding, and the tradition of artificially draining low-lying areas, has resulted in a complex hydraulic infrastructure. Low-lying areas are highly urbanised, while rural areas are used for intensive agriculture.
The Netherlands has major natural gas reserves and limited oil reserves. It was once a major producer of natural gas, but production has been reduced significantly because of the earthquakes associated with extraction in the province of Groningen.
The Netherlands has achieved an absolute decoupling between real gross domestic product (GDP) growth, energy use and production-based (i.e. produced within the territory) carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions. The per person production-based and demand-based (or footprint, i.e. including emissions incorporated in imported goods) greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions have been steadily declining since 1995 and are now close to the OECD averages.
Total GHG emissions (excluding land use, land-use change and forestry - LULUCF) have decreased by 36% during 2000-24. Energy industries are the largest source of GHG emissions, followed by transport, the residential sector and agriculture.
Emissions from energy industries increased until 2015 due to rising use of fossil fuels for electricity production. They declined since 2016 with the closure of coal plants and the expansion of renewables. Since 2020, emission reductions reflect warmer winters, temporary mobility restrictions during the COVID-19 pandemic, and periods of fuel-switching driven by elevated natural gas prices and further increase of renewables.
Transport emissions rose until 2006 due to increased freight activity and a growing number of diesel passenger cars and light-duty trucks. Between 2006 and 2008, they stabilised as biofuel use grew. With economic recovery from 2014 to 2019, emissions increased again. In 2020–2021, COVID-19 restrictions sharply reduced road traffic, leading to significant emission cuts. After traffic resumed, emissions rose by 4% in 2023 compared to 2022 but remained below pre-pandemic levels, and decreased by 5% in 2024.
Emissions from the residential sector have decreased even though the number of households has increased. This is mainly due to the improved insulation of dwellings and the increased use of high-efficiency boilers for central heating.
The LULUCF sector shows low net emissions (2.6% of the total in 2024), largely due to emissions released from drained peat and peaty soils, while methane emissions from drainage ditches have been slowly decreasing since 2000. CO2 emissions from management of mineral soils on cropland and grassland are also important causes of fluctuations in emissions (Netherlands, 2026).
Fossil fuels continue to dominate the energy mix, representing 81.3% of total energy supply in 2025. The Netherlands has been a major producer and exporter of natural gas since the 1960s. Though its share has been decreasing for several years in favour of renewable energy, natural gas still covered 36.4% of the total energy supply in 2025. In 2018, natural gas imports exceeded domestic production for the first time. A new law was passed in December 2019 that calls for the phase out of coal in electricity production by 2030. The law stipulates that the remaining four coal power plants in the country must discontinue coal use by the end of 2029 at the latest (Ministry of Economic Affairs and Climate Policy, 2019).
The share of renewables in electricity production jumped from 3.3% in 2000 to 48.5% in 2025, with much of the growth happening since 2019.
Emissions from major air pollutants show a downward trend in the last two decades. However, progress has stalled since 2020. Emissions of non-methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOC) increased in 2020 due to an increased use of disinfectants during the COVID-19 pandemic. Intensities per person and per unit of GDP are below the OECD and OECD-Europe averages.
Road transport is the largest contributor to NOx emissions, although it decreased by 74.6% since 2000, due to greater use of catalytic converters and particulate filters. NOx emissions also reduced due to the mandatory application of selective catalytic reductions in the industry, refineries and the energy sector, better insulation, more high-efficiency boilers in houses and office buildings, and a reduction in the usage of coal.
Emission reductions went on par with air quality improvements. However, exposure to PM2.5 air pollution remains higher than the World Health Organisation recommendation of 5 µ/m3 in all regions.
The Netherlands is not a freshwater-rich country and suffers from moderate water-stress. Abstractions for public supply per person have declined since 2000 and remain relatively low.
The country is a high performer in terms of wastewater treatment, with nearly the entire population connected to tertiary (advanced) wastewater treatment plants.
The generation of municipal waste per person is below the OECD and OECD-Europe averages and has been decreasing since 2007. Most of municipal waste is recovered through incineration with energy recovery, composting and recycling.
The Netherlands imports many products that are re-exported after some form of processing, such as crude oil, re-exported as motor fuel. It exports more materials per person than other European Union (EU) countries. The per person material input is relatively high compared to neighbouring countries and the EU area, and it has increased since 2000.
Material consumption per person decreased by 40% since 2000, while material productivity more than doubled, and is well above the average of OECD countries. On the other hand, material footprint per person is well above domestic material consumption and the OECD average.
Unlike most other OECD countries, fossil energy materials have a larger share in the material mix than non-metallic minerals. The total amount of raw materials used in the Dutch economy, excluding recycled waste (the direct material use), decreased in 2022 compared to 2018, mainly due to lower use of fossil fuels and non-metallic minerals.
The Netherlands is among the most densely populated countries in the world. Much of the land area is covered by highly productive agricultural lands, with pristine ecosystems being virtually absent. Since the early 1900s, the average quality of all characteristic types of nature has declined. However, in forests and moors, the decline has decreased. The Netherlands also has a relatively large area of wetlands. In the large Dutch rivers, alien species outnumber the native species, although it is not yet clear to what extent alien species are invasive and replacing native species (CBD).
The shares of terrestrial and marine protected areas are above the OECD average and the country already exceeds the 2030 Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF) target (under the Convention on Biological Diversity) of protecting 30% of marine areas.
This section shows selected policy instruments based on data available for most OECD countries and does not provide a complete overview of countries’ policy mix to achieve their environment-related objectives. Interpretation should consider the country specific context.
The share of environmentally related tax revenues in GDP is much higher than the OECD average but, has been declining considerably in recent years, from 3.6% in 2010 to 2.36% in 2024. The share in total revenues has also declined. Like in most countries, energy and transport make up the bulk of the tax base but, unlike many OECD countries, pollution and resource tax bases, albeit small, are not negligible.
In total, 77.2% of GHG emissions in the Netherlands were subject to a positive Net Effective Carbon Rate1 (ECR) in 2023. Explicit carbon prices in consist of emissions trading system (ETS) permit prices and carbon taxes, which cover 42% of GHG emissions in CO2 equivalent. With roughly 41.4% of total GHG emissions, coverage is largest for ETS. Fuel excise taxes, an implicit form of carbon pricing, covered 40.5% of emissions in 2023. Direct fossil fuel subsidies cover 13.8% of emissions. About 72% of GHG emissions have a Net ECR above EUR 60 per tonne of CO2 equivalent, a mid-range estimate of current carbon costs. Net ECRs are highest in the buildings sector, which accounts for 14.6% of the country's total GHG emissions. The Net ECR is on average positive in all sectors (OECD, 2024).
The share of environmentally related government research and development (R&D) budget has declined considerably between 2000 and 2010. It increased in recent years, to reach 2.3% in 2025. The share of renewables in total public energy research, development and demonstration (RD&D) has fluctuated considerably, from 24% in 2000 to 12.7% in 2021 and 25.9% in 2024.
The number of per person inventions by Dutch residents and the share of environmentally related in total inventions is in line with the OECD average, and declining in recent years.
In 2025, the government redefined the objective and scope of Dutch co-operation policy, redirecting it towards its national interests of trade, security and migration, and focusing it on its key areas of strength: water management, food security and health. The Netherlands’s total official development assistance (ODA) represents 0.58% of gross national income, a high share by the Development Assistance Committee (DAC) standards. Additionally, The Netherlands is among the few DAC members with dedicated policy coherence mechanisms to reduce negative spillovers from Dutch policies on developing countries, including a Sustainable Development Goal test for new legislation. Climate is among the priorities of its development cooperation programme. This is reflected in the share of bilateral ODA targeting climate, which has steadily increased during the past decade, to reach 56.7% in 2023-24. The share targeting biodiversity has also been increasing since 2017-18, to reach 13.5% in 2023-24 (OECD, 2026).
References
CBD. (n.d.). Country profiles: Netherlands. Retrieved from https://www.cbd.int/countries/profile?country=nl
Ministry of Economic Affairs and Climate Policy. (2019). Bulletin of Acts and Decrees. Retrieved from https://zoek.officielebekendmakingen.nl/stb-2019-493.html
Netherlands. (2026). National Inventory Document. National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM). Retrieved from https://unfccc.int/documents/656474
OECD. (2024). Pricing Greenhouse Gas Emissions 2024: Gearing Up to Bring Emissions Down. OECD Series on Carbon Pricing and Energy Taxation, OECD Publishing, Paris. doi:10.1787/b44c74e6-en
OECD. (2026). Development Co-operation Profiles. OECD Publishing, Paris. Retrieved from https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/development-co-operation-profiles_04b376d7-en/netherlands_08ef430f-en.html
Further reading
This work is published under the responsibility of the Secretary-General of the OECD. The opinions expressed and arguments employed herein do not necessarily reflect the official views of the Member countries of the OECD.
This document, as well as any data and map included herein, are without prejudice to the status of or sovereignty over any territory, to the delimitation of international frontiers and boundaries and to the name of any territory, city or area.
The statistical data for Israel are supplied by and under the responsibility of the relevant Israeli authorities. The use of such data by the OECD is without prejudice to the status of the Golan Heights, East Jerusalem and Israeli settlements in the West Bank under the terms of international law.
Note by the Republic of Türkiye
The information in this document with reference to “Cyprus” relates to the southern part of the Island. There is no single authority representing both Turkish and Greek Cypriot people on the Island. Türkiye recognises the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC). Until a lasting and equitable solution is found within the context of the United Nations, Türkiye shall preserve its position concerning the “Cyprus issue”.
Note by all the European Union Member States of the OECD and the European Union
The Republic of Cyprus is recognised by all members of the United Nations with the exception of Türkiye. The information in this document relates to the area under the effective control of the Government of the Republic of Cyprus.
Kosovo: This designation is without prejudice to positions on status, and is in line with United Nations Security Council Resolution 1244/99 and the Advisory Opinion of the International Court of Justice on Kosovo’s declaration of independence.
© OECD 2026
Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0)
This work is made available under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International licence. By using this work, you accept to be bound by the terms of this licence (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Attribution – you must cite the work.
Translations – you must cite the original work, identify changes to the original and add the following text: In the event of any discrepancy between the original work and the translation, only the text of original work should be considered valid.
Adaptations – you must cite the original work and add the following text: This is an adaptation of an original work by the OECD. The opinions expressed and arguments employed in this adaptation should not be reported as representing the official views of the OECD or of its Member countries.
Third-party material – the licence does not apply to third-party material in the work. If using such material, you are responsible for obtaining permission from the third party and for any claims of infringement.
You must not use the OECD logo, visual identity or cover image without express permission or suggest the OECD endorses your use of the work.
Any dispute arising under this licence shall be settled by arbitration in accordance with the Permanent Court of Arbitration (PCA) Arbitration Rules 2012. The seat of arbitration shall be Paris (France). The number of arbitrators shall be one.
← 1. Effective Carbon Rate (ECR) is the sum of fuel excise taxes, carbon taxes and tradeable permits that effectively put a price on carbon emissions. The Net ECR equals the ECR minus fossil fuel subsidies that decrease pre-tax fossil fuel prices.