Environment at a Glance: Poland
Table of contents
The OECD Environment at a Glance Country Notes are designed to support transparent, evidence-based information. They provide concise and descriptive overview of progress across major environmental issues, including climate, air quality, freshwater resources, waste and the circular economy, and biodiversity conservation. They feature selected environmental indicators, building on harmonised datasets available on OECD Data Explorer. Differences with national data sources can occur due to delays in data treatment and publication, or due to different national definitions and measurement methods. See the Reader’s guide to the Environment at a Glance Country Notes for more information.
Poland is a large Central European country on the Baltic Sea, bordered by seven countries. It is among the largest countries in Europe and is among the most populous member states of the European Union (EU).
Poland has experienced strong economic growth since 2005, narrowing the income gap with the OECD average thus raising living standards. Its economy is well integrated into global trade, thanks to its increasing role as an outsourcing destination for business services and a strong industrial base. Machinery and mechanical appliances and electrical and electrotechnical equipment were the country’s largest import and export commodities in 2024.
Poland is a lowland country, with only 3% of its territory above 500 metres. Its landscapes range from Northern lowlands to Southern uplands and the mountain ranges of the Carpathians and the Sudetes. Its location between two climatic zones and along major bird’ migration routes, together with historical land-use patterns, supports some of Europe richest biodiversity. Poland is poorly endowed with freshwater resources, but has significant energy and other mineral reserves, including large quantities of hard coal, lignite, copper, zinc, lead, sulphur and salt. Domestic oil production is limited, whereas natural gas meets a non-negligible proportion of demand.
Since 2000, greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions have been decoupled from gross domestic product (GDP) thanks to more climate-friendly policies and measures implemented in all sectors (public energy production and supply, industry, transport, small combustion sources, agriculture and waste). The per person production-based (i.e. produced within the territory) and demand-based (or footprint, i.e. including emissions incorporated in imported goods) GHG emissions have slightly declined since 1995. They remain just below the OECD averages.
Total GHG emissions (excluding land use, land-use change and forestry – LULUCF) decreased by 13.4% between 2000 and 2024. Since 2022, emissions declined, driven by lower consumption of fossil solid fuels, such as hard coal and lignite, as well as reduced production of cement clinker, ammonia, ethylene, lime and lower activity in the steel industry. Energy industries are the main emitter, followed by transport and the residential sector. Emissions from energy industries decreased, mainly driven by the restructuring of heavy industries, decreasing coal use and the implementation of energy efficiency measures. Transport emissions have been constantly increasing as a result of growing fuel use and vehicles fleet. They decreased in 2020 due to the Covid-19 pandemic and associated transport restrictions, to then rebound in 2022. The decrease in the waste sector results from significant development of wastewater treatment and recycling of solid waste. Emissions from industrial processes also decreased during this period, largely due to a contraction in metallurgy (Poland, 2026).
Since 2000, coal is being gradually replaced by oil and natural gas in the energy mix. It nevertheless remains the second energy source. Fossil fuels continue to provide the bulk of Poland’s energy supply (84.3% of total energy supply in 2025). The share of renewables in total energy supply has increased and is now above the OECD average.
Renewable electricity more than doubled between 2015 and 2025, driven mainly by solar photovoltaic and wind. Despite an increase in clean electricity production, Poland had the highest share of coal-based electricity generation among OECD countries in 2025 (52.1%). However, changes in the energy mix are expected in coming years. There are plans to build the first nuclear plant and a number of wind plants off the Baltic Sea.
Emissions of all pollutants have decreased since 2000 due to policies and measures introduced both at the EU and country levels. The significant drop in sulphur oxide (SOx) emissions resulted, among others, from the increasing number of power plants equipped with desulphurisation installations.
Since the late 1990s, the largest source of nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions has been the combustion of fuels in road transport, given the increasing vehicles fleet. Such emissions have been steadily increasing until 2017. The decrease in NOx emissions from 2017 is due to the increasing share of vehicles with the latest Euro quality standards and the improvement of plants technical parameters to meet more stringent EU standards. Emissions of fine particles (PM2.5) peaked in 2018 and have significantly decreased since. The main source of PM2.5 emissions remains the use of ineffective heat sources, mainly solid fuel boilers, often of poor quality.
Between 2000 and 2024 emissions of NMVOC decreased, mainly due to a significant decrease in the consumption of ethanol used in the production of cosmetics and disinfectants.
Emission reductions went on par with air quality improvements. The level of exposure of the population to PM2.5 concentrations decreased over time. However, it remains above the guideline value of 5 µg/m3 recommended by the World Health Organisation.
Emissions from fuel combustion processes outside industry (mainly related to heating of individual buildings) is the major contributor to PM2.5 concentration. The effective implementation of the Clean Air program initiated in 2018 should contribute to reduce air pollution emissions from the communal and housing sector.
With only around 1 500 m3 per person per year of renewable freshwater resources, Poland is water-poor and faces uneven seasonal and spatial distribution of water supply. Its total gross abstractions represent around 15% of total renewable freshwater resources, making it a moderately water stressed country. Per person abstractions for public supply have fluctuated in recent years but overall decreased since 2000 and remain low by OECD standards.
Although the rate of connection to wastewater treatment plants is, at 76%, relatively low by OECD standards, the share of advanced treatment has increased significantly since 2000. New municipal wastewater treatment plants have been built and investments planned.
At around 367 kg per person per year, municipal waste generation is well below the OECD average. Poland has also made good progress in recent years regarding waste management. While nearly all municipal waste was sent to landfill in 2000, more than half of it is now recovered through recycling, composting or incineration with energy recovery1.
After increasing during 2000-12, per person domestic material consumption has stabilised over the past decade. Its level is slightly higher than material footprint. Material productivity is lower than the OECD average. Like in most countries, non-metallic minerals make up the bulk of materials consumed, but fossil carriers, mostly coal, make up a non-negligible share.
Agriculture plays a dominant role in Poland's land use, with arable lands taking up the largest portion of the territory. Land use changes over the last ten years have been modest. A gradual decline in arable land, orchards, meadows and pastures has been observed, in favour of increasingly urbanised and built-up land, as well as forests.
Poland is a country with a high biodiversity thanks to its climate (oceanic and continental air masses), a favourable geographical location (without natural barriers), a diversified geological structure, and a varied topography and hydrographic system. Being located in the centre of Europe, Poland is intersected by migration routes of birds and bats.
The forests, ranging from coniferous to deciduous and mixed ones, are inhabited by a wealth of fauna and flora, including the Białowieża forest, widely regarded as Europe’s last large, continuous and well-preserved primeval lowland forest. The network of waters and wetlands, including lakes, rivers and ponds, provides key habitats for waterfowl, fish and aquatic plants. Meadows and pastures, often of agricultural origin, play a key role in biodiversity protection.
It is estimated that there are approximately 57 000 species of fauna and flora (General Directorate for Environmental Protection, 2025). Some of them are classified as threatened, according to the classification of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), including 181 species of vertebrates (Institute of Nature Conservation. Polish Academy of Science, 2022), 236 species of invertebrates (Institute of Nature Conservation. Polish Academy of Sciences, 2004) and 765 plant species (Institute of Nature Conservation. Polish Academy of Sciences, 2016). The high share of threatened species among freshwater species is due to water pollution. The main pressures on species are loss of habitats, invasive alien species, urbanisation and large infrastructure, timber production and insufficient protection of ecologically valuable forests, and agricultural practices.
Protected areas have been stable for the past decade and cover almost 40% of country’s total area. At the end of 2025, protected areas in Poland consisted of more than 45 000 areas divided into nine types of nature protection with different protection regimes (General Directorate for Environmental Protection, 2025). The country already achieved the 2030 Global Biodiversity Framework target of protecting 30% of terrestrial and inland water areas. More efforts are needed to achieve the target to protect 30% of marine and coastal areas. The share of protected areas designated under strict management objectives (IUCN categories I and II) is very low.
This section shows selected policy instruments based on data available for most OECD countries and does not provide a complete overview of countries’ policy mix to achieve their environment-related objectives. Interpretation should consider the country specific context.
The share of environmentally related tax revenue in GDP is above the OECD and OECD-Europe averages, although it decreased in recent years as a result of a drop in energy revenue (from green certificates tradable permits). Most of these taxes are energy based, while transport represents a much smaller share. Pollution and resource-based taxes are negligible.
Environmental fees revenue is used, among others, to finance the National Fund for Environmental Protection and Water Management and its regional branches, which are responsible for supporting environmentally related projects, e.g. on water management, waste management, sustainable land management, renewable energy sources, nature protection and environmental education.
In total, 79.9% of GHG emissions in Poland were subject to a positive Net Effective Carbon Rate2 (ECR) in 2023. Explicit carbon prices in Poland consist of ETS permit prices and carbon taxes, which cover 55.6% of GHG emissions in CO2 equivalent. With roughly 48.6% of total GHG emissions, coverage is largest for ETS. Fuel excise taxes, an implicit form of carbon pricing, covered 29.2% of emissions in 2023. About 68% of GHG emissions have a Net ECR above EUR 60 per tonne of CO2 equivalent, a mid-range estimate of current carbon costs. Net Effective Carbon Rates are highest in the road transport sector, which accounts for 17.6% of the country's total GHG emissions. The Net ECR is on average positive in all sectors (OECD, 2024).
After a spectacular increase during 2006-16, the share of environmentally related government research and development (R&D) budget in total budget has returned to a negligible level. The decrease in energy R&D funding compared to the 2010-2015 period is due to the implementation schedule of priorities within the National Research Program. Energy was one of the seven main R&D priorities during that period, with the largest projects initiated between 2010 and 2015. In subsequent years, the focus shifted to projects from other priority areas. However, in September 2021, the government launched a new strategic R&D program in the energy sector, with a budget of 800 million PLN for 2021-2029. Additionally, other R&D programs aligned with the European Green Deal have been initiated and will receive funding in the coming years.
The share of renewables in public energy research, development and demonstration (RD&D) has fluctuated and stabilised at around 15-20%.
Poland’s share of environmentally related inventions in total inventions remains close to the OECD averages.
Poland’s development co-operation focuses on its Eastern European partner countries, in particular Ukraine, and selected partner countries in Africa and the Middle East. Along with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), climate action and gender equality are cross-cutting priorities. Yet, after an increase in 2017-18, the share of bilateral official development assistance (ODA) targeting climate change has remained at very low levels, 4.8% in 2023-24. Similarly, the share targeting biodiversity has decreased during the last decade, to stand at 1.2% in 2023-24 (OECD, 2026).
References
General Directorate for Environmental Protection. (2025). Centralny Rejestr Form Ochrony Przyrody [Central Register of Protected Areas]. General Directorate for Environmental Protection. Retrieved from https://crfop.gdos.gov.pl/CRFOP/
General Directorate for Environmental Protection. (2025). Polska w liczbach [Poland in numbers]. General Directorate for Environmental Protection. Retrieved from Polska w liczbach [Poland in numbers]: https://www.gov.pl/web/gdos/polska-w-liczbach
Institute of Nature Conservation. Polish Academy of Science. (2022). Czerwona lista kręgowców Polski - wersja uaktualniona (okres 1 i 2 dekady XXI w.) [Red list of vertebrates in Poland - version updated (1st and 2nd decade of 21st century)]. Retrieved from https://panel.iop.krakow.pl/uploads/wydawnictwa_artykuly/3b904a0bd23e641f69c8f40be35324ccd670ad69.pdf
Institute of Nature Conservation. Polish Academy of Sciences. (2004). Polska czerwona księga zwierząt. Bezkręgowce [Polish red book of animals. Invertebrates]. Retrieved from https://www.iop.krakow.pl/pckz/default1949.html?nazwa=pods&je=pl
Institute of Nature Conservation. Polish Academy of Sciences. (2016). Polska czerwona lista paprotników i roślin kwiatowych [Polish red list of ferns and flowering plants]. Retrieved from https://bazawiedzy.umcs.pl/docstore/download/UMCS6ccd19ccc7454de19f06bc9883035491/PRLoPaFP_2016.pdf?entityType=book
OECD. (2024). Pricing Greenhouse Gas Emissions 2024: Gearing Up to Bring Emissions Down. OECD Series on Carbon Pricing and Energy Taxation, OECD Publishing, Paris. doi:10.1787/b44c74e6-en
OECD. (2026). Development Co-operation Profiles. OECD Publishing. Retrieved from https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/development-co-operation-profiles_04b376d7-en/poland_abc495f8-en.html
Poland. (2026). National Inventory Document . National Centre for Emission Management (KOBiZE). Retrieved from https://unfccc.int/documents/656247
Further reading
https://www.gov.pl/web/gios/raporty-o-stanie-srodowiska-w-polsce
older reports published in English: https://www.gios.gov.pl/en/state-of-the-environment/state-of-the-environment-reports
country profile for Poland in the EEA “Europe’s Environment 2025”: https://www.eea.europa.eu/en/europe-environment-2025/countries/poland
Environment
https://stat.gov.pl/en/topics/environment-energy/environment/environment-2025,1,17.html
Atlas of Environment
https://stat.gov.pl/en/topics/environment-energy/environment/atlas-of-environment,6,1.html
https://stat.gov.pl/en/topics/national-accounts/
Green economy indicators in Poland
Statistical Yearbook of the Republic of Poland
Statistical Yearbook of the Regions – Poland
Local Data Bank
https://bdl.stat.gov.pl/bdl/start
SDG indicators
Statistics for the SDGs – global indicators (National Reporting Platform SDG)
Poland on the way to SDGs. Report 2025
https://cdr.eionet.europa.eu/pl/eu/mmr/
The National Centre for Emissions Management (KOBiZE)
https://kobize.pl/en/article/national-emission-inventories/id/382/general-overview
National summary dashboards – Habitats Directive – Art.17
Article 17 web tool
https://nature-art17.eionet.europa.eu/article17/
Species and habitats monitoring
https://siedliska.gios.gov.pl/
Red list of Natura 2000 habitats of Poland
Article 12 web tool
https://nature-art12.eionet.europa.eu/article12/
The red list of birds in Poland
https://otop.org.pl/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/CLPP_2020_fin.pdf
Monitoring of Polish Birds
https://monitoringptakow.gios.gov.pl/strona-glowna.html
Monitoring of Polish Birds – maps
https://monitoringptakow.gios.gov.pl/PM-GIS/
Statistics Poland – Environment
https://stat.gov.pl/en/topics/environment-energy/environment/environment-2025,1,17.html
Protected areas in Poland – maps
https://geoserwis.gdos.gov.pl/mapy/
Protected areas in Poland – database
Statistics Poland – Energy
https://stat.gov.pl/en/topics/environment-energy/energy/energy-2025,1,13.html
Statistics Poland – Energy from renewable sources
Statistics Poland – Energy efficiency in Poland
Statistics Poland – Consumption of fuels and energy carriers
Statistics Poland – Energy consumption in households
Polish Circular Hotspot
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← 1. Break in time series in 2023: until 2022, municipal waste processing data was partially estimated. Since 2023, companies report directly through a survey, thus eliminating the need for estimates.
← 2. Effective Carbon Rate (ECR) is the sum of fuel excise taxes, carbon taxes and tradeable permits that effectively put a price on carbon emissions. The Net ECR equals the ECR minus fossil fuel subsidies that decrease pre-tax fossil fuel prices.