Environment at a Glance Country Notes: Reader's Guide

There is no universal approach for normalising indicators; different denominators are used depending on the message to be conveyed. Indicators should be interpreted in the appropriate country context and in conjunction with complementary indicators.

It should also be borne in mind that:

• National averages can mask significant variations within countries.
• There can be uncertainty associated with the data sources and measurement methods on which the indicators rely. Differences between two indicator values are thus not always statistically significant. 

Indicators are presented by country and compared to OECD averages when possible. The following country aggregates are used:

• OECD America: Canada, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Mexico and the United States.
• OECD Asia-Oceania: Australia, Israel, Japan, Korea and New Zealand.
• OECD Europe: all European member countries of the OECD, i.e. Austria, Belgium, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, the Slovak Republic, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey and the United Kingdom.
• OECD: all member countries of the OECD, i.e. countries of OECD America plus countries of OECD Asia-Oceania and countries of OECD Europe.

Data presented in the country notes build on various OECD and other international sources published in OECD Data Explorer. Update timelines vary from one dataset to another. Differences between the indicators presented here and national data may arise for several reasons:

• Timeliness: Lags may occur between the production of national data and its transmission to the OECD or another international organisations. Additional delay can result from the treatment and validation process prior to publication.
• Methodologies: Differences may also stem from the use of definitions or measurement methods that differ between national and international sources. Moreover, countries may rely on different data providers, each reporting to different organisations.

The graphics presented in the country notes are directly linked to OECD Data Explorer and are updated at the same time as the underlying dataset. The text accompanying the graphics is updated once a year, and may thus not reflect the latest updates.

Legends are interactive and clicking on them enables users to include/exclude a time series from the graphic. Definitions can be accessed by clicking on the i (top left corner of the graphics); data or images can be downloaded from the top right button of the graphic.

Gross Domestic Product: Gross Domestic Product (GDP) measures market and government production and the associated economic activity. However, as a “gross” measure, no account is taken of the depreciation neither of produced assets nor of the depletion of natural assets. Real GDP is expressed at constant 2020 USD PPP prices. The main source for the GDP series is the Gross domestic product dataset of Aggregate National Accounts of the OECD National Accounts Statistics Database.

Population: Population is the de facto population in a country, area or region as of 1 July of the year indicated. The main sources of data are the OECD and the World Population Prospects database of the United Nations.

Population density: Expressed as the number of inhabitants per square kilometre of total country area (persons/km²).

Carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions from energy use (production-based CO₂ emissions): Refers to gross direct CO₂ emissions from fossil fuel combustion, emitted within the national territory. Human-caused emissions from other sources are not included. Included are CO₂ emissions from combustion of coal, oil, natural gas and other fuels. Emissions from oil held in international marine and aviation bunkers are excluded. CO₂ removal by sinks, indirect emissions from land use changes and indirect effects through interactions in the atmosphere are not taken into account.

The estimates of CO₂ emissions are obtained from the IEA’s database of CO₂ emissions from fuel combustion. Default methods and emission factors are given in the Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories.

Production-based greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by source: GHG emissions refer to the sum of GHGs that have direct effects on climate change and are considered responsible for a major part of global warming: carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄), nitrous oxide (N₂O), chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) and nitrogen trifluoride (NF₃).

Greenhouse gas emission estimates are divided into main sectors, which are groupings of related processes, sources and sinks:

1. Energy (energy industries, manufacturing industries, transport and other energy uses)
2. Industrial Processes and Product Use (IPPU)
3. Agriculture
4. Land use change and forestry
5. Waste
6. Other (e.g., indirect emissions from nitrogen deposition from non-agriculture sources).

They refer to GHGs emitted within the national territory and exclude international transactions of emission reduction units or certified emission reductions. The main sources of data are National Inventory Submissions to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC, CRF tables), and replies to the OECD State of the Environment Questionnaire.

Greenhouse gas (GHG) footprints (production- and demand-based GHG emissions): they include production-based and demand-based emissions according to the residence principle. The estimates are obtained from the OECD dataset on Greenhouse gas Footprint Indicators, derived from combining the 2023 edition of the OECD Inter-Country Input-Output (ICIO) Tables and other Greenhouse Gas Emissions databases, such as Air Emissions Accounts (AEA). The indicators encompass GHG emissions embodied in domestic and international production networks and emissions associated with final demand patterns from purchasers’ price perspectives, including emissions from both fuel combustion and non-fuel combustion sources (e.g. feedstocks, reductants, and non-energy products).

Total energy supply: Total energy supply (TES) is expressed in thousand tonnes of oil equivalent and as an index with values in 2000 normalised to equal 100. TES comprises production + imports - exports - international marine bunkers - international aviation bunkers ± stock changes. Data on Total Energy Supply are obtained from the World Energy Statistics Dataset in the IEA World Energy Statistics and Balances Database.

Renewable energy supply as percentage of TES: Renewable energy supply is calculated as a share of renewable sources in TES (expressed as percentage). Renewables include hydro, geothermal, solar (thermal and PV), wind and tide/wave/ocean energy, as well as combustible renewables (solid biomass, liquid biomass, biogas) and waste (renewable municipal waste).

Renewable electricity as percentage of total electricity generation: Renewable electricity is calculated as a share of renewables in electricity production (expressed as percentage). Renewables include hydro, geothermal, solar (thermal and PV), wind and tide/wave/ocean energy, as well as combustible renewables (solid biomass, liquid biomass, biogas) and waste (renewable municipal waste).

Fine particulates (PM_2.5) emissions: National man-made emissions only. Emissions from international transport (aviation, marine) are excluded. Fine particulates (PM_2.5) refer to suspended particulates smaller than 2.5 microns in diameter that are capable of penetrating very deep into the respiratory tract and causing severe health effects. Fine particulates are potentially more toxic than small particulates (PM₁₀) and may include heavy metals and toxic organic substances.

Nitrogen oxides (NO_x) emissions: National man-made emissions only. Emissions from international transport (aviation, marine) are excluded.

Non-methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOC) emissions: National man -made emissions only. Data refer to volatile organic compounds (VOC) other than methane (CH4). Data are expressed as an index with values in 2000 normalised to equal 100.

Sulphur oxides: (SO_x) emissions: National man -made emissions only. Emissions from international transport (aviation, marine) are excluded. Data are expressed as an index with values in 2000 normalised to equal 100.

Air pollutant emissions data come from three sources:

• The Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution (LRTAP Convention), UNECE-EMEP emissions Database.
• National Inventory Submissions to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC, CRF tables).
• Replies to the OECD Questionnaire on the State of the Environment.

Population exposure to fine particulates (PM_2.5) emissions: Expressed as the mass of PM_2.5 per cubic meter (m³). Calculated as the mean annual outdoor PM_2.5 concentration weighted by population living in the relevant area, that is, the concentration level, expressed in μg/m³, to which a typical resident is exposed throughout a year. See detailed methodology at: https://doi.org/10.1787/5jlsqs8g1t9r-en.

The guideline set by the World Health Organization (WHO) for PM_2.5 is that annual mean concentrations should not exceed 5 micrograms per cubic meter (µ/m³), representing the lower range over which adverse health effects have been observed. The WHO has also recommended guideline values for emissions of PM_2.5 from burning fuels in households.

The population exposure estimates presented here reflect pollution from combustion sources as well as airborne mineral dust, or desert dust. The underlying estimates of PM_2.5 concentrations, are based on a global calibration function. This means that there is the potential to overestimate or underestimate concentrations in some locations. For some applications, population exposure estimates based directly on ground-based measurements may be more suitable than this hybrid approach (e.g. number of exceedances, daily or seasonal maxima, acute as opposed to chronic exposure), however, the true level of population exposure is unknown and mean annual estimates based primarily on data from ground-based measurements are not necessarily more accurate than those produced from the approach presented here. This is particularly relevant where national or regional estimates are based on a relatively low-density network of ground-based monitoring stations, stations that produce relatively few valid measurements, or where stations are not optimally located.

Abstraction intensity for public supply: Public water supply refers to water supplied by economic units engaged in collection, purification and distribution of water (including desalting of sea water, and excluding treatment of wastewater solely in order to prevent pollution). It corresponds to division 36 (NACE/ISIC), independently of the sector involved, but excluding systems operation for agricultural irrigation such as irrigation canals. Deliveries of water from one public supply undertaking to another are excluded.

Connection rates to public wastewater treatment plants: The percentage of the national population connected to a wastewater treatment plant. “Connected” means actually connected to a wastewater treatment plant through a public sewage network. It does not take into account independent private facilities (e.g. septic tanks), used where public systems are not economic.

• Primary treatment: physical and/or chemical process involving settlement of suspended solids, or other process in which the BOD5 of the incoming wastewater is reduced by at least 20% before discharge and the total suspended solids are reduced by at least 50%.
• Secondary treatment: process generally involving biological treatment with a secondary settlement or other process, with a BOD removal of at least 70% and a COD removal of at least 75%.
• Tertiary treatment: (additional to secondary treatment) of nitrogen and/or phosphorous and/or any other pollutant affecting the quality or a specific use of water (microbiological pollution, colour, etc.). The different possible treatment efficiencies cannot be added and are exclusive.

Freshwater resources: the data refer to long-term annual averages over a period of 30 consecutive years.

Gross water abstractions: Freshwater removed from any source, either permanently or temporarily in a given period of time. Mine water and drainage water are included. Water abstractions from precipitation (e.g. rain water collected for use) should be included under abstractions from surface water. Water used for hydroelectricity generation is an in-situ use and should be excluded (N.B. in the System of Economic and Environmental Accounts Central Framework it is included in abstractions, and the same water is then recorded under returned water).

Intensity of use of freshwater resources (or water stress): Is expressed as gross freshwater abstraction in percentage of total available renewable freshwater resources (including inflows from neighbouring countries) or in percentage of internal freshwater resources (i.e. precipitation - evapotranspiration). Water used for hydroelectricity generation (which is considered an in-situ use) is excluded. The following stress levels can be distinguished:

• Low (less than 10%): generally there is no major stress on the available resources.
• Moderate (10% to 20%): indicates that water availability issues are becoming a constraint on development and significant investments are needed to provide adequate supplies.
• Medium-high (20% to 40%): implies the management of both supply and demand, and conflicts among competing uses need to be resolved.
• High (more than 40%): indicates serious scarcity, and usually shows unsustainable water use, which can become a limiting factor in social and economic development.

Composting: Biological process that submits biodegradable waste to anaerobic or aerobic decomposition, and that results in a product that is recovered.

Domestic material consumption (DMC): Refers to the amount of materials directly used in an economy, or the apparent consumption of materials. Domestic material consumption is computed as domestic extraction used minus exports plus imports.

DMC mix: Domestic material consumption of non-metallic minerals includes domestic extraction and trade of minerals used in industry and construction, plus trade of derived processed products; biomass includes domestic production from agriculture, forestry and fisheries, plus trade of raw and processed products from these sectors; fossil fuels include coal, crude oil, natural gas, peat and traded-derived products; and metals include domestic extraction of metal ores, plus trade of metal ores, metal concentrates, refined metals, products mainly made of metals, and scrap.

Incineration with/without energy recovery: comprises the use of waste as fuel, mainly in power plants and cement kilns, and the thermal treatment of waste for disposal with the aim of reducing the volume and/or the hazardousness of the waste (e.g. incineration of health care waste).

Landfilling: Landfilling is defined as a deposit of waste into or onto land, including specially engineered landfill, and temporary storage of over one year on permanent sites. The definition covers both landfill in internal sites (i.e. where a generator of waste is carrying out its own waste disposal at the place of generation) and in external sites.

Material footprint: Expressed in tonnes per person. The material footprint is the global allocation of raw material extracted to meet the final demand of an economy, thus including the raw materials used in the production of imported products. It is a model-based estimate that can deviate from those published by other international institutions or by the countries themselves.

Material productivity: Expressed in USD/Kg; domestic material consumption productivity is a measure of the effectiveness with which an economy employs directly materials extracted from the natural environment (physical inputs) to generate economic value (monetary outputs).

Municipal waste: Waste collected by or on behalf of municipalities. It includes household waste originating from households (i.e. waste generated by the domestic activity of households) and similar waste from small commercial activities, office buildings, institutions such as schools and government buildings, and small businesses that treat or dispose of waste at the same facilities used for municipally collected waste.

Recycling: Recycling is defined as any reprocessing of material in a production process that diverts it from the waste stream, except reuse as fuel. Both reprocessing as the same type of product, and for different purposes are included. Direct recycling within industrial plants at the place of generation are excluded.

Land use: Land area excludes inland water bodies (i.e. major rivers and lakes).

• Arable land refers to all land generally under rotation, whether for temporary crops (double-cropped areas are counted only once) or meadows, or left fallow (less than five years). These data are not meant to indicate the amount of land that is potentially cultivable.
• Permanent crops are those that occupy land for a long period and do not have to be planted for several years after each harvest (e.g. cocoa, coffee, rubber). Land under vines and trees and shrubs producing fruits, nuts and flowers, such as roses and jasmine, is so classified, as are nurseries (except those for forest trees, which should be classified under "forests and other wooded land").
• Arable and permanent crop land is defined as the sum of arable area and land under permanent crops.
• Permanent meadows and pastures refer to land used for five years or more to grow herbaceous forage crops, either cultivated or growing wild (wild prairie or grazing land).
• Forest refers to land spanning more than 0.5 hectare (0.005 km2) and a canopy cover of more than 10 percent, or trees able to reach these thresholds in situ. This includes land from which forests have been cleared but that will be reforested in the foreseeable future. This excludes woodland or forest predominantly under agricultural or urban land use and used only for recreation purposes.
• Other areas include built-up and related land, wet open land, and dry open land, with or without vegetation cover. Areas under inland water bodies (rivers and lakes) are excluded.

The data presented are taken from the FAOSTAT Land Use database. The definitions used in different countries may show variations.

Threatened species: The number of threatened species compared to the number of known or assessed species. “Threatened” refers to the categories of “endangered”, “critically endangered” and “vulnerable” species (i.e. species in danger of extinction and species soon likely to be in danger of extinction), as defined by the IUCN.

Terrestrial and marine protected areas as percentage of total land and of exclusive economic zone (EEZ). Protected areas are areas of land and/or sea especially dedicated to the protection and maintenance of biological diversity and of natural and associated cultural resources, and managed through legal or other effective means. The data refer to the World Conservation Union (IUCN) management categories I-VI. National classifications may differ. The data cover areas under the management categories:

• I (strict nature reserves and wilderness areas),
• II (national parks),
• III (natural monument or feature),
• IV (habitat or species management area),
• V (protected landscape or seascape) and
• VI (protected area with sustainable use of natural resources),
• Areas nationally/internationally designated without any IUCN category assigned are also included. This category includes regional and international designations such as the European Natura 2000 network.

In general, under the 1982 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea, the EEZ of a country extends 200 nautical miles from the coastline, or to the mid-point between coastlines where the EEZ of different countries would otherwise overlap.

Environmentally-related taxation: Environmentally related taxes include taxes to (i) energy products for transport purposes (petrol and diesel) and for stationary purposes (fossil fuels and electricity); (ii) motor vehicles and transport (one-off import or sales taxes, recurrent taxes on registration or road use and other transport taxes); (iii) waste management (final disposal, packaging and other waste-related product taxes); (iv) ozone-depleting substances and (v) other environmentally related taxes.

The indicators on environmentally related taxes should be used in combination with information on the economic and taxation structure of each country. Note that revenues from fees and charges, such as water abstraction or waste collection charges, are not included as environmentally related tax revenue. Missing values can sometimes lead to visible 'breaks' in auto generated charts. For more information, please refer to the source data and metadata on OECD Data Explorer.

Net effective carbon rates: The indicator presents the shares (in %) of CO₂ emissions from energy use priced above EUR 0, 30, 60, 120 per tonne of CO₂. Effective Carbon Rates (ECR) include fuel excise taxes, carbon taxes and tradable emission permit prices.

Environment-related technology (patents): The number of environment-related inventions, by residence of the inventor(s). Indicators of technology development are constructed by measuring inventive activity using patent data across a wide range of environment-related technological domains, including environmental management, climate change mitigation and adaptation technologies, and sustainable ocean economy. The counts used here include only higher-value inventions (with patent family size ≥ 2, i.e. inventions filed for protection in at least two jurisdictions). A patent family is defined as the set of all patent applications protecting the same ‘priority' (as defined by the Paris Convention), also referred to as ‘simple patent family'.

Environmental technology development (patents): The number of environment-related inventions is expressed as a percentage of all domestic inventions (in all technologies). Changes in ‘environmental’ technological innovation can then be interpreted in relation to innovation in general.

Environment-related government R&D budget as percentage of total government R&D: Government budget for R&D refers to Government Budget Appropriations or Outlays for Research and Development (GBAORD), that measure the funds that government allocate to R&D to meet various socio-economic objectives. These objectives are defined using the Nomenclature for the Analysis and Comparison of Scientific Programmes and Budgets (NABS 2007) classification. Estimates of environment-related government RD&D are reported from the funder perspective as budget (rather than as expenditure from the performer perspective).This indicator is based on the socioeconomic objective “environment” which includes research directed at the control of pollution and on developing monitoring facilities to measure, eliminate and prevent pollution. It is expressed as a percentage of all-purpose GBAORD. Data on government expenditure regarding environment-related R&D are obtained from the Government budget appropriations or outlays for R&D (GBAORD) Dataset of the OECD Science, Technology and R&D Statistics Database. Additional information on the methodology for internationally harmonised collection and use of R&D statistics can be found in the Frascati Manual.

Fossil fuel support measures: The definition of support encompasses policies that can induce changes in the relative prices of fossil fuels in the support estimate level. Support measures refer to budgetary transfers and tax expenditures that provide a benefit or preference for fossil-fuel production or consumption.

The range of fuels covered by the Inventory comprises both primary fossil-fuel commodities (e.g. crude oil, natural gas, coal, and peat) and secondary refined or processed products (e.g. diesel fuel, gasoline, kerosene, and coal briquettes). Primary fuels include in particular those fossil fuels that are extracted from unconventional sources, such as oil extracted from bituminous sands, shale-based natural gas, or coal‑bed methane. Measures supporting the production or use of biofuels are not, however, included in the Inventory.

• Coal: including hard coal and briquettes, and peat.
• Natural gas: both liquefied and in the gaseous state.
• Petroleum: petroleum oils and oils obtained from bituminous minerals, crude oil as well as secondary refined or processed products (e.g. diesel fuel, gasoline, kerosene). 
• End-use electricity: electricity for end-user consumption of fossil-fuel origin. Support under end‑use electricity includes measures providing electricity tariffs below cost recovery or annual average‑cost pricing for electricity end-users and only includes the fossil-fuel component of the support (i.e. renewables and other non-fossil-fuel sources are excluded). Amounts related to cross-border power exchanges are also excluded due to the technical difficulties in determining the traded electricity’s ultimate generation origin. Support amounts benefiting fossil fuels as power generation inputs are aggregated under their respective fuel type, i.e. petroleum, coal or natural gas.

Renewable energy public RD&D budget as percentage of total energy public RD&D: Public budget directed at research, development and demonstration (RD&D) related to renewable energy, including hydro, geothermal, solar (thermal and PV), wind and tide/wave/ocean energy, as well as combustible renewables (solid biomass, liquid biomass, biogas) and other renewable energy technologies (all supporting measuring, monitoring and verifying technologies in renewable energies). It is expressed as a percentage of total energy RD&D public budget (directed at all forms of energy).

RD&D budgets of public entities (government, public agencies and state-owned enterprises, as defined by the IEA) cover research, development and demonstration related to the production, storage, transportation, distribution and rational use of all forms of energy. This covers basic research (oriented towards the development of energy-related technologies), applied research, experimental development and demonstration. Deployment is excluded from IEA Energy RD&D. Estimates of RD&D are reported from the funder perspective as budget (rather than as expenditure from the performer perspective).

Public energy RD&D includes all programmes that focus on: (i) sourcing energy; (ii) transporting energy; (iii) using energy; and (iv) enhancing energy efficiency. As collected by the IEA, these programmes concern one of the following seven main branches of energy-related developments: (i) energy efficiency; (ii) fossil fuels (oil, gas and coal); (iii) renewables; (iv) nuclear fission and fusion; (v) hydrogen and fuel cells; (vi) other power and storage techniques; and (vii) other cross-cutting technologies or research.

Data on public RD&D are obtained from the RD&D Budget Dataset from the IEA Energy Technology RD&D Statistics Database.

The energy RD&D data collected by the IEA should not be confused with the data on government budget appropriations or outlays on R&D (GBAORD) collected by the OECD Directorate for Science, Technology and Industry for the socio-economic objective “Production, distribution and rational utilisation of energy”, as defined in the Frascati Manual, which is a narrower concept.

Official Development Assistance (ODA): The ODA section draws on the data published in the Aid Activities Targeting Global Environmental Objectives dataset within the OECD’s Creditor Reporting System (CRS). The data are collected annually on a calendar year basis (as opposed to fiscal year). To smooth year-to-year fluctuations, commonly two-year averages are applied. All calculations follow a common methodology agreed by DAC members since 2008.

Environmentally related ODA is presented as a percentage of total bilateral allocable ODA. Aid in support of the environment and the Rio Conventions includes activities tagged with either the “environment marker” or any of the four Rio markers: biodiversity, desertification, climate change mitigation and climate change adaptation.

A single CRS activity can address several policy objectives simultaneously. This reflects mutually reinforcing nature of the Rio Conventions and environmental objectives. For example, the same activity can be marked for climate change mitigation and biodiversity.

The ODA section includes only data on bilateral commitments, with calculations made at the individual project level to prevent double counting. Due to limitations in reporting, the marker-based results represent an approximate quantification of aid dedicated to a policy objective, rather than a precise number.

• Aid commitments identified using the environment marker (both the principal or significant objectives) include activities that are intended to improve the physical and/or biological environment of the recipient country, or to integrate environmental concerns with a range of development objectives through institution building and/or capacity development. The environment marker was introduced in 1992.
• Climate change mitigation-related aid is defined as activities that strengthen the resilience of countries to climate change and that contribute to stabilisation of GHG concentrations by promoting reduction of emissions or enhancement of GHG sequestration. The climate change mitigation marker was introduced in 1998.
• Climate change adaptation-related aid, approved by OECD-DAC members in December 2009, is defined as aid in support of climate change adaptation and complements the climate change mitigation marker, thus allowing presentation of a more complete picture of aid in support of developing countries’ efforts to address climate change. The climate change adaptation marker was introduced in 2010.

The updating frequency and timelines vary from one dataset to another and hence from one indicator and graphic to another. The graphics are updated automatically as new data become available in OECD Data Explorer. The updating frequency and timelines of the OECD Data Explorer datasets depend in turn on the OECD data collection processes and on the availability of updates in the primary data sources. Work in countries and at international level to improve the timeliness of major environmental data continues.

Context

• OECD, "Green growth", OECD Environment Statistics (database), https://doi.org/10.1787/data-00665-en.

Climate change

• IEA, "Detailed CO₂ estimates", IEA CO₂ Emissions from Fuel Combustion Statistics: Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Energy (database), https://doi.org/10.1787/data-00429-en.
• IEA, "World energy statistics", IEA World Energy Statistics and Balances (database), https://doi.org/10.1787/data-00510-en.
• OECD, "Air and climate: Greenhouse gas emissions Inventories", OECD Environment Statistics (database), https://doi.org/10.1787/data-00594-en.
• OECD, "Green growth", OECD Environment Statistics (database), https://doi.org/10.1787/data-00665-en.
• OECD, “Greenhouse gas footprint indicators”, OECD Greenhouse Gas Footprints (GHGFP): Emissions embodied in bilateral trade (database), https://data-explorer.oecd.org/?tm=GHGFP&snb=5.

Air quality

• OECD, "Air and climate: Air emissions - Air pollutants Inventories", OECD Environment Statistics (database), https://doi.org/10.1787/data-00598-en.
• OECD, "Air and climate: Exposure to air pollution", OECD Environment Statistics (database), https://doi.org/10.1787/96171c76-en.
• Mackie, A., I. Haščič and M. Cárdenas Rodríguez (2016), "Population Exposure to Fine Particles: Methodology and Results for OECD and G20 Countries", OECD Green Growth Papers, No. 2016/02, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/5jlsqs8g1t9r-en.

Freshwater resources

• OECD, "Biodiversity, water and ecosystems: Freshwater - abstractions", OECD Environment Statistics (database), https://doi.org/10.1787/data-00602-en.
• OECD, "Biodiversity, water and ecosystems: Wastewater - connection rates to treatment", OECD Environment Statistics (database), https://doi.org/10.1787/data-00604-en.

Waste and materials management

• OECD, "Resource efficiency and circular economy: Waste - Municipal waste: generation and treatment", OECD Environment Statistics (database), https://doi.org/10.1787/data-00601-en.
• OECD, "Resource efficiency and circular economy: Material flow accounts", OECD Environment Statistics (database), https://doi.org/10.1787/data-00695-en.

Biodiversity

• OECD, "Biodiversity, water and ecosystems: Threatened species", OECD Environment Statistics (database), https://doi.org/10.1787/data-00605-en.
• OECD, "Biodiversity, water and ecosystems: Protected areas", OECD Environment Statistics (database), https://doi.org/10.1787/5fa661ce-en.
• OECD, "Land and forest: Land use", OECD Environment Statistics (database), https://doi.org/10.1787/8ecc9c9c-en.

Policy instruments

• OECD, "DAC 1: Flows by provider", OECD International Development Statistics (database), http://data-explorer.oecd.org/s/1xn.
• OECD, “Development: Official Development Assistance - Aid activities targeting global environmental objectives”, OECD International Development Statistics (database).
• OECD, "Environmental policy: Environmentally related tax revenue", OECD Environment Statistics (database), https://doi.org/10.1787/df563d69-en.
• OECD, "Green growth", OECD Environment Statistics (database), https://doi.org/10.1787/data-00665-en.
• OECD, Inventory of Support Measures for Fossil Fuels (database), https://www.oecd.org/en/topics/sub-issues/fossil-fuel-support.html.
• OECD, “Technology and innovation: Patents - indicators”, OECD Environment Statistics (database), http://data-explorer.oecd.org/s/292.
• OECD, “Technology and innovation: Patents - technology development”, OECD Environment Statistics (database), http://data-explorer.oecd.org/s/291.
• OECD, "Taxation: Tax and environment: Carbon pricing score", OECD Taxation Statistics, https://doi.org/10.1787/108c55c1-en.