This report assesses the state of adult learning across OECD countries, exploring trends in participation rates and modes of delivery of adult learning. It highlights differences between socio-demographic groups in their propensity to participate in adult learning, identifies groups that are most vulnerable to encountering barriers to learning, and makes policy recommendations to improve the accessibility and effectiveness of adult learning. Despite growing consensus on the importance of lifelong learning for economic resilience and individual opportunity, participation in adult education is stagnating or even declining in many countries. While participation gaps are narrowing in many cases, this is often due to falling participation among adults who had previously been more likely to participate rather than rising rates among groups who were traditionally less likely to do so. Furthermore, much of today’s adult training is compliance- or safety-driven and of quite short duration; this may be insufficient to meet the upskilling and reskilling needs of fast-changing labour markets. Drawing on new data from the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC), this report will be of interest to policymakers, education providers and employers seeking to design more inclusive, responsive adult learning systems that support both individuals and labour markets in transition.
Trends in Adult Learning
Abstract
Executive Summary
Participation in adult learning varies widely across countries, despite shared ambitions to widen access and achieve common goals. On average, around 40% of adults in OECD countries participate in learning each year, although national figures range from 58% in Finland and Norway to 13% in Korea. English‑speaking and Nordic countries tend to have the highest levels of participation.
However, participation appears to be falling in many countries, which is a worrying trend given the critical role of adult learning in adapting to economic and technological change. Only Ireland and Estonia have seen significant growth in adult learning participation – around 5 percentage points – driven by increased participation in non-formal job-related learning. Meanwhile, countries such as Korea and Israel have seen significant declines.
While participation gaps between socio‑economic groups persist, some are narrowing – not because disadvantaged groups are participating more, but because declines are steepest among those who once led in participation: men, high earners and highly-educated workers in skilled roles. For example, the gender gap has effectively closed due to a sharper drop among men than women. These shifts underscore a concerning trend: even as gaps narrow, overall participation is declining. This reinforces the need for targeted policies that remove structural barriers and expand access for those who would benefit most.
In countries where participation in adult learning is falling, average literacy proficiency is also more likely to have fallen. While causality cannot be established, the relationship points to a broader issue: limited access to learning opportunities may undermine adults’ ability to maintain and develop information-processing skills, while at the same time low levels of information-processing skills may function as a barrier to further learning. Together, these trends could suggest a mutually reinforcing cycle that risks skill deterioration over time.
Formal education is playing a diminishing role in adult learning. On average across OECD countries, just 8% of adults are enrolled in formal learning programmes, and participation has declined by more than two percentage points between survey cycles. In contrast, non-formal job-related learning remains more widespread, with 37% of adults participating on average. While non-formal learning has also declined slightly – by around 3 percentage points – this trend is not universal. Five countries or economies (England [UK], Estonia, the Flemish Region of Belgium, Ireland, and Italy) have recorded statistically significant increases in non-formal job-related learning. Notably, countries with strong performance in one form of learning tend to perform well in the other, suggesting that both are supported by robust, well‑developed adult learning systems. For instance, Finland, Norway, and the United States – countries where over half of adults participated in non-formal job-related learning in the 12 months prior to the survey – all have above‑average rates of participation in formal adult learning as well.
Tertiary qualifications dominate among adult learners in formal education. On average, 65% of formal adult learning is at tertiary level, ranging from 90% in Italy and the Czech Republic (Czechia) to less than 40% in Canada. In some countries, most formal adult learning is for post-secondary diplomas (e.g. Canada, the United States), while in others it is mainly second-chance education for adults (e.g. England, France – Spain). Health and safety training is the most common type of non-formal job-related learning (18% of all learning in this category). Although essential, its predominance – particularly in countries where it accounts for a quarter or more of all such learning (Finland, Ireland, Italy, Norway, the Slovak Republic) – suggests that an even smaller proportion of training is devoted to reskilling and upskilling to meet changing labour market needs.
A large proportion of non-formal job-related learning consists of very short activities. Some 42% of non‑formal job-related learning activities last one day or less, and a further 40% last between one day and one week. While short formats promote participation, over-reliance on them may limit the potential for deeper or more transformative reskilling. Modular learning pathways and stackable qualifications can help short courses to deliver meaningful skills gains over time.
Unemployed adults tend to engage in longer trainings. While for adults who are employed, just 15% of them participated in non-formal job-related learning activities that lasted for longer than a week, 38% of unemployed adults did so. Unemployed adults have fewer time constraints, as they are not balancing work‑related responsibilities. Additionally, the training needs of employed and unemployed adults often differ. Employed adults typically require short, targeted learning activities to acquire specific skills that complement their current job tasks. In contrast, unemployed adults may need more comprehensive training to develop a broader range of skills, making them more competitive in the job market and improving their employability.
Improving job performance and employability remains the main motivation for adult learners. This motivation has remained consistent over the last decade. Most adults find training useful. Almost half of all learners rate their training as very useful, and more than three‑quarters find it at least moderately useful. Countries where training is perceived as more useful tend to show higher participation.
However, half of all adults across the OECD on average neither participated nor wanted to participate in adult learning in the 12 months preceding the survey. For those who wanted to participate, barriers to participation remain widespread. One in four adults encountered a barrier to participating in adult learning in the 12‑month period preceding the survey. The most commonly cited reasons are lack of time – due to work or family commitments – and cost. These challenges are more acute for some groups. Women, younger people and those with higher levels of education are most likely to report barriers.
Employers play a critical role. Most training takes place in the workplace and during working hours; employer support is one of the strongest predictors of participation. The proportion of adult learning that takes place during working hours has increased in most countries since the first PIAAC cycle, although only significantly in some places. Partnerships between governments and business leaders can help to improve access to high quality, relevant learning opportunities. Training also supports workforce adaptation. More than half of adults whose jobs have changed in the last three years report having received training to help them adapt. Support is particularly common in workplaces undergoing technological change, such as the introduction of new digital systems.
Adult learning systems are under pressure. Despite widespread recognition of the need for lifelong skills development, participation remains low and uneven. Cost and time barriers continue to exclude those most in need, and public investment is still heavily skewed towards initial education.
Too often, training is reactive and focused on basic compliance rather than equipping workers with transferable skills for future roles. To meet the demands of fast-moving labour markets, policy must shift from fragmented, short-term solutions to comprehensive strategies that integrate funding, employer engagement and flexible delivery models. Only a bold, systemic reform agenda can ensure that all adults have meaningful opportunities to develop the skills they need to thrive.
