Global Perspectives on Triangular Co‑operation 2025

3. Triangular co-operation in Asia-Pacific: Regional dynamics, approaches and emerging opportunities

Abstract

This chapter explores the dynamics and evolving landscape of triangular co-operation from the springboard of Bandung into a century of emerging Asia with rapid economic growth. It looks at the diverse ecosystem of partners in the Asia-Pacific region, the distinct mechanisms in use, and the shape of regional, interregional and business collaboration. It argues for co-designed and locally led approaches and concludes with insights and lessons for future triangular partnerships.

“Unity in diversity” is almost a national motto for many countries in Asia-Pacific, including India where Jawaharlal Nehru popularised this old wisdom, as well as Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines and Singapore – all to illustrate the importance of respecting cultural diversity. There is also an old Indonesian proverb that says: “Wherever we go, we always need to value the colour of the sky”.1 In the context of triangular co-operation with Asia-Pacific, this insight is a reminder of the importance of respecting local contexts, needs and ways of working and embedding partnerships in cultural values and tradition. The great diversity of the Asia-Pacific region is reflected in the equally diverse approaches to triangular partnerships shaped by a strong emphasis on mutual learning, trust-building and adaptability – qualities that echo the spirit of this proverb as well as the strong tradition of South-South co-operation. With a dynamism that channels the rapid transformation that the development ecosystem is undergoing, Asian partners continue to engage through context-sensitive dialogue and flexible modalities, enabling solutions that are locally rooted yet globally connected.

The Asian Development Bank (ADB), media and academia often refer to this being the “Asian Century” (Asian Development Bank, 2011[1]) and forecast that the region would likely generate more than 50% of the world’s gross domestic product (GDP) by 2050. Much of Asia-Pacific has been a powerhouse of economic development and a major engine of global growth, fuelled by industrialisation, technological advancement and deeper integration into global markets in recent decades, and the region currently accounts for nearly a third of global GDP and more than half of the world’s population (OECD, 2023[2]; OECD, 2025[3]).

The Asian region is home to actors that, at different moments of history, have recognised themselves as emerging development partners and pioneers of triangular co-operation. Chapter 1, which discusses the future of triangular co-operation, proposes that regions are likely to play an enhanced role during these turbulent geopolitical times. Today, when development co-operation stands at a crossroad, the regional approach of the triangular co-operation in Asia has great resonance.

As noted in Chapter 2, in global datasets that capture triangular co-operation, such as TOSSD and the CRS, the Asia-Pacific region is in third place in terms of funding disbursed, though its triangular partnerships are likely being under-reported based on qualitative data that suggest a greater actual presence and activity.

Triangular co-operation reflects the region’s diverse development trajectories, the evolving roles of all partners, and regional integration efforts. Triangular co-operation is not only a way of sharing knowledge and resources but also a platform for learning, regional trust-building and technical diplomacy. This chapter draws on multiple interviews, informal exchanges and events with partners in the Asia-Pacific region.2 It outlines some characteristics of triangular co-operation in the Asia-Pacific region – who is engaged in its ecosystems of development actors, and how and why partners interact – by identifying emerging patterns and remaining challenges with an eye to opportunities for scaling up impact.

3.1. Triangular co-operation in the Asia-Pacific region: from Bandung into the Asian Century

Asia’s engagement in triangular co-operation dates back at least to the 1955 Bandung Conference hosted by Indonesia, where leaders of newly independent Asian and African countries agreed to support one another through exchanges of experts, training and technical assistance (Box ‎3.1). This consensus evolved into formal South-South and triangular co-operation frameworks backed by many international agreements such as the 1978 Buenos Aires Plan of Action (BAPA) for Promoting and Implementing Technical Cooperation among Developing Countries, which explicitly emphasises mutual technology exchange and knowledge sharing. In 2019, BAPA+40 included additional commitments to advance triangular co-operation.

Box ‎3.1. Indonesia’s approach to triangular co-operation

Indonesia has been a key partner in triangular co-operation in the Asia-Pacific region and Africa since hosting the Bandung Conference in 1955. It included triangular co-operation as part of its G20 Presidency in 2022 and actively engages with numerous development partners, bringing its technical expertise to triangular co-operation initiatives, particularly in least developed countries. Indonesia mainly uses five modalities – projects, joint programmes, capacity-building initiatives, dispatch of technical co-operation agents and humanitarian assistance – in priority sectors such as agriculture, fisheries, renewable energy, health, climate change, peace and security, and inclusive economic development. With these, it fosters solidarity, promotes innovation and mobilises additional resources, all by responding flexibly and enhancing ownership and learning through inclusive, demand-driven partnerships.

The governance of Indonesia’s South-South and triangular co-operation is shared in the National Coordination Team for South-South and Triangular Co‑operation (NCT), which consists of four key institutions: the Ministry of National Development Planning (Bappenas), the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Ministry of State Secretariat and the Ministry of Finance alongside the Indonesian Agency for International Development (AID). Together, these four ministries provide strategic guidance and policy direction for the country’s development co-operation agenda while relevant sectoral line ministries implement their activities. The establishment of Indonesian AID in 2019 marked a pivotal evolution of Indonesia’s co-operation architecture. The agency is tasked with managing and disbursing Indonesia’s South-South and triangular co-operation through the Indonesia AID Fund and working with partner countries through grants, technical assistance and humanitarian aid, particularly to target Asia, Africa and the Pacific regions.

Indonesia’s partnerships bridge language differences and geographic distance, address a variety of thematic specialties, and showcase sophisticated, multilayered triangular co-operation. An example is the collaboration with Germany for renewable energy mini-grids. Through this project, three different but interconnected partnerships were formed with actors on three continents that address specialised needs in the field of renewables: microhydro with Madagascar, grid integration with Nepal and geothermal with Kenya. This triangular, multilayered initiative is groundbreaking across multiple dimensions: It is, for example, the first project to facilitate access to the Indonesia AID Fund, leveraging triangular co-operation into stronger bilateral relations with Madagascar and with Kenya through the signing of memoranda of understanding (MoUs), a reverse of the usual pattern of bilateral relations catalysing triangular engagements. This project also is a good example of how the NCT exercises its role as the supervisory board of South-South and triangular co-operation in Indonesia.

Indonesia has been a strong partner of the Islamic Development Bank in the area of South-South and triangular co-operation mainly through the IsDB’s Reverse Linkage mechanism with the involvement of its private sector and state-owned companies (as demonstrated by a project with Kyrgyzstan that is described in Box ‎3.5 as well as Box 4.5 in Chapter 4).

Overall, Indonesia’s multistakeholder policy positions strongly foster horizontal partnerships beyond government institutions, drawing on the diverse expertise of its civil society, local community groups, academia and private sector.

Source: Interviews with representatives from Indonesia, the IsDB and Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ); OECD (2025[4]), Development Co-operation Profiles: Indonesia, https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/development-co-operation-profiles_04b376d7-en/indonesia_2de3e355-en.html.

By the early 2000s, many rising Asian economies also became providers of development co-operation, often taking up a dual role of providing and benefitting from development co-operation, and contributing to reshaping the development co-operation landscape (Chapter 1). New multilateral vehicles such as the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank (2016) and the BRICS3 New Development Bank (2014) emerged alongside expanded bilateral South-South co-operation. The 2030 Agenda reaffirmed South-South and triangular co-operation as a complement to traditional North-South co-operation and key to achieving the SDGs.

3.1.1. Actors and evolving roles in Asia-Pacific

The Asia-Pacific region is home to a complex ecosystem of development actors, paths, policies and partnerships. While the region is very diverse in its experiences, cultures, traditions and innovations, the development landscape features public and private stakeholders from both North and South that are united by shared goals and often by co-funded projects alongside a broad spectrum of subregional organisations and national systems with different development narratives, priorities and configurations of triangular co-operation. Most of these actors share the perspective that triangular co-operation needs to be driven by and for Asian partners, designed along Asian priorities, and used with a flexible and nimble approach that aligns with development and economic interests, taps into (digital) innovations, shares successful homegrown initiatives, integrates local knowledge, and respects cultural nuances (interview partner). The diverse approaches reflect the need for context-specific, demand-driven collaboration that blends technical assistance, policy dialogue and institutional learning.

Today, the Asian region hosts actors that could be identified with different traditions of co-operation and that perform all three roles in triangular initiatives (benefitting, pivotal and facilitating; see Chapter 1 and Figure 1.1). Japan, as a pioneer in triangular co-operation, is drawing on its extensive track record over the past decades to champion the modality in the region and beyond (Box ‎3.2).

Box ‎3.2. Japan renews and strengthens its approach to triangular co-operation

Japan’s involvement in trilateral development co-operation started as early as the 1950s. Since its first collaborations, Japan’s approach to triangular co-operation has evolved to adapt to the global context and changing development co-operation ecosystem. In recent years, Japan has approached triangular co-operation “as regional and global platforms for co-creation and mutual learning” (Yasunaga, Yamamoto and Murotani, 2024[5]).

Japan’s most recent Development Cooperation Charter (2023) places a partnership approach at the centre of its development co-operation, pledging to work with other countries “through equal partnerships” to achieve development goals and listing “co-creation of social values through dialogue and collaboration with developing countries” as one of the country’s basic policies (Japan Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 2023[6]).

The Japan International Cooperation Agency’s (JICA) partnership programs serve as platforms for triangular co-operation – as training programmes with regional reach, as projects, as the exchange of experts or as a mix of all of these modalities. To date, JICA has accepted approximately 85 000 participants for Third Country Training Programs and dispatched 2 000 Third Country Experts. Currently, 13 countries have signed Partnership Programs with JICA – 5 are in Latin America, 4 in Asia and 4 in MENA. Triangular co-operation has been fuelled by partners’ interest in sharing and replicating successful bilateral experiences in similar contexts and in implementing regional initiatives for capacity strengthening. Some draw on regional centres of excellence to share their knowledge. JICA is currently designing a platform to collect information on all its partnerships with centres of excellence and their partners. Japan is also integrating triangular partnerships in its bilateral co-operation programmes and projects.

In renewing some partnerships, Japan has introduced novel approaches to triangular co-operation that prioritise flexibility of processes and innovation, using the potential of regional platforms and inviting new actors to engage with triangular principles. In this environment, dialogue and activities around a more circular co-operation are evolving. For example, following their strong collaboration in the Partnership Program and the dispatch of Japanese volunteers to partner countries, Thai volunteers have come to work with local governments in Japan.

Examples of triangular co-operation with Japan can be found in every region and in all configurations. Following are more examples:

• a collaboration with the Cambodian Mine Action Centre to co-operate with Angola, Colombia, Iraq, Lao PDR and, more recently, Ukraine to share technology and know-how, which has led to the co-creation of mine action equipment and methodologies with various partners and with support from JICA (Yasunaga, Yamamoto and Murotani, 2024[5])

• a multiregional initiative with Malaysia to share methods for coexistence between ecosystem conservation and local communities in a national park with Botswana, Cambodia, the Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand and Viet Nam.

• a partnership with Türkiye to deliver training for African health professionals, with Türkiye drawing on its healthcare system improvements to serve as a regional knowledge provider with JICA’s support

• the Asia-Africa Knowledge Co-creation Program that emerged from the Tokyo International Conference for African Development process as a space for knowledge sharing and joint generation of solutions and approaches to support African development efforts (for example on rural community development and health) (Japan International Cooperation Agency, 2018[7])

• support to development co-operation agencies in countries such as Malaysia and Kazakhstan and across Latin America, supporting their triangular partnerships, which has allowed these agencies to draw on their national strengths and experiences to promote knowledge sharing and human resource development with other developing countries, thereby greatly expanding the reach of triangular co-operation.

JICA’s approach to triangular co-operation builds on the local expertise and contextual knowledge of partner countries while providing Japanese financial, technical and quality assurance support. These programmes prioritise co-creation, horizontal learning, co-implementation, mutual benefit and sustainability, and the strengthening of institutional relationships across regions.

Source: Information shared in interviews with JICA; Yasunaga, Yamamoto and Murotani (2024[5]), "Japan’s approach to South-South and Triangular Cooperation: A platform for co-creation and mutual learning", https://ris.org.in/newsletter/dcr/2024/paper3.pdf; Japan International Cooperation Agency (2018[7]), JICA's Support for South-South and Triangular Cooperation, https://www.jica.go.jp/Resource/activities/schemes/ssc/ku57pq00001wlrnp-att/pamphlet_en_01.pdf; Japan Ministry of Foreign Affairs (2023[6]), "Development Cooperation Charter and Japan’s development cooperation", www.mofa.go.jp/mofaj/gaiko/oda/files/100783448.pdf.

Analysing development co-operation from the perspective of triangular co-operation shows that many developing countries, regardless of their income level, have knowledge to share and are making efforts to do so. In Asia-Pacific, Bangladesh, Cambodia, Lao PDR, Myanmar, Nepal and Timor-Leste, Pacific Island states and other least developed and low-income Asian countries have welcomed triangular partnerships (Box ‎3.3). They have taken on various roles in these, sometimes as main beneficiaries of the knowledge exchange and sometimes as sources of knowledge and tested practices for specific challenges of regional relevance, for example in disaster risk reduction among SIDS (OECD, 2024[8]).

Box ‎3.3. Triangular co-operation among the Pacific Islands and in the Pacific

To facilitate exchanges among the different countries in the Pacific for the purpose of scaling local development solutions, the Pacific Islands Development Forum (PIDF) and UNOSSC signed a memorandum of understanding in 2017 to implement triangular partnerships. In one such partnership, Fiji deploys retired teachers to benefit the Marshall Islands, Nauru, Tuvalu and Vanuatu, which helps alleviate human resource gaps in education and improve service quality in these countries. Another example is the Tuvalu Coastal Adaptation Project, in which the PIDF brokered the procurement of boulders and topsoil from Nauru for coastal reclamation, linking local supply capacity with climate resilience needs in Tuvalu. These projects emphasise peer learning, regional solidarity and locally led solutions (UNOSSC; Pacific Islands Development Forum, 2019[9]).

In the Pacific, Timor-Leste is partnering with Indonesia, Korea and the UNDP in Indonesia to increase access to renewable energy and increase operational sustainability in very remote areas. Indonesia is sharing its expertise based on a bilateral project in solar water pumping systems. The programme distributed solar lights to over 5 300 households, is building 11 solar water pumps, and developed frequently asked questions manuals and training modules for local operators in Timor-Leste (ACCESS, n.d.[10]). The project has also contributed to fostering closer collaboration between Timor-Leste and Indonesia and paved the way for potential future collaboration with the Community of Portuguese Language Countries (CPLP).

Source: Information shared during an interview, UNOSSC; Pacific Islands Development Forum (2019[9]), South-South and Triangular Cooperation in Action: Pacific Islands Development Forum, https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/4022467/files/1384439-EN.pdf; ACCESS (n.d.[10]), Accelerating Green Energy Access to Reduce Inequality Project, https://accesstoenergy.org/en/our-location/timor-leste.

Diverse middle-income countries across Asia in all subregions also are increasing engagement in South-South and triangular co-operation. Among those are the People’s Republic of China (hereafter China); Central Asian countries such as Kazakhstan (Box ‎3.5); India; Indonesia; Malaysia; the Philippines; Singapore (Box ‎3.6); Samoa (Box ‎3.11); Thailand; Türkiye in support of other Turkic countries, Africa, Asia and Europe (Box ‎3.4); and Viet Nam. They have taken different paths and have different focus and experience. Some have established stand-alone co-operation agencies or co-operation units within their ministries of external affairs or trade, and some are expanding their global and regional reach while others foster triangular initiatives throughout their national networks of co-operating institutions.

Box ‎3.4. Türkiye’s role in bridging South-South and North-South co-operation

Türkiye ranked among the top ten bilateral providers of development co-operation in 2024 and was the second largest provider of humanitarian aid in 2023, according to OECD data (OECD, 2024[11]). Türkiye is an OECD founding member but not a member of the DAC; it thus plays a role of a bridge between South-South and North-South co-operation.

The Turkish Cooperation and Coordination Agency (TİKA) was established in 1992 to support Turkic countries after the fall of the Soviet Union (including Organization of Turkic States members Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan). Türkiye has since increased its geographical reach, and TİKA now operates in over 170 countries and has 56 programme co-ordination offices in 52 countries across the Balkans, Central Asia, Latin America, Africa and Southeast Asia (OECD, 2024[11]).

Türkiye frequently relies on partnerships with UN agencies such as the UNDP and the Rome-based institutions to implement triangular co-operation. For example, together with UNDP and the Istanbul International Center for Private Sector in Development, TİKA shared knowledge from its private sector, business associations and experts to establish a vocational training centre in Bosnia (TİKA, 2019[12]). Bosnian, private sector and UNDP contributions leveraged TİKA seed funding of about USD 104 000 to reach an overall budget of roughly USD 550 000 (GPI on Effective Triangular Co-operation, 2019[13]). The Partnership Programme between Türkiye and the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) facilitates an exchange of experts in the fields of agriculture, food security, conservation, drought management and biodiversity; through this programme, Türkiye and the FAO have supported co-operation with Eritrea, Mauritania and Sudan on large-scale land restoration methods with local communities (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2025[14]).

Through other South-South co-operation partnerships, Türkiye and Colombia, working with the International Labour Organization, initiated an e-learning course on decent work in refugee and mixed migration contexts (ILO, 2021[15]). Türkiye’s Reverse Linkage projects with the IsDB cover topics ranging from sustainable cotton production and an alliance to fight avoidable blindness with Azerbaijan and partners in Africa and Asia. Türkiye also engages in triangular partnerships with Japan and Korea on topics such as disaster risk management and health (OECD, 2023[16]).

Source: OECD (2024[11]), Development Co-operation Profiles: Türkiye, https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/development-co-operation-profiles_04b376d7-en/turkiye_09a14591-en.html; TİKA (2019[12]), “TİKA established a vocational training centre in Bosnia Herzegovina", https://tika.gov.tr/en/detail-tika_established_a_vocational_training_centre_in_bosnia_herzegovina/; Food and Agriculture Organization (2025[14]), FAO and Türkiye Partnership, https://www.fao.org/in-action/fao-turkey-partnership/about/en/; OECD (2023[16]), Triangular co-operation repository of projects (database), https://www.oecd.org/dac/dac-global-relations/triangular-co-operation-repository.htm.

Korea is another example of a country with evolving roles in development co-operation and a strong partner of triangular co-operation in the region and beyond. Australia and New Zealand are growing their engagement in multi-actor and triangular partnerships, deepening the linkages between the Pacific, Southeast Asia and major Asian economies. Partners of the Asia-Pacific in triangular co-operation beyond the region include Canada, Denmark, the EU, France, Germany, Norway, Switzerland and the United Kingdom as well as multilateral organisations such as the UNOSSC, the UNDP and the Rome-based UN institutions. The ADB, IsDB and World Bank have endorsed joint programmes that blend North-South and South-South elements. Furthermore, partnerships between Baltic and Central European countries with Central Asia and the Caucasus are offering interesting insights based on shared transition experiences (Box ‎3.5).

Box ‎3.5. Stepping up triangular co-operation in Central Asia

Central Asia is host to a wide variety of partnerships and actors with emerging linkages and practices to share. These include regional, South-South and triangular co-operation as the unique experiences of countries in the region are valuable for its neighbours and partners. For instance, Kazakhstan established the Agency of International Development (KazAID) in 2021 as the legal entity responsible for the country's development co-operation policy and promoting development and sustainable growth in Central Asian countries. Kazakhstan is also home to the Astana Civil Service Hub, and it works with Germany, the IsDB, Japan, Korea, the UNDP and other partners in triangular partnerships on digitalisation, e-governance, water resource management, disaster preparedness and risk reduction, and agriculture, sharing its experience and leveraging local expertise and cultural understanding in Central Asia.

Central Asia has partnered with the Baltic States, particularly Latvia and Lithuania, on border management, customs training and rule of law reforms through triangular co-operation frameworks supported by the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) and the EU. Baltic countries send national experts to engage in OSCE and EU projects in specific areas such as justice reform and act as peer knowledge providers sharing training curricula, operational practices and institutional know-how. Baltic countries’ first-hand experience of transition from the Soviet political and legal system, as well as their post-Soviet reforms in terms of good governance and the rule of law, represent a wealth of knowledge from which Central Asia could benefit (Jēkabsone, 2013[17]).

Source: Co-authors’ project information; Jēkabsone (2013[17]), “The Baltic States and Central Asia”, https://eucentralasia.eu/author/anetejekabsone/; OECD (2024[18]), 8th International Meeting on Triangular Co-operation: Linking Global Processes to Create Local Impact, 7-8 October 2024, Lisbon – Summary of Discussions, https://triangular-cooperation.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Summary_8th-International-Meeting-on-Triangular-Co-operation_Lisbon-2024.pdf.

3.2. How partners engage in Asian-Pacific triangular co-operation: mechanisms, modalities and instruments

The Asia-Pacific region’s triangular co-operation history runs from Bandung’s spirit of solidarity through the UN’s BAPA conferences to today’s array of Southern-led funds and forums of the Asian Century that anchor triangular co-operation projects – for instance the Indonesia AID Fund, the UN Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP) Multi-Donor Trust Fund, the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) Dialogue Partner Funds, and the Sino-German Centre for Sustainable Development, among others. Triangular co-operation in Asia is becoming increasingly structured through dedicated triangular co-operation programmes, facilities, high-level agreements, MoUs, and structured collaboration with multilateral and regional organisations as well as through public-private partnerships. Following is a non-exhaustive review of approaches; the examples may or may not overlap depending on the actors engaged, the trajectory of the relationship and the topic.

Co-producing and sharing knowledge are at the heart of all triangular co-operation regardless of the mechanism that is deployed. Evidence shows that impressive results can be achieved by sharing and adapting relevant knowledge to local contexts and by matching demands and offers of co-operation. An example is the 30-year-long co-operation between Indonesia and Japan in maternal healthcare. A handbook developed in Japan in the 1950s was shared with Indonesia in 1993 and adapted to different Indonesian local contexts. Then this joint learning experience was shared with 17 other countries across the globe from Southeast Asia to Africa. Each new training and context offered insights into how to adapt and advance the handbook for both Indonesia and Japan. An evaluation found that where the handbook was in use, the rate of compliance with health checks during pregnancy was almost double that in places where it was not used and that full immunisation rates of children were higher and overall access to services across the continuum of health care for mother and child was improved (Japan International Cooperation Agency, 2024[19]). Similarly, Singapore has based its overall development co-operation model on sharing the experiences of its government, research institutions and private sector partners (Box ‎3.6).

Box ‎3.6. Singapore’s approach to sharing its knowledge through triangular partnerships

The Singapore Cooperation Enterprise (SCE), established by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Ministry of Trade and Industry of Singapore, is the country’s technical co-operation agency. The SCE acts as facilitator and mobiliser of technical resources across Singapore’s development ecosystem, bringing together public institutions, private enterprises and domain experts to offer demand-driven solutions to development challenges.

The SCE has managed to successfully adapt Singapore’s developmental solutions across countries in Africa, the Middle East, Asia and beyond in the thematic areas of connectivity, transport and logistics; digitalisation and innovation; economic and industrial development; education and skills development; governance and public sector reform; healthcare and tourism; sustainability and resource management; and urban planning and infrastructure. Being cognisant that each country is different in its needs and developmental journey, the SCE integrates efforts from the private sector and works with international financial institutions in triangular co-operation, in addition to aggregating public sector expertise from Singapore. For example, alongside the IsDB, the SCE is considering project partnerships with Turkmenistan to strengthen port operations and logistics efficiency and with Djibouti to support smart urban development planning and capacity

The SCE has also collaborated actively with partners beyond Asia to share Singapore’s development experience. For example, digitalising the national identify card system in and implementing its Metro Express Light Rail Transit System as well as supporting Kenya in the inception and implementation of the Kenya electronic single window system to streamline and digitise the country’s trade processes.

Source: Interview with representatives of the SCE; project information of the co-authors.

Third-country training programmes are another key approach, with an Asian partner, often a middle-income country, taking the pivotal role (with support from a facilitator) by hosting groups of participants from benefitting partners. Japan, a triangular co-operation pioneer, uses this approach in JICA’s Partnership and Third Country Training Programs. These institutionalise long-term collaboration between Japan and pivotal partners such as Brazil, Chile, Egypt, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines and Thailand to co-design and co-implement training, technical assistance and knowledge-sharing projects for third-country beneficiaries (Box ‎3.2). The Republic of Korea also offers ample opportunities for triangular partnerships through the facilitation of the Korea International Cooperation Agency (KOICA), its implementing agency for development co-operation (see Box ‎3.7).

Box ‎3.7. Korea’s path from benefitting from development co-operation to providing support to the Asian region and beyond

Korea’s evolution from being a beneficiary of development co-operation to a provider informs its approach to triangular co-operation. Acting as a bridge between North-South and South-South modalities, Korea combines strong technical capabilities with context-sensitive knowledge sharing through KOICA’s 47 country offices (14 in Asia, 16 in Africa, 8 in Latin America, 6 in Eurasia and 3 in the Middle East) that work as crucial nodes connecting actors around the globe. Through KOICA, it prioritises capacity building over grants for infrastructure development, focusing on sharing technologies, governance reforms, digitalisation and institutional strengthening, thereby creating foundations for long-term partnerships.

Korea’s triangular co-operation is implemented in various mechanisms, modalities and instruments: through joint training programmes; comprehensive technical projects; triangular components or activities embedded in bilateral projects; the scaling-up of successful bilateral projects; or through the distinctive Korean approach of creating joint funds or facilities to support triangular co-operation proposals. The Korea-UNOSSC partnership exemplifies this approach for specialised collaborations such as two phases of the triangular co-operation project on Electron Beam Applications for Value Addition to Food and Industrial Products and Degradation of Environmental Pollutants in the Asia-Pacific region under the Korea-UNOSSC Facility on Science, Technology and Innovation (UNOSSC, 2024[20]). In Lao PDR, KOICA worked with Hanoi University in Viet Nam to establish a Cattle Artificial Insemination and Extension Center. In this case, Vietnamese experts trained by Korean specialists transferred knowledge to Lao staff, with Korean experts ensuring quality, demonstrating how triangular elements within a bilateral project can grow into broader technical initiatives.

KOICA has also shared its experiences of creating a development co-operation system and contributing to strengthening newly created agencies across the Asian region, for example by seconding KOICA experts to KazAID and launching a new programme for emerging providers. Strategic frameworks via MoUs initiate collaboration with partner countries, and joint action plans (e.g. with Kazakhstan and Thailand) are co-developed under these MoUs to define long-term, structured development pathways. Korea leverages regional hubs and works in countries where it has no physical presence via regional partnerships.

Beyond the region, Korea has, for example, partnered with Morocco and Cameroon, Côte d’Ivoire, Senegal and Tunisia for the training of government officials and instructors on how to develop vocational training in their automotive industry.

Source: Interviews with KOICA representatives; UNOSSC (2024[20]), "Republic of Korea and UNOSSC Support Electron Beam”, https://unsouthsouth.org/2024/02/29/republic-of-korea-and-unossc-support-electron-beam-technology-sharing/#:~:text=The%20United%20Nations%20Office%20for,and%20Degradation%20of%20Environmental%20Pollutants.

Triangular expert dispatch is another common modality, whereby experts from one country join projects in the beneficiary country, supported by funding from a third partner. Advisory services and policy consultations are often delivered in this way.

Multi-year project partnerships, including to co-finance pilot projects, blend bilateral ODA schemes or co-operation with multilateral organisations with contributions from the project partners, such as dedicated triangular co-operation funds, allowing partners to jointly design, implement and evaluate initiatives. For example, through its multi-year Fund for Triangular Cooperation with Asia, Germany has partnered with China and India to incubate small-scale triangular pilots that can be scaled up, enhancing partnerships, knowledge exchange and progress on the SDGs through a win-win-win triangular model. The Fund publishes regular calls for proposals that are open to Chinese public and non-governmental partners and, as of 2025, has worked with Indian partners in four African countries.

Asian partners also strongly support triangular co-operation in partnership with multilateral organisations, for example through trust funds or facilities that provide regular funding for triangular initiatives as these organisations often have already developed trust and other neutral partnerships in the region. Examples are the FAO-China South-South Cooperation Programme, which is supported by a Chinese Trust Fund since 2009, or the International Fund for Agricultural Development -China South-South and Triangular Cooperation Facility, which was established in 2018. China entered high-level agreements with several DAC members while also engaging strongly through multilateral organisations, such as the UNDP, the Rome-based UN institutions and others (UNDP, 2020[21]).

Triangular co-operation is often structured as a component of bilateral political partnerships between development co-operation providers and Asian partners. Some of these are based on high-level agreements and MoUs between two Asian partners or an Asian country and a partner from outside the region (either North or South) and implemented by line ministries, technical institutions, civil society organisations (CSOs), philanthropy or the private sector. India is a prominent example: It has signed agreements with partners such as France, Germany, Japan and the United Kingdom, and each of these agreements has its own pace, characteristics and financial mechanisms (Chaturvedi and Piefer-Söyler, 2021[22]). For instance, India and the UK have established a Trilateral Development Cooperation Fund to help globalise Indian innovations and support start-ups through developmental capital investment, grants and technical assistance, mainly in the Indo-Pacific region.

Project implementation through CSOs, foundations and research institutes is another common modality employed by India and many other partners in Asia-Pacific to draw on their vast experience and innovations, including at the local level. Often, these non-governmental groups and institutions have developed an innovative solution to a development challenge, whether it revolves around agriculture, energy efficiency or women’s economic empowerment (Box ‎3.8).

Box ‎3.8. Working with CSOs to scale up Indian innovations

Various Indian ministries carry out India’s triangular co-operation, with the Ministry of External Affairs and its Development Partnership Administration playing a fundamental role and as the parent institution of specialised entities and programmes such as the Indian Technical and Economic Cooperation Programme. India also draws on the strength of its vibrant civil society to share innovations with third countries. For example, Switzerland worked with the Indian CSO Development Alternatives on creating brick-production technologies and systems, low-emission building materials, and industrial waste utilisation in India. These building products reached over 1 million homes in India. Based on this success, the project was shared with Bangladesh, where the rapidly growing city of Dhaka faced increasing demand for construction bricks. An Indo-Swiss multistakeholder consortium worked in a triangular partnership to green the Bangladeshi brick industry through energy-efficient technologies (Bandyopadhyay, 2016[23]).

Through the support of the Asia Foundation for former US triangular projects, Indian innovations in the agriculture sector were mapped with the demands of potential partner countries in the Indo-Pacific (Global AgriSystem Private Limited, 2022[24]). Fiji also wanted to learn from India’s experiences with telemedicine. In the past, the UK provided support for exploratory projects that aim to foster research collaboration, promote mutual learning and exchange experiences across key development sectors such as agriculture, health, nutrition and natural resource management through several Indian CSOs in Africa (Table ‎3.1) (Chaturvedi and Piefer-Söyler, 2021[22]).

Table ‎3.1. Examples of knowledge-based partnerships of Asia and Africa with United Kingdom-supported CSOs

Indian CSO name	Sector	Partner country
Digital Green	Agriculture, health and nutrition	Ethiopia, Ghana, Niger and United Republic of Tanzania
Development Alternatives	Natural resource management and clean technology solutions	Malawi
Gram Vaani	Social media platform for social development	Kenya, South Africa and Tanzania
Society for the Promotion of Area Resource Centers (SPARC)	Housing, sanitation, resettlement and rehabilitation	Ghana, Guinea-Bissau, Kenya, Malawi, South Africa, Tanzania, Uganda and Zimbabwe
Pratham	Child literacy, education and computer-aided learning	Ghana, Guinea-Bissau, Kenya, Mali, Senegal, Tanzania and Uganda
Pradan	Livelihood and rural development	Ethiopia, Ghana, Mozambique and Tanzania
Public Affairs Foundation	Knowledge-based services	Africa, Southeast Asia and Central Asia

Source: Chaturvedi and Piefer-Söyler (2021[22]), “Triangular co-operation with India: Working with civil society organisations”, https://doi.org/10.1787/285b1a9a-en; GPI on Effective Triangular Co-operation (2019[13]), Triangular Co-operation in the Era of the 2030 Agenda: Sharing Evidence and Stories from the Field, https://triangular-cooperation.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/Final-GPI-report-BAPA40.pdf.

Triangular modalities also extend to knowledge networks and platforms. Asia hosts numerous regional workshops, networks (e.g. the International Solar Alliance), South-South fairs, and online portals where best practices and lessons are exchanged. Multilateral agencies – UNOSSC, UN ESCAP, and others – run call-down trust funds to support small grants for triangular co-operation projects. Digital tools are increasingly used: e-learning courses, virtual conferences and remote technical support became more widespread during the COVID-19 era, mitigating travel challenges.

Centres of excellence or strategic hubs often provide structured platforms for exchange and knowledge sharing, a key instrument in JICA’s co-operation (Box ‎3.6). In the Indonesian ecosystem, Badan Layanan Umum, or BLU, is a special classification for public sector institutions that grants them financial and managerial flexibility to serve as centres of excellence in education, health, training, agriculture and research. The Malaysia External Trade Development Corporation has been crucial in identifying, with the IsDB, over 60 public and private sector resource centres that are potential triangular co-operation knowledge providers (Malaysia Ministry of Investment, Trade and Industry, 2020[25]).

To meet growing investment needs, governments are increasingly turning to public-private partnerships and blended finance mechanisms to mobilise private capital and draw on the innovations, technology and skills that the private sector can offer in triangular partnerships (Chapter 4). Involving the private sector in triangular co-operation is firmly established in the partnerships of China, Malaysia, Singapore and some other Asian countries. Others, such as Indonesia, provide the framework through their multistakeholder policy; the IsDB’s Reverse Linkage policy includes it as a core feature; and other countries involve private partners on an ad hoc basis.

3.3. Unpacking the journeys of triangular co-operation in the Asia-Pacific region

Triangular co-operation in Asia is evolving into a dynamic and multifaceted approach to development partnerships. In addition to their immediate development goals, the journeys of triangular collaborations among multiple actors in Asia-Pacific – governments, regional organisations, the private sector and civil society, among others – have characteristics, patterns and motives in common (OECD, 2018[26]). They reflect the region’s diversity, development priorities and innovations and demonstrate the potential of cross-regional collaboration. The journeys also illustrate how triangular co-operation can be a flexible tool for scaling up impact, sharing expertise and fostering technical diplomacy (OECD/IsDB, 2023[27]). Four distinctive features in particular stand out in Asia’s triangular partnership experiences:

• regional integration efforts that strengthen institutional and policy co-operation

• interregional bridges connecting Asia with other regions

• locally led approaches drawing on the local knowledge and innovations of local community groups, CSOs and others non-government organisations

• business-driven partnerships that align development goals with commercial interests.

3.3.1. Asian triangular co-operation that fosters regional integration

Historically, triangular initiatives contributed to fostering regional integration and building interregional bridges. Asian partnerships also benefit from the strength of regional platforms to gather, mobilise and enhance solidarity and co-operation efforts. Currently, many projects in Asia either:

• include regional organisations such as ASEAN, ESCAP, the Mekong River Commission (Box ‎3.9), the Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation (BIMSTEC) or the Pacific Islands Forum Secretariat

• originate in interactions of regional and other groupings that have Asian members including for instance the G20, the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, the IsDB, MIKTA (Mexico, Indonesia, Korea, Türkiye, Australia and others) or, starting in 2024, emerging development partners such as Azerbaijan, Colombia, Kazakhstan, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Thailand and Türkiye (ESCAP, 2024[28])

• draw on regional and multilateral development banks to support triangular infrastructure projects or provide seed funding to scale innovations.

An example is Korea, which has initiated partnerships that include bilateral, trilateral and regional exchanges such as the dynamic and mutually beneficial Mekong-Republic of Korea Cooperation partnership launched in 2011. Similarly, the ASEAN-Korea Cooperation Fund was launched in 1990 to further strengthen relations between the regional organisation, its members and Korea.

The Pacific Islands Forum Economic Ministers Meeting in August 2024 agreed on a “Pacific program of enhanced peer-to-peer cooperation” to support the implementation of the Forum’s 2050 Strategy for the Blue Pacific Continent and “coordinate existing peer-to-peer cooperation including through triangular co-operation with regional organisations in the Pacific and development partners (Pacific Island Forum Secretariat, 2024[29]).

Box ‎3.9. Lao PDR: Leveraging triangular co-operation as a regional growth engine

Lao PDR has embraced triangular co-operation as a powerful development modality, building on regional mechanisms such as ASEAN+ partnerships with China, India, Japan, Korea and others. Reflecting the historic Bandung spirit of regional collaboration, the country leverages these platforms to boost cross-border trade, investment and infrastructure connections, exemplified by the transformative Lao-China Railway that positions Lao PDR as a gateway between China and other Southeast Asian markets. As the Mekong River is a power engine for Asia, its regional organisation is an important triangular partner, as shown by the 2021-2025 Triangular Cooperation Project on Sustainable Development in the Lower Mekong Basin, based on the water-energy-food nexus. The partnership between Cambodia, Korea, Lao PDR, Thailand, Viet Nam and UNOSSC aims to strengthen access to water, food and energy for vulnerable communities living in the Lower Mekong Basin through improved development approaches and management in these sectors. It takes integrative and multisectoral approaches to pilot cross-border collaboration, build institutional capacity, and enhance resilience through data-driven planning and knowledge exchange (Mekong Institute, 2023[30]). Moreover, the Mekong Institute is another result of a triangular partnership between Thailand, New Zealand and the countries of the Mekong River Basin.

Faced with managing economic growth in the face of global challenges such as climate impacts and the COVID‑19 pandemic, Lao PDR has shifted beyond traditional development co-operation models towards South-South and triangular co-operation enriched by involvement of the private sector, CSOs and philanthropy. Its growing number of public-private partnerships and infrastructure services are enhancing resilience while helping deliver the SDGs and climate action agendas. This evolving approach reflects the Lao PDR’s ambition to both contribute to and benefit from co-operative frameworks that unite regional actors, stakeholders and the private sector in sustainable, scalable triangular projects.

Source: Presentation of a representative of the Institute for Industry and Commerce of the Lao PDR Ministry of Industry and Commerce cited in Mekong Institute (2023[30]), Sustainable Development in the Lower Mekong Basin: Building Forward Better toward COVID-19 Recovery with Water-Energy-Food Nexus Approach through South-South and Triangular Cooperation, https://mekonginstitute.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/12/LMB-WEF-Nexus-Knowledge-Product_MI.pdf.

3.3.2. Triangular co-operation as an interregional bridge

With its deep tradition in interregional triangular co-operation dating from the Bandung Conference 70 years ago, Asia is a source of inspiration for other regions as many of its triangular partnerships connect three continents with multi-directional knowledge flows. These interregional triangular co-operation initiatives facilitate mutual learning across continents, promote context-sensitive development solutions and strengthen the global reach of regional expertise. This is especially the case with Africa and Latin America and with the collaboration of European and North American partners.

Interregional triangular co-operation between Asia and other regions is seeking to combine complementary expertise, regional perspectives and shared development challenges. While data on triangular co-operation with Asian partners are limited (Chapter 2), there are many examples of interregional triangular partnerships – involving African partners (OECD, 2022[31]), for instance, and partners in Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC) – through which Asia’s development experiences are shared with other regions, fostering Asia’s global role as important partner. Common themes in Asia-Africa triangular initiatives include agricultural development, vocational training, public health, energy and digital governance. Box ‎3.10 outlines triangular co-operation on energy between Asia-Pacific and Africa.

Box ‎3.10. Scalable interregional triangular partnerships in the energy sector complement bilateral co-operation

China is sharing its experiences with renewable energies and energy efficiencies with partners in the Asia-Pacific region and Africa. Complementing its bilateral South-South co-operation with Zambia, for instance, China worked with the UNDP and Denmark in the triangular Renewable Energy Technology Transfer project with public and private stakeholders. A centre of excellence in solar energy in Zambia, which is one of the key project outputs, has been training local technicians on the installation and maintenance of solar technologies. Some of the first graduates of the centre have supported a bilateral co-operation between the UNDP and the Zambian government aimed at electrifying rural health centres through solar energy technologies. The project also supported the review and reform of energy sector regulations to increase private sector involvement in rural electrification.

Denmark and the UNDP shared with China their best practice on project management and their experiences of engaging in cross-cultural collaboration with African countries. The triangular project management unit from China’s Ministry of Science and Technology institutionalised the lessons learned from the project in Zambia and a similar initiative in Ghana. It has established a Technology Transfer South-South Cooperation Centre through which China, in partnership with the UNDP and Sri Lanka, adapted the project model in a 2019-2022 triangular partnership with Ethiopia.

Source: Kamwengo (2020[32]), “Beneficiary country ownership and the politics of partnership in trilateral development cooperation: a case study of Zambia”, http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/13696/; UNDP (2014[33]), China-Zambia South-South Cooperation on Renewable Energy Technology Transfer, https://www.undp.org/china/projects/china-zambia-south-south-cooperation-renewable-energy-technology-transfer; UNDP (2019[34]), MOFCOM-UNDP: Trilateral Cooperation on Renewable Energy in Ethiopia, https://www.undp.org/china/projects/mofcom-undp-trilateral-cooperation-renewable-energy-ethiopia.

The triangular partnerships that Asian countries have initiated with LAC have focused on science and technology, climate resilience and institutional strengthening, including with a focus on Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation. Korea has partnered with Mexico and countries in Central America in sustainable forestry and climate resilience and with Costa Rica and other countries in Central America on horticulture for food security. Japan and Argentina have collaborated to share quality control and productivity methodologies in Latin America and Africa; JICA and Brazil have worked on projects on community policing with countries in Central America and the Caribbean and, in co-ordination with the UNOSSC, on South-South and triangular co-operation capacity development. Thailand and Chile have collaborated with countries in Central America to improve agricultural productivity through technical exchanges. China has supported education and infrastructure planning across LAC via partnerships that blend concessional finance and technical training. ESCAP and the regional platform, the Mesoamerica Integration and Development Project (Proyecto Mesoamérica), are partnering with Colombia to address inequalities and build inclusive, climate-resilient and nature-based economies in both the Asia-Pacific and LAC regions by promoting knowledge exchange between policy makers; investors; and micro, small and medium enterprises (ESCAP, 2024[35]).

Working through regional hubs and centres of excellence has proven successful in linking different regions and partners. Multilateral and regional spaces such as the Ibero-American Program for the Strengthening of South-South Cooperation (PIFCSS), the IsDB and UN agencies increasingly play a key role in brokering and sustaining these multicontinental development learning environments and, in some cases, coalitions. For example, the South-South and Triangular Cooperation Facility, a partnership between China and IFAD, supports the sharing of China’s agricultural innovations and rural development expertise with developing countries through scalable, country-led projects. Similarly, the China-FAO South-South Cooperation Trust Fund finances the deployment of Chinese experts, technologies and resources to enhance food security and agricultural capacity in partner countries, particularly in Africa and Asia.

3.3.3. Locally led triangular co-operation

As these partnerships demonstrate, triangular co-operation is a way to share many successful Asian homegrown initiatives and learn from solutions developed in other regions. Emphasising local approaches, involving local communities, fostering local cultures and constructively building on cultural differences are essential to the success of triangular partnerships (Box ‎3.11). This localised approach helps projects to be relevant and sustainable and to have a meaningful impact on the communities they serve (Anderson and Swanepoel, 2022[36]). Co-training is also valuable for shaping people-to-people links.

Box ‎3.11. Examples of locally led triangular partnerships

The triangular partnership between Australia, Kiribati and Samoa aimed at diversifying seaweed industries in Pacific Island countries demonstrates the value of community-based approaches that build on local and traditional context-based knowledge systems to achieve direct outcomes for the target groups (OECD/IsDB, 2023[27]).

Another example is the triangular partnership between Afghanistan, Germany and Indonesia (2013-2018), which could not have achieved its project results had it not drawn on local knowledge and experiences in a culturally sensitive way. Through the facilitation of the Indonesian and German governments, women’s community groups in Indonesia engaged with local women’s groups in Afghanistan around producing and selling handicrafts in local markets. By sharing its experiences as a fellow Muslim country with its Afghan partners, Indonesia also demonstrated the whole-of-society benefits it gained from improving women’s economic empowerment.

Bangladesh and Nepal partnered with Norway to strengthen capacities of local stakeholder groups on health education and health communication through participatory approaches using community radio stations. A community learning programme was built on the premise of co-learning, with community participation constituting an integral part of the communication design and production process, thereby empowering the community and their means of communication.

Another triangular partnership was a collaboration among the Philippines, Viet Nam, the United Kingdom and the UN Children’s Fund on capacity strengthening of multidisciplinary teams to manage child abuse prevention in Viet Nam. This effort was based on and adapted from the Philippines model of a functional child protection unit and from shared experiences in the protection of children from online abuse (OECD, 2023[16]).

Source: OECD/Islamic Development Bank (2023[27]), Global Perspectives on Triangular Co-operation, https://doi.org/10.1787/29e2cbc0-en; OECD (2023[16]), Triangular co-operation repository of projects (database), https://www.oecd.org/dac/dac-global-relations/triangular-co-operation-repository.htm.

3.3.4. Business-driven triangular co-operation

Partnerships with the private sector have become a prominent component of triangular co-operation in Asia. Chapter 4 discusses different models and approaches used in partnerships with the private sector that enable the development of sustainable value chains that enhance the business environment, promote innovations and advance other shared goals.

To meet growing investment needs, PPPs and blended finance mechanisms are gaining traction. In this regard, triangular co-operation offers ways to partner with the private sector; multilateral development banks (MDBs) such as the ADB, Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank and the IsDB; and export-import (EXIM) banks and government institutions. MDBs are increasingly serving as co-creators, co-financers and conveners in triangular co-operation projects. Partnerships between MDBs and private actors (e.g. blended finance) also may increase, particularly in large-scale connectivity and digitalisation projects, aligning well with the priorities and comparative advantages of Asian partners. Infrastructure features prominently in some Asian and other partners’ global development strategies, among them China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), the EU’s Global Gateway, Korea’s Digital ODA agenda, and India’s Global Development Compact.

3.4. Insights from triangular co-operation in the Asia-Pacific region

The experiences and examples shared in this chapter illustrate the diversity of triangular partnerships in Asia-Pacific, which have evolved from small and scattered projects to structured initiatives that foster regional and interregional dialogue and co-operation. As Zeynep Orhun Girard (2024[37]), chief of Capacity Development and Partnerships at ESCAP, observed recently, “Development co-operation is no longer what it used to be, even a decade ago”. Mindsets are changing among both traditional and emerging development partners. New mechanisms and forums are being created that carry forward the spirit of Bandung and reinterpret it to match today’s context and changes. Triangular co-operation with and in the Asia-Pacific systems offers lessons that can inform and inspire the triangular co-operation community in the region and beyond. Some key insights are as follows:

Design demand-driven and locally owned triangular partnerships. While triangular partnerships are ideally co-designed by all and led by the benefitting partner(s), there are inherent power imbalances in triangular co-operation whether in Asia-Pacific or other regions. Economic and (geo)political relations naturally influence partnerships and risk overshadowing the development focus. Projects in which benefitting partners took the lead, all partners were equally involved from the beginning, that extended beyond the initial pilot phase and that had strong local champions and co-financing commitments tend to have more lasting and sustainable results.

Invest in long-term partnerships and institutionalise triangular co-operation. Experiences in Asia-Pacific show that investing in long-term partnerships with a view to institutionalising triangular co-operation creates trusting partnerships, and this can have positive spillover effects in other policy areas. This ability to deliver technical diplomacy is one of the most important assets of triangular co-operation overall (OECD/IsDB, 2023[27]). Moving from pilot projects or one-time trainings to more structured follow-up initiatives and programmes will be crucial to achieving sustainable development and partnership results, investing in an environment for partners to grow rather than one-off initiatives.

Include triangular co-operation in national development plans and strategies. Raising awareness and allocating budgets for trilateral initiatives could put the modality on a stronger footing from the demand side. Many countries have already strengthened their national strategies and institutions, including by creating agencies for South-South and triangular co-operation (OECD/IsDB, 2023[27]) and by sharing lessons on that institutional development journey. Triangular co-operation requires specific skills and capacities such as co-ordination, creative thinking, cultural sensitivity and inter-cultural understanding that are important for countries to nurture and develop.

Increase flexible financing, seed funding and dedicated budget lines for triangular co-operation. In Asia-Pacific, there are few dedicated triangular co-operation funds. Projects often rely on reallocations of portions of existing ODA budgets. Long-term financing, however, remains a challenge, and some partners noted that many of the triangular co-operation projects in the region are short-term pilots without strategies to sustainably anchor the results or continue the collaboration. There are promising new multilateral instruments that could be explored; for instance, the ADB houses a regional triangular facility specifically for Asia-Pacific projects. Pivotal partners are increasingly providing funding through newly established mechanisms, one example being the Indonesia AID Fund described in Box ‎3.1, while benefitting partners are hosting the activities of the triangular co-operation projects by providing additional resources. In practice, many benefitting partners shoulder much of the cost (venue, staff time, infrastructure). In addition, individuals who are generally regarded as beneficiaries often commit time and expertise to improve the systems in their sectors: For example, farmers may test new practices or products for the benefit of the whole sector and for the providing institution(s), which can then share and sell this new expertise in other contexts.

Use lessons from crisis mode to simplify and ease administrative burdens. Planning and implementing triangular co-operation projects require co-ordination of three (or more) partners. This can create additional steps and complexity as the addition of each new partner involves extra layers of negotiation. Interview respondents mentioned that agreeing on a joint workplan often takes considerable time and that administrative procedures (for staffing, budgets and reporting) can be tedious (Box ‎3.12). The COVID-19 Evaluation Coalition found that operating in crisis circumstances fostered flexibility and openness to new approaches and that the use of digital tools, many of them still being put to use, helped preserve continuity. During the pandemic, many actors showed flexibility, quickly allowing programme adjustments, relaxed procurement process requirements and reduced reporting requests. A get-it-done attitude prevailed that allowed funding, implementing and local partners to work together in the crisis to overcome barriers and find solutions (OECD, 2025, pp. 12-13[38]).

Box ‎3.12. Easing the administrative burden in triangular co-operation

A recurring challenge in triangular co-operation is bringing together three (or more) administrations. This can be especially challenging in interregional initiatives where organisational cultures and institutional arrangements often clash. UNDP research in China found that Chinese partners regarded the differences in procedures and financial management and traditional partners’ lack of flexibility as hindrances to project efficiency. For their part, traditional development actors regard the differences between China and their own (DAC) concepts and approaches as a stumbling block. For example, Chinese institutions tend to focus more on “hardware” provision, whereas DAC members tend to focus on behavioural change in partner countries (UNDP, 2020, p. 23[21]). More time and other resources are often needed to find compromises while implementing projects, reporting and accountability mechanisms.

Similar problems were cited in discussions about power imbalances among triangular partners during the PIFCSS-run Co-labs and the 8th International Meeting on Triangular Co-operation in Lisbon (OECD, 2024[18]). Heterogeneity of budgetary and accountability procedures was mentioned as adding to the administrative burden along with project authorisations and monitoring and reporting requirements that led to an overload of work particularly for partners in the South. These perceived problems were associated especially with providers that usually manage triangular co-operation as a bilateral project. In addition to the cost in terms of horizontality, the administrative burden has time, financial and opportunity costs.

How to ease administrative burdens without sacrificing accountability and rigour is a key concern that cuts across different modalities of development co-operation. Some solutions relevant to triangular co-operation to effectively simply procedures and make them more flexible include:

• decentralising decision making

• simplifying reporting (e.g. through verbal reporting)

• distributing responsibilities by taking as an advantage the diversity of procedures

• agree whether, when and how to harmonise procedures and formats.

Beyond triangular co-operation, some development partners have adopted simplification as an institutional goal and conducted comprehensive assessments of underused organisational procedures, systems and tools; introduced AI tools for report simplification; and even launched failure laboratories to openly address what is not working in their practice. What these examples have in common are flexibility, an organisational culture favourable to learning and change, and a decision to make the system work for people and projects rather than making the people and projects work for the system.

Source: Authors’ own compilation based on workshops and interviews; OECD (2024[18]), 8th International Meeting on Triangular Co-operation: Linking Global Processes to Create Local Impact, 7-8 October 2024, Lisbon – Summary of Discussions, https://triangular-cooperation.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Summary_8th-International-Meeting-on-Triangular-Co-operation_Lisbon-2024.pdf.

Measuring impact and capturing and communicating results. Data on triangular co-operation projects in the region and globally are fragmented, with significant gaps and blind spots, as elaborated in Chapter 2. There is ample room for improvement in the reporting and monitoring of project results. One reason is that many triangular initiatives fall within the scope of larger bilateral programmes, which allows for modalities to strengthen one another but means data are not always captured properly. International reporting, visibility and accountability can benefit from assessment and discussion among peers and across regions on how to identify and track triangular partnerships; in this way, practices and experiences also can be more widely shared and available. Developing joint evaluation frameworks from the beginning of a new triangular partnership – specifying indicators for all parties’ contributions and benefits – will also help monitor its progress and results. Funding for external evaluations may not always be available. But more streamlined ways of assessing results could be introduced into enhanced and co-created monitoring frameworks that combine South-South and triangular co-operation principles and the DAC evaluation criteria. Documenting and widely disseminating lessons learned and impact stories, for instance through annual reports or case study compilations, can shorten the process of finding partners and solutions.

Flexibility, adaptability and continuous innovation are vital to successful triangular partnerships. Incorporating iterative feedback from all partners to allow for changes and adaptations over the course of a project, in advance of the next phase or in preparing a new project, is crucial if the collaboration is to deliver joint results. In the rapidly changing global development co-operation landscape, static models of co-operation are no longer sufficient. Projects with mechanisms that allow for innovation – whether through digital platforms, green technologies or new financing instruments – have a better chance of keeping pace with external changes and take advantage of the dynamism of the Asia-Pacific region.

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Notes

← 1.  An Indonesian interview partner shared this proverb.

← 2.  This chapter was informed by interviews with representatives from Asian and international institutions (see Annex B for a list of interview partners) as well as two sessions dedicated to triangular co-operation with Asian partners during the 8th International Meeting on Triangular Cooperation in Lisbon (7-8 October 2024); the conference on “Global South & Triangular Cooperation: Emerging Facets” organised by Research and Information System for Developing Countries (RIS India) (3-4 June 2025), a virtual event to launch the call for proposals with Chinese partners of the German Fund for Triangular Cooperation with Asia (10 December 2024); the 1st Asian Conference on Triangular Cooperation (ACTrC): A Collaborative Endeavor for Global Progress (2-3 November 2023); and a side event, “Triangular Cooperation: A Modality for The Asian Century”, at the 2022 Global South-South Development Expo (GSSD Expo) in Bangkok (13 September 2022).

← 3.  As of September 2025, the BRICS members are Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa, Saudi Arabia, Egypt, United Arab Emirates, Ethiopia, Indonesia and Iran.