Upper-secondary vocational education and training (VET) in the Netherlands is a popular choice and has over 700 programmes on offer. Institutions design their own curricula based on nationally defined, competence-based qualification files, developed with expert committees of social partners. Work-based learning represents at least 20% of school-based VET and at least 60% of apprenticeships. Programmes are delivered by a range of publicly funded regional training centres and occupational colleges. Teachers must meet national competence standards, typically a teaching license, teaching qualification, or pedagogical certificate. VET is overseen by the Ministry of Education, with qualifications managed by the Cooperation Organisation for Vocational Education, Training and the Labour Market (SBB). Upper-secondary VET is publicly funded and free for students under 18.
Vocational Education and Training Systems in Nine Countries
Abstract
The Netherlands’ upper‑secondary education typically starts at age 16 after eight years of primary education (basisonderwijs) and four years of lower secondary education (voortgezet onderwijs). Upper-secondary vocational education and training (VET) (middelbaar beroepsonderwijs [MBO]) includes over 700 programmes offered by schools throughout the Netherlands across four qualification levels, each preparing for different job complexity (Government of the Netherlands, n.d.[1]). Level 1 (assistant training) programmes last up to 1 year and are classified as ISCED level 2. Levels 2-4 are classified as ISCED 3 and include level 2 (basic vocational) programmes that usually take 2 years and prepare for operational roles; level 3 (professional vocational) programmes that take about 3 years, training students to carry out tasks independently; and level 4 (middle-management or specialist) programmes that last 3‑4 years and prepare graduates for more complex work and supervisory responsibilities (Government of the Netherlands, n.d.[1]).
VET programmes are offered in four nationally defined categories: (1) Technology & Engineering, (2) Economics & Business, (3) Health & Welfare, and (4) Agriculture & Environment (OECD, 2022[2]). In 2021, 55% of 15-19 year-old upper‑secondary students were enrolled in vocational programmes in the Netherlands (OECD, 2023[3]). As upper-secondary VET institutions also serve and attract many adult learners, the average age of students is 23 years old (OECD, 2023[3]).
While formally post-compulsory, education remains mandatory until age 18 or until a student obtains a startkwalificatie – a basic qualification defined as at least a diploma at MBO level 2, a higher general upper‑secondary diploma (Hoger Algemeen Voortgezet Onderwijs [HAVO]), or a pre-university diploma (Voorbereidend Wetenschappelijk Onderwijs [VWO]).
Students in upper‑secondary VET can choose between school‑based (beroepsopleidende leerweg, BOL) or apprenticeship (beroepsbegeleidende leerweg, BBL) pathways, which lead to the same qualifications (Eurydice, 2023[4]) (Cedefop, & Centre for Expertise in Vocational Education and Training, (ECBO), 2023[5]). In 2024, 70% of upper-secondary VET students were enrolled in school-based programmes and 30% in apprenticeships, reflecting a recent rise in apprenticeship enrolment relative to school-based routes. School-based students are mostly between 16 and 20 years old, while apprentices tend to be older, with nearly half over the age of 25 (Ministerie van Onderwijs, Cultuur en Wetenschap (The Ministry of Education, Culture and Science), 2024[6]). Students may switch between school‑based and apprenticeship programmes, subject to placement availability. Apprentices are employed and paid a trainee’s wage.
Students typically enter upper-secondary VET at age 16 after completing lower-secondary education in the Netherlands. In lower-secondary school (ages 12 to 16), around 54% of secondary students follow a pre-vocational track (VMBO) and the remainder pursue general tracks (HAVO/VWO) oriented toward higher education (Cedefop, & Centre for Expertise in Vocational Education and Training, (ECBO), 2023[5]). The pre-vocational track comprises four learning pathways: theoretical (TL), mixed (GL), middle-management vocational (KB), and basic vocational (BB). These differ in academic content and determine upper-secondary VET entry level. Graduates of theoretical, mixed, and middle-management pre-vocational tracks can enter upper-secondary VET level 3 or 4, while basic vocational graduates typically enter upper-secondary VET level 2 (Onderwijsloket, 2024[7]; Government of the Netherlands, n.d.[1]). Students from general education (HAVO) can also transfer to upper-secondary VET and often do so at level 4. Bridging programmes and combined lower-upper-secondary VET routes help support transitions between tracks and into upper-secondary VET (Cedefop, 2023[8]).
The Netherlands has implemented multiple targeted measures to enhance inclusion and retention among disadvantaged learners in upper-secondary VET (Box 6.1).
The Netherlands has various supports for disadvantaged learners to access upper-secondary VET.
Schakelprogramma & transition support
Upper-secondary VET colleges offer bridging and preparatory programmes (“schakelprogramma”) for learners transitioning from pre-vocational secondary education to upper‑secondary education (both VET and general), or those who struggled academically. These programmes help build basic skills, boost confidence, and support smoother progression into full upper-secondary VET programmes (European Commission, 2023[9]).
VET student funds for vulnerable learners
Since August 2021, each upper-secondary VET institution must operate a VET student fund (MBO-studentenfonds) supported by an additional EUR 10 million per year in government funding distributed nationally. Colleges use these funds to assist learners facing financial hardship, such as covering course materials, transport costs, or childcare. The fund can also support pregnant students, helping reduce drop-out due to financial barriers (De Leijgraaf, 2021[10]; Cedefop & ReferNet, 2025[11]).
Inclusive education improvement agenda (“JOB MBO”)
As part of the Agenda for VET 2023–27, the Ministry of Education, Culture and Science launched the “JOB MBO” initiative to enhance well-being, social safety, and accessibility for VET students with support needs. This includes measures like free study materials for under‑18s (from 2024‑25), enhanced student guidance, and safeguarding vulnerable groups during internships. Each college must monitor students’ sense of safety, mental health, and satisfaction with support services, especially for those with disabilities or from disadvantaged backgrounds (Ministerie van Onderwijs, 2023[12]).
“MBO Accessible” website and support initiatives
This accessible upper-secondary VET platform compiles information on available support, including language assistance for migrants, disability services, and provisions for early school leavers. It provides information on support available for specific groups: learners with disabilities, low-skilled youth, migrants/refugees, and those from socio-economically disadvantaged regions (ReferNet, 2025[13]).
Upper-secondary VET graduates at all levels can enter the job market directly in the occupational field for which they trained. Additionally, successful completion of an upper-secondary VET level 4 diploma gives access to associate degree (ISCED 5) and professional bachelor programmes (ISCED 6) in higher vocational education (universities of applied sciences [HBO]) (Government of the Netherlands, n.d.[1]). Indeed, about 30% of upper-secondary VET level 4 graduates continue directly into HBO bachelor’s programmes (Cedefop, & Centre for Expertise in Vocational Education and Training, (ECBO), 2023[5]). A larger proportion eventually obtain a higher VET degree after some time in the labour market or further study, though this share has slightly declined in recent years (Cedefop, & Centre for Expertise in Vocational Education and Training, (ECBO), 2023[5]). Upper-secondary VET graduates cannot directly enter research universities and usually must first complete a year of a university of applied sciences or a university access programme (OECD, 2023[3]). Graduates of upper-secondary VET levels 2 and 3 may also progress vertically within VET – for example, a level 2 graduate can enrol in a level 3 course in the same field, and a level 3 graduate can advance to a level 4 programme (Cedefop, & Centre for Expertise in Vocational Education and Training, (ECBO), 2023[5]).
Upper-secondary VET graduates who enter the workforce can later upskill through part-time study or 1‑year post-secondary VET programmes (ISCED 4), which lead to advanced professional certificates (specialist training). These programmes require a prior upper-secondary VET level 3 or 4 diploma and support further skill development, such as master craftsman qualifications (Cedefop, & Centre for Expertise in Vocational Education and Training, (ECBO), 2023[5]).
Figure 6.1 shows educational pathways into and after ISCED 3 VET in the Netherlands.
Note: The reference year is 2023 (school year 2022/2023 in the northern hemisphere). Theoretical starting ages refer to the ages as established by law and regulation for the entry to a programme; actual starting ages may vary depending on the programme.
Source: Adapted from OECD (2023[14]), “Diagram of the Education System: Netherlands”, OECD Education GPS, https://gpseducation.oecd.org/CountryProfile?primaryCountry=NLD.
Upper-secondary VET curricula are structured around a national qualifications framework, with all programmes defined by competence-based qualification files (kwalificatiedossiers) that outline the required skills, knowledge, and learning outcomes for each occupation (Cedefop, & Centre for Expertise in Vocational Education and Training, (ECBO), 2023[5]). Introduced in their current form following a major 2016 reform, these files aim to create consistency across institutions. There are over 170 qualification files covering around 500 distinct vocational qualifications (Cedefop, & Centre for Expertise in Vocational Education and Training, (ECBO), 2019[15]). Qualifications within the same file share a common occupational domain but differ by level (e.g. MBO 2 vs MBO 4), specialisation, or job complexity. For example, a single file in the retail sector might include separate qualifications for retail assistant (MBO 2), sales specialist (MBO 3), and branch manager (MBO 4). The files also contain more than 1 000 optional modules (keuzedelen) that schools can offer qualification file is developed by expert committees under the Cooperation Organisation for Vocational Education, Training and the Labour Market (Samenwerkingsorganisatie Beroepsonderwijs Bedrijfsleven, SBB) – a legally established public-private partnership of employer organisations, trade unions, and MBO institutions – with input from employers, unions, and VET colleges (Cedefop, & Centre for Expertise in Vocational Education and Training, (ECBO), 2023[5]).
Each file includes (SBB, n.d.[16]; Cedefop, & Centre for Expertise in Vocational Education and Training, (ECBO), 2023[5]):
A generic component, which all upper-secondary VET students must follow, covering Dutch language, mathematics/numeracy, citizenship, and English (English is mandatory at level 4).
A basic vocational component, which defines fundamental competencies for a broad occupational field (e.g. ICT or healthcare). For example, a file for a business occupation might describe skills like office software, bookkeeping, and customer communication. In some fields (e.g. tourism) files include additional foreign languages.
One or more optional modules, which focus on job-specific skills for a defined specialisation (e.g. car mechanic vs. motorcycle technician in the automotive file) and represent roughly 10-15% of training time.
While the files define what must be learned, individual upper-secondary VET institutions are responsible for designing the curriculum (opleidingsprogramma) — that is, how the file’s learning outcomes will be achieved. Institutions determine the programme structure, teaching methods, sequencing of content, and delivery of work-based learning. They also select which optional modules to offer, allowing them to address regional labour market needs or support cross-cutting skills such as sustainability or entrepreneurship (OECD, 2022[17]). Typically, optional modules are integrated into the curriculum with their own learning outcomes and assessment procedures. The Inspectorate of Education (Inspectie van het Onderwijs) surveys whether VET institutions comply with national regulations, such as minimum instructional hours, curriculum implementation based on qualification files, and assessment standards and inspects teaching and exam quality (The Foundation for Cooperation on Vocational Education, Training, and the Labour Market (SBB), n.d.[18]; The Foundation for Cooperation on Vocational Education, Training, and the Labour Market (SBB), n.d.[19]).
Upper-secondary VET programmes combine classroom-based instruction, practical training in school workshops, and workplace learning (see Section 6.3). The government sets minimum instructional time in the Adult and Vocational Education Act. The structure and minimum hours for a typical three-year school-based (BOL) programme would be:
1 800 hours of school-based instruction and practice, including theoretical lessons, skills lab sessions, project-based learning, simulated workplace activities within the school.
900 hours of work-based learning (beroepspraktijkvorming, BPV), through internships in companies (Inspectie van het Onderwijs, Ministerie van Onderwijs, Cultuur en Wetenschap, n.d.[20]).
This amounts to around 2 700 hours over 3 years, with an average of 32‑35 hours per week. Schools can flexibly organise work placement time, using weekly internships (e.g. 1‑2 days per week) or full-time block placements over several weeks (Cedefop, & Centre for Expertise in Vocational Education and Training, (ECBO), 2023[5]).
Many VET schools organise teaching in modules or cross-curricular projects, rather than teaching each subject in isolation. For example, instead of having separate classes for communication and planning, students may complete an integrated project that develops both competencies. However, regardless of the structure, students must still demonstrate all the required competencies defined in the national qualification file (Cedefop, & Centre for Expertise in Vocational Education and Training, (ECBO), 2023[5]; Government of the Netherlands, n.d.[1]).
BBL (apprenticeship) programmes require students to spend at least 60% of their total programme time in the workplace. A typical three-year BBL programme includes:
~2 400‑2 700 hours of work-based learning (BPV) with a recognised training company, where the student is employed and gains hands-on experience.
600‑900 hours of school-based instruction, typically one day per week, covering general subjects and theoretical components related to the qualification (Inspectie van het Onderwijs, Ministerie van Onderwijs, Cultuur en Wetenschap, n.d.[20]).
As with BOL, students in BBL must meet all learning outcomes defined in the national qualification file, and employers are responsible for supporting and evaluating workplace learning.
Assessment in upper-secondary VET combines school-based examinations and centralised tests to certify that students meet the requirements set out in the national qualification files. Under the Adult and Vocational Education Act, VET schools are responsible for assessing both vocational and general learning outcomes in both the school-based and apprenticeship pathways (Overheid.nl, 2025[21]). Internal examination boards within each VET school oversee the quality of assessment procedures, ensuring that they are valid (i.e. measure the intended competencies) and reliable (i.e. produce consistent results). While assessments are administered by teachers, the boards are responsible for monitoring whether the overall process meets legal and educational standards.
In both school-based and apprenticeship programmes, work-based learning is a formal part of the assessment. Employers – specifically workplace mentors – must assess student performance and submit formal evaluations to the school to be included in the evaluation. A school instructor may visit or stay in contact to monitor progress and ensure that the internship is meeting curricular goals. The final assessment of a competency might occur during the internship. For example, a hospitality student might demonstrate the competence “plan and organise an event” by organising a small event at the internship employer, which is then evaluated jointly by the company supervisor and a teacher.
In addition to school- and company-based assessments, students must complete centrally administered exams in Dutch language, mathematics, and – in level 4 programmes – English. These tests are developed at the national level (Inspectie van het Onderwijs (Inspectorate of Education), 2022[22]). Since 2023, passing the Dutch language exam has been mandatory for obtaining the diploma. For English (at level 4), the central exam must be taken and passed if it is part of the qualification file. The central mathematics exam is also administered nationally, but students are not required to pass it to receive the qualification. Their results are recorded and included on the diploma supplement (Cedefop, & Centre for Expertise in Vocational Education and Training, (ECBO), 2023[5]). These national tests are identical for school based and apprenticeship students, ensuring consistent standards across both routes. Other general subjects, such as citizenship education or career orientation, are assessed through school-developed methods, often in the form of projects or integrated assignments.
Students receive an upper-secondary VET diploma upon successfully completing three components: vocational competency assessments, general subjects (including central exams where required), and the required work-based learning hours. The Diploma is the formal credential issued by the Ministry of Education, Culture and Science (Ministerie van Onderwijs, Cultuur en Wetenschap, OCW), which certifies that the student has attained a recognised qualification as defined in the national qualification files. It specifies the qualification title (i.e. the occupational specialisation), the MBO (VET) level (2, 3, or 4), pathway (school-based or apprenticeship) and any completed optional modules (Cedefop, & Centre for Expertise in Vocational Education and Training, (ECBO), 2023[5]). Qualifications at MBO levels 2‑4 are considered full upper-secondary credentials that allow entry into the labour market or further education (startkwalificaties). Level 1 (entry-level) awards a diploma at the assistant level but is not considered a full upper-secondary qualification under Dutch law (Eurydice, 2023[23]). Students who do not complete the full programme may receive a certificate for successfully completed components, but only the diploma confers formal qualification status.
Upper-secondary VET students in school‑based programmes spend roughly 20‑60% of their time work-based learning (beroepspraktijkvorming (BPV) or “stage” (internship), while those in apprenticeship programmes spend at least 60% of their time at a workplace.
The Adult and Vocational Education Act prescribes minimum durations for WBL in school-based programmes. For example, in a three-year school-based programme, a student must complete at least about 900 hours of internship (which may be split into multiple periods) (Inspectie van Onderwijs (Inspectorate for Education), n.d.[24]). In practice, many school-based VET students spend one or two days per week at a company or undergo longer blocks of full-time internships, especially in the later stages of their programme. School-based students typically do not get a salary but sometimes receive a small allowance (Cedefop, & Centre for Expertise in Vocational Education and Training, (ECBO), 2023[5]).
The exact arrangement of work-based learning varies by institution and field. Often, first-year students start with shorter or observational internships after an initial school period, to introduce them to the work environment. In subsequent years, the intensity increases: students take on more complex tasks during internships and may have extended placement blocks. A typical example is the upper-secondary Nursing (level 4) programme, where in the 3rd and 4th year a student is in clinical practice roughly 24 hours per week (three days) and attends classes the other 12 hours per week (deltion.nl, n.d.[25]). Schools prepare students for internships through simulation and practice in school workshops. Many VET schools have facilities like training restaurants, salons, or construction labs where students learn skills in a controlled environment.
All BPV placements must take place at an accredited training company. The SBB is legally tasked with accrediting and supervising companies to ensure they offer a suitable learning environment. There are tens of thousands of accredited companies across the Netherlands covering all sectors – from small retail shops and farms to large hospitals and multinational firms. The SBB maintains a portal (Stagemarkt.nl) where students and schools can find approved internship offers. Each company undergoes an accreditation check for having appropriate facilities, a qualified workplace mentor, and the ability to let the student practice the required competencies. The quality of in-company trainers is one of the accreditation criteria: workplace supervisors are generally expected to be a qualified worker in the field (often MBO level 3/4 or higher) and some pedagogical skills or training in mentoring (Cedefop, & Centre for Expertise in Vocational Education and Training, (ECBO), 2023[5]). Companies are re-evaluated periodically by SBB to maintain their status as learning companies.
During a placement, the student, school, and company sign a training agreement detailing the duration, learning goals, and supervision arrangements. Students maintain a training log or portfolio to record activities and reflect on learning. Workplace mentors (praktijkopleiders) provide guidance and evaluate the student’s performance on the job. By law, the company’s input must feed into the student’s assessment (see Section 6.2) (Cedefop, & Centre for Expertise in Vocational Education and Training, (ECBO), 2023[5]).
While both routes lead to the same qualifications, apprenticeship programmes (BBL) differ from school-based VET in that students are employees from the outset. They spend at least 60% of their time in paid work at an accredited training company and attend school one day per week for classroom instruction. Unlike school-based students, apprentices sign an employment contract and earn a salary (Cedefop, & ReferNet, 2025[26]).
Vocational education at ISCED 3 in the Netherlands is delivered mainly by specialised VET schools (MBO-scholen), encompassing several provider types. There is a relatively small number of institutions nationwide, but each serves a large region or specific sector. As of 2023, there are 57 public VET schools at upper‑secondary level, funded by the Ministry of Education (Cedefop, & Centre for Expertise in Vocational Education and Training, (ECBO), 2023[5]). These can be categorised into three main types:
1. Regional Training Centres (Regionale Opleidingscentra, ROC): These are large, multi-sectoral publicly-funded colleges offering a broad range of vocational programmes (from technology and economics to healthcare and services). There are 39 ROCs across the country (OECD, 2022[17]) A ROC typically has multiple campuses in its region and enrols thousands – sometimes tens of thousands – of students. They often have departments or campuses devoted to different sectors.
2. Occupational colleges (Beroepscolleges): the Netherlands’ 16 occupational colleges are former specialised vocational colleges and former agricultural training centres [AOCs]. They provide programmes in graphics/media design, maritime training and specialised craftsmanship (for instance, goldsmithing/jewellery). They also provide programmes in horticulture, animal care, farming, food technology, landscape design, and related “green” professions (Ministerie van Onderwijs, Cultuur en Wetenschap (Inspectorate of Education), n.d.[27]) (OECD, 2022[17]; Cedefop, & Centre for Expertise in Vocational Education and Training, (ECBO), 2023[5]).
3. Special institutions for students with disabilities: In addition to the above, there is one publicly funded vocational school specifically tailored to students with hearing, speech, or language disabilities (to provide extra support in vocational training) (Cedefop, & Centre for Expertise in Vocational Education and Training, (ECBO), 2023[5]).
Collectively, these schools enrolled around 470 000 students (across MBO levels 1-4) in 2023 (down from almost 480 000 the year before) (deltion.nl, n.d.[25]). The average VET school hosts over 8 000 students, though actual sizes range widely (Cedefop, & Centre for Expertise in Vocational Education and Training, (ECBO), 2023[5]; OECD, 2022[17]) – some ROCs in major cities have 20 000+, while a specialised occupational college might have only a few hundred. All the above institutions are publicly funded and adhere to national regulations. They have considerable autonomy (as per the WEB law) in governance and finances (see Section 6.6), but they must meet accreditation and quality requirements (OECD, 2022[17]).
Each VET school typically offers programmes across the four broad sector categories: (1) Technology & Engineering, (2) Economics & Business, (3) Health & Welfare, and (4) Agriculture & Environment. A regional training centre will usually have departments for each of these sectors (except agriculture may be left to agricultural training centres). For example, a large regional training centre will have a technical institute (offering electrical, mechanical, IT, building trades), a business institute (offering retail, administration, tourism), a health institute (offering nursing, social care), etc. Specialised occupational colleges focus on one category (e.g. an art & design college falls under economics/creative sector, an agricultural college covers the green sector exclusively) (Cedefop, & Centre for Expertise in Vocational Education and Training, (ECBO), 2023[5]; OECD, 2022[17]).
All public VET schools offer both school based and apprenticeship pathways for most qualifications. Some institutions have a larger share of apprentices, especially in technical fields or for adult learners. For instance, a regional training centre with strong industry connections in manufacturing might have many apprentices enrolled, whereas a regional training centre in an area with fewer companies might lean more on school-based training. The flexibility to run school-based or apprenticeship programmes (or both) lies with providers and is often demand-driven. During economic booms when employers seek apprentices, VET providers can expand apprenticeship offerings (MBO Raad, 2023[28]). Conversely, if fewer jobs are available, providers ensure school-based pathways are available so students can remain in full-time school until the labour market improves.
In addition to publicly funded VET colleges, around 100 accredited private providers deliver upper-secondary VET programmes. These usually target adult learners (with a small minority of upper-secondary VET students) or niche fields. (Cedefop, & Centre for Expertise in Vocational Education and Training, (ECBO), 2023[5]). While they receive no government subsidy for initial VET, they must meet national accreditation criteria, follow qualification files, and are subject to Inspectorate oversight (OECD, 2022[17]).
All MBO schools (public or private) must be accredited by the Ministry of Education. The Inspectorate for Education conducts quality assessments and issues periodic reports on each institution. Measures include student success rates, exam quality, financial management, and adherence to standards outlined in qualification files and financial. Schools that underperform can be put under stricter supervision or, in rare cases, lose the right to offer certain programmes, although this is rare (OECD, 2025[29]).
To be eligible to host work-based learning – whether in school-based or apprenticeship pathways – companies must also be formally recognised as training enterprises (erkend leerbedrijf) by the SBB. Recognition is granted based on criteria such as workplace relevance, presence of a qualified mentor, and alignment with qualification requirements (SBB, n.d.[16]). As of 2024, over 250 000 companies are registered as training enterprises, covering a wide range of sectors. The SBB is legally mandated to oversee the recognition, monitoring, and quality assurance of training enterprises. SBB also maintains Stagemarkt.nl, the national portal where students and schools can find approved internship placements.
Dutch VET teachers are required to meet national standards similar to those in general education, with additional pathways to accommodate industry experts transitioning into teaching. The (Overheid.nl, 2020[30]) (Wet BIO) lays down competence requirements for all teachers, including those in vocational education. According to this law, every VET school must keep a competence file on each teacher, demonstrating that the teacher meets professional standards in subject knowledge, pedagogy, and didactics (Cedefop, & Centre for Expertise in Vocational Education and Training, (ECBO), 2023[5]).
In upper-secondary VET, a teacher typically must hold one of the following:
A second-degree (tweedegraads) teaching license: a 4-year bachelor’s degree from a university of applied sciences that qualifies graduates to teach in lower secondary general education as well as MBO (with one specialised subject). Entry typically requires holding an upper-secondary diploma, either in general education (HAVO/VWO), or in VET at MBO level 4 (Eurydice, 2023[31]; OECD, 2022[2]).
A first-degree (eerstegraads) teaching license: a master’s teaching degree from a university of applied sciences, enabling teaching in upper‑secondary general education (OECD, 2022[2]) Admission requires a bachelor’s degree in the specialisation subject and typically teaching experience (Universiteit Leiden (Leiden University), n.d.[32]).
An industry degree plus a pedagogical certificate (Pedagogisch Didactisch Getuigschrift, PDG) (OECD, 2022[2]). This certificate is obtained through a 1-2 year course (depending on prior experience and part-time arrangements) at a university of applied sciences, and covers teaching methods and classroom management.
For vocational practical lessons, VET schools may employ instructors (praktijkinstructeurs) or workshop supervisors who might not be fully licensed teachers but work under a teacher’s supervision. The law recognises such roles, but it stipulates that teaching teams must include fully qualified teachers responsible for oversight (Inspectie van Onderwijs (Inspectorate for Education), n.d.[24]). Since 2017, instructors must meet minimum competency standards, including demonstrable vocational expertise and pedagogical skills, as defined in the General Administrative Regulation (Algemene Maatregel van Bestuur [AMvB]) (Cedefop, & Centre for Expertise in Vocational Education and Training, (ECBO), 2023[5]; Raad, 2018[33]).
In-company trainers, who supervise apprenticeships or internships, are not school staff but must meet professional and pedagogical standards. Since 2018, they are generally expected to hold a qualification at or above the level they supervise and have basic coaching skills. The SBB offers training and resources, and company accreditation requires competent mentors to be in place (Cedefop, & Centre for Expertise in Vocational Education and Training, (ECBO), 2023[5]).The SBB and sector bodies facilitate “train the trainer” workshops for company staff, which school teachers sometimes help deliver (OECD, 2022[2]).
Continuous professional development (CPD) for VET teachers is primarily the responsibility of VET schools, which have full HR autonomy under the WEB Act. While CPD hours are not nationally mandated, the Inspectorate of Education evaluates whether schools systematically support teacher professionalisation as part of its quality assurance reviews. This includes checking whether schools have a coherent professional development plan and offer opportunities for pedagogical and subject-specific upskilling (Cedefop, & Centre for Expertise in Vocational Education and Training, (ECBO), 2023[5]). Schools receive funding via block grants to support CPD and often offer in-house training or partner with universities of applied sciences for advanced programmes.
Since the mid-2010s, efforts have promoted research-mindedness (onderzoekend vermogen) among VET teachers (Cedefop, & Centre for Expertise in Vocational Education and Training, (ECBO), 2023[5]) including practice-based research with university partners. Initiatives by the government and the Council of VET institutions (MBO Raad) include teacher development teams (Lerarenontwikkelteams) for cross-school curriculum innovation and industry internships for teachers. Some teachers also retain part-time roles in industry to stay connected to practice.
At the national level, the Ministry of Education, Culture and Science (OCW) oversees VET policy, legislation, and funding. OCW defines the qualification structure, pathways, and core requirements for instruction and assessment (see Section 6.2). It also sets teacher qualification standards (via the Wet BIO), monitors system performance, and funds institutions (see Section 6.7). OCW additionally provides tools for system transparency and monitoring. The main legal framework for upper-secondary VET is the Adult and Vocational Education Act (Wet educatie en beroepsonderwijs, WEB), which is established and enforced by OCW (Cedefop, & Centre for Expertise in Vocational Education and Training, (ECBO), 2023[5]).
OCW works closely with the Cooperation Organisation for Vocational Education, Training and the Labour Market (Samenwerkingsorganisatie Beroepsonderwijs Bedrijfsleven, SBB), a legally established public-private partnership of employer organisations, trade unions, and VET schools. SBB is responsible for maintaining national qualification files (see Section 6.2), accrediting companies for work placements, and supplying labour market data and forecasts (OECD, 2025[29]). Sectoral committees within SBB – composed of industry and education representatives – develop and update these qualification files, including the occupational profiles (Cedefop, & Centre for Expertise in Vocational Education and Training, (ECBO), 2023[5]). When these committees propose a new or revised qualification profile, it must be approved by SBB’s board (which includes social partners and educational representatives) and then officially accredited by the OCW.
The Netherlands’ Inspectorate of Education plays a key role in overseeing the quality of VET schools (OECD, 2025[29]). It conducts regular inspections and thematic reviews to assess compliance with legal requirements – such as minimum teaching hours and examination standards – and monitors overall institutional performance (Cedefop, & Centre for Expertise in Vocational Education and Training, (ECBO), 2023[5]). The Inspectorate operates under a “proportional inspection” regime: well-performing colleges receive lighter-touch oversight, while institutions showing signs of risk are subject to more intensive scrutiny. In serious cases, the Inspectorate can require corrective measures and may advise the Ministry of Education to impose sanctions, such as budget reductions or institutional mergers. If a VET school wishes to deviate from national time standards (e.g. to introduce innovative teaching methods), it must demonstrate educational quality and secure approval from its participation council, a legally mandated body within each institution composed of staff and student representatives that must be consulted on key organisational and educational matters (see below) (Inspectie van het Onderwijs, Ministerie van Onderwijs, Cultuur en Wetenschap, n.d.[20]). The Inspectorate publishes an annual report on the state of quality in the VET sector.
Dutch VET schools operate with substantial autonomy, grounded in the Constitution’s guarantee of educational freedom and the (Wet educatie en beroepsonderwijs, WEB). While the Ministry of Education, Culture and Science defines the national qualification framework and funds institutions through block grants, schools independently decide which qualifications to offer, how to structure curricula (within the boundaries of the national qualification files), and how to deliver teaching. They determine pedagogy, staffing (within national collective labour agreements), and programme offerings based on local labour market needs. VET schools are fully in charge of recruiting teachers. Individual institutions advertise vacancies, usually through school governing bodies (college van bestuur), on national job portals like Meesterbaan.nl, and frequently on their own websites (onderwijsloket, 2024[34]). Eligible candidates may, they apply directly to MBO institutions. Hiring decisions rest with the school’s governing body, which conducts its own selection and appoints teachers in alignment with the institution’s needs and budgets. Schools also manage partnerships with employers and may provide additional services such as adult education or contract training for municipalities and firms (Cedefop, & Centre for Expertise in Vocational Education and Training, (ECBO), 2023[5]). Internally, each VET school is governed by a Board of Directors (College van Bestuur), accountable to a Supervisory Board (Raad van Toezicht), with operational management typically structured by campus or department. The Board of each college signs a funding agreement with the Ministry and is responsible for meeting statutory obligations (e.g. minimum teaching hours, accredited qualifications).
Institutions must also meet legal transparency and accountability requirements. Each year, they publish public reports detailing financial data and key performance indicators, which are reviewed by the Inspectorate of Education. Stakeholder participation within schools is ensured through a mandatory participation council (medezeggenschapsraad), comprising staff and student representatives. This body holds advisory and co-decision rights on matters such as budgeting, school policy, and curriculum organisation, providing a formal mechanism for student and staff input in institutional governance (Cedefop, & Centre for Expertise in Vocational Education and Training, (ECBO), 2023[5]).
Co‑ordination across VET schools is facilitated via The Council of VET schools (MBO Raad), which operates at sector level to represent school interests in policymaking (Cedefop, & Centre for Expertise in Vocational Education and Training, (ECBO), 2023[5]). The MBO Raad negotiates with government on matters like performance agreements innovation funds. To support knowledge exchange and system development, MBO Knowledge Hubs have been established by MBO Raad and OCW in areas such as teaching and examination, lifelong learning, and citizenship education. These hubs provide practical guidance, organise events, and facilitate peer learning among institutions (OECD, 2022[17]).
At the regional level, many VET colleges have advisory boards of local employers for each department. These advisory councils help shape the translation of national qualifications into curricula and projects. They also co‑ordinate internships and graduate placements. There’s no formal regional government role in MBO, but there is increasing alignment with regional economic policy. For example, Regional Investment Funds (RIF) have been used to finance collaborative projects between colleges, companies, and local governments to develop innovative training in key growth sectors (like renewable energy or ICT).
Upper-secondary vocational education in the Netherlands is free for students under 18 and is co-financed by the government, households (for students 18 and older), and employers. Students aged 18 and over pay modest fees: in 2023/24, school-based VET students (BOL) paid a statutory annual tuition fee of EUR 1 357, while apprentices (BBL) paid a lower course fee of a few hundred euros due to their shorter training duration and time spent working (Cedefop, & Centre for Expertise in Vocational Education and Training, (ECBO), 2023[5]). To reduce financial barriers, students over the age of 18 can access national student financing (studiefinanciering), which includes basic and supplementary grants, income-based loans, and public transport cards (Government of the Netherlands, n.d.[1]). For students in levels 1 and 2, grants are non-repayable; for those in levels 3 and 4, the financing resembles higher education loans, but may be converted into grants upon completion.
Public funding plays the dominant role. In 2020, total spending on VET was estimated at 1.1% of GDP, of which the government financed 0.8% and private sources (households and companies) the remaining 0.3% (Cedefop, & Centre for Expertise in Vocational Education and Training, (ECBO), 2023[5]). Public MBO institutions (and accredited private ones for funded programmes) receive a lump-sum grant (blokbijdrage) from the OCW each year. The funding model has several components:
A base funding per student, weighted by programme type and pathway (e.g. technical programmes receive more due to higher costs).
An allocation for each diploma (qualification) awarded (Cedefop, & Centre for Expertise in Vocational Education and Training, (ECBO), 2023[5]).
Targeted funding linked to performance agreements with the Ministry, supporting priorities like student guidance and excellence programmes (Cedefop, & Centre for Expertise in Vocational Education and Training, (ECBO), 2023[5]).
Institutional-level fixed components, including regional or overhead adjustments.
The exact formula is complex and periodically updated. In 2019, the government expenditure per VET learner in upper-secondary was about EUR 8 200. This figure includes all school costs and is comparable to spending per general secondary student. VET schools decide how to allocate the budget, as long as they meet legal obligations. They must account for spending in annual reports, and inefficiencies can be flagged by the Inspectorate of Education (Cedefop, & Centre for Expertise in Vocational Education and Training, (ECBO), 2023[5]).
Employers contribute by paying wages to apprentices and often providing some stipends or travel reimbursement to school-based interns. In sectors like construction or engineering, apprenticeship wages are governed by collective labour agreements (often starting around 20-30% of a qualified worker’s wage in the first year, rising each year). To encourage firms to train, the government operates the apprenticeship subsidy scheme (Subsidieregeling Praktijkleren). Companies that host an apprentices can receive a subsidy up to a maximum of EUR 2 700 per student per year, particularly for students in sectors with shortages and students from vulnerable groups (Praktijkleren Nederland, 2016[35]; Rijksdienst voor Ondernemend Nederland (RVO), 2013[36]).
The largest expenditure for VET schools is personnel (salaries of teachers, support staff). Given the practical nature of VET, class sizes are often smaller in workshops and labs, and equipment costs are significant. Many schools also spend on student support services (career guidance, remedial support for those with difficulties, etc.), especially to reduce dropout.
Within the Dutch VET funding system, the Ministry of Education, Culture and Science (OCW) provides additional earmarked funds for specific policy priorities, including: incentives to reduce early school leaving; additional support for students with special needs under the passend onderwijs framework; innovation and excellence grants (e.g. the Regionaal Investeringsfonds MBO for school–employer collaboration); and separate funding for adult education, provided by both OCW and municipalities.
Non-subsidised private providers finance themselves via tuition fees from students or contracts with companies. However, if a private provider’s programme is recognised, their students can be eligible for student finance and the companies for the apprenticeship subsidy, creating a partially level playing field.
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To illustrate how the above elements come together in practice, this annex presents three examples of upper‑secondary VET programmes in the Netherlands:
Example 1: Apprenticeship in Retail Sales (MBO 2, BBL).
Example 2: School-based programme in Financial Administration (MBO 3, BOL).
Example 3: School-based programme in Nursing (MBO 4, BOL).
Each example demonstrates how the national qualification files are implemented in curriculum and assessment at the micro level, as well as pathways after completion.
The Verkoper (Retail Salesperson) qualification is a level 2 upper-secondary VET programme (ISCED 3, EQF 2), typically completed in two years. Offered in both school-based (BOL) and apprenticeship (BBL) formats, the BBL pathway mainly serves young pre-vocational (VMBO) graduates or working adults in retail. The programme prepares students for roles such as shop assistant or cashier, focusing on sales, product knowledge, and customer service.
In the apprenticeship route, students are employees of an accredited retailer (leerbedrijf) and spend most of the week on the job. A typical schedule is 4 days per week working in a store and 1 day at school for lessons (Zadkine, n.d.[37]). Over 2 years the apprentice must complete at least ~1 220 hours of work-based learning (beroepspraktijkvorming, BPV) – roughly 610 hours per year – and around 400 hours of in-school instruction per year (Inspectie van Onderwijs (Inspectorate for Education), n.d.[24]) (zorgacademie, n.d.[38]) (Overheid.nl, 2025[21]). In practice this means about 32 hours per week of paid work in the shop, and 6‑8 hours per week in the classroom. Annex Table 6.A.1 summarises the components of the Verkoper apprenticeship programme.
Source: Inspectie van der Onderwijs, (n.d.[24]), Teaching time in secondary vocational education, www.onderwijsinspectie.nl/onderwerpen/onderwijstijd/onderwijstijd-in-het-middelbaar-beroepsonderwijs#:~:text=Urennorm%20bbl%20Entreeopleiding%201%20850,elk%20leerjaar%20minimaal%20610; Alfa-college (2025[39]), Retailmedewerker (Verkoper), www.albeda.nl/opleiding/retail-commercie/retailmedewerker-verkoper-bbl#:~:text=Hoe%20je%20bij%20ons%20leert; Zadkine (n.d.[37]), Retail medwerker (Verkoper), www.zadkine.nl/opleidingen/business/retail-medewerker-verkoper-bbl#:~:text=Je%20kunt%20onder%20andere%20uit,aanbod%20kan%20per%20studiejaar%20wijzigen, Cedefop, & Centre for Expertise in Vocational Education and Training, (ECBO), (2023[5]), Vocational education and training in Europe – Netherlands’: system description, www.cedefop.europa.eu/en/tools/vet-in-europe/systems/netherlands-u3.
The national qualification file for Verkoper defines core tasks (kerntaken) that the student must demonstrate. These include (1) receiving and processing goods (e.g. accepting deliveries, stocking shelves), (2) selling products and providing service to customers (engaging customers, advising, selling, handling complaints), and (3) completing sales transactions (operating the cash register and finalising purchases) (ROC Nederland, n.d.[40]). In the school curriculum, these outcomes are translated into practical modules and projects. For example, at the Albeda VET school, for example the programme is delivered in a series of 10-week modules. Each module integrates theory and practice: students learn retail concepts in class and immediately apply them at work. The content covers tasks such as greeting customers, conducting sales conversations, building product displays, processing incoming stock, and basic store administration (Allbeda, n.d.[41]). Throughout the year, some schools also use realistic practical assignments (“challenges”) to enhance learning – for instance (Zadkine, n.d.[37]). College has students complete eight on-site retail challenges per year in collaboration with real stores (Zadkine, n.d.[37]). Alongside the vocational content, students study general subjects. Dutch lessons focus on workplace communication (speaking with customers, writing simple notes), maths is taught in the context of retail calculations (making change, discounts), and civics/biology might address topics like consumer rights or working safely in a shop. English is not compulsory at level 2, though some programmes include a basic English module (especially if the student may progress to level 3).
During the 4 workdays, the apprentice follows a company training plan aligned with the national occupational competencies. In the first months, the apprentice conducts simple tasks – stocking shelves, greeting customers – under close supervision. As time progresses, they take on more responsibilities: by mid-programme, they may handle sales independently for routine transactions, manage a section of the store, and deal with basic inquiries. By the end, they might take on returns, resolving customer complaints, or training newer staff in simple tasks. The workplace mentor uses a checklist to ensure the apprentice gets exposure to all required tasks. The apprentice maintains a logbook of activities which is reviewed by the school’s training advisor periodically. The logbook includes successful sale, or photos of a merchandise display they arranged, or a testimonial from their supervisor about their reliability.
Assessment includes a combination of practical evaluations and knowledge tests. For the practical component, an assessor (often the school instructor, sometimes together with the company mentor) will conduct an observation assessment on-site: the apprentice is observed interacting with a customer (role-play or real) – greeting, sales talk, closing the sale – and scored against criteria (clarity of communication, meeting customer needs, product knowledge displayed, etc.). Another practical exam might be a task like setting up a promotional end-cap display or doing an end-of-day cash count, to verify those competencies. To complement the practical assessment, the assessor reviews the logbook maintained by the apprentice throughout the training, ensuring all competence units are covered.
For the theoretical assessment, the VET college will set written or computer-based exam. The exam may include basic calculation relevant to discounting, or a quiz on store safety rules and consumer rights. Dutch language proficiency is assessed partly via central examination at 2F level. There may also be an internal exam for speaking/listening skills in Dutch, tailored to customer communication scenarios. A central maths 2F exam is taken but is not required to pass for the diploma (Cedefop, & Centre for Expertise in Vocational Education and Training, (ECBO), 2023[5]). English is usually not mandatory at level 2, but if included, is assessed via an internal test.
The examination board of the MBO college validates that all assessments meet the quality standards. The Education Inspectorate reviews whether practical exams align with the national qualification file – checking, for example, that key retail tasks are properly assessed. They also ensure companies are involved in the process, for example by providing appraisal from the mentor that contributes to the apprentice’s final grade or competency sign-off (Cedefop, & Centre for Expertise in Vocational Education and Training, (ECBO), 2023[5]).
A qualified Verkoper (Retail Salesperson) at MBO 2 is considered to have a basic entry qualification for the labour market. Many graduates go straight into employment – often staying with the training employer or moving to a larger store. They work as retail assistants, cashiers, or stock controllers. Additionally, the diploma allows progression to an MBO 3 programme, typically the Retail Supervisor (Verkoopspecialist) or Entrepreneurial Retail programme. Indeed, many who want career growth in retail will climb the ladder – from Verkoper (level 2) to Verkoopspecialist (level 3, learning to supervise a department) to possibly Filiaalmanager (Store Manager, which is an MBO 4 programme) over time. Since the Verkoper programme is relatively short, young graduates sometimes immediately enrol in level 3 to improve their prospects. Others might branch to a different field at level 3 (for example, switching to an MBO 3 in commerce or another sector), but typically one stays in the economic domain.
The Financieel Administratief Medewerker is a level 3 upper-secondary VET programme in the Netherlands (ISCED 3, EQF level 3), completed in three years via the school-based route (BOL) (though a parallel apprenticeship rout is also available). It prepares students for support roles in financial administration, such as junior financial clerk, accounts assistant, or payroll support staff in companies, public services, and non-profit organisations. Entry is typically based on a VMBO diploma or a level 2 MBO qualification in a related field (Samenwerkingsorganisatie Beroepsonderwijs Bedrijfsleven (Foundation for Cooperation on Vocational Education, Training and the Labour Market), 2015[42]) (Kennispunt MBO, n.d.[43]).
The programme includes around 1 800 hours of classroom and practical training at school and 800‑900 hours of internship (beroepspraktijkvorming, BPV) over three years (Inspectie van het Onderwijs, Ministerie van Onderwijs, Cultuur en Wetenschap, n.d.[20]) (Overheid.nl, 2025[21]).The curriculum is organised around key vocational competencies: controlling and editing financial records (e.g. cash, bank, sales, and purchase journals), managing accounts receivable and payable (e.g. issuing and checking invoices, monitoring payment terms), and processing quantity-based records (e.g. hours worked, cost units). Students learn to use bookkeeping software, maintain accuracy, and apply a critical mindset when handling confidential and financial data (MBO Bonaire, 2021[44]).
The programme’s total study load is around 3 000 hours over 3 years, balanced between school and internship. Students spend roughly 1 800 hours in classroom-based instruction and simulated practice, and about 900 hours in work-based learning (stage) at companies (Inspectie van Onderwijs (Inspectorate for Education), n.d.[24]). In each year, this translates to about 32 weeks of classes (at ~30 hours/week) and the remainder devoted to practical training. The curriculum is structured around vocational competencies defined in the qualification file. Annex Table 6.A.2 outlines the main components of the Financial Admin Assistant programme.
Source Astrum College (n.d.[45])), Keuzedelen (Electives), www.astrumcollege.nl/studeren-bij-astrum-college/keuzedelen#:~:text=Keuzedelen%20,klokuren%20%3B%20Niveau%204; Inspectie van het Onderwijs (Inspectorate of Education) (n.d.[24]), Onderwijstijd in het middelbaar beroepsonderwijs (Teaching time in secondary vocational education), www.onderwijsinspectie.nl/onderwerpen/onderwijstijd/onderwijstijd-in-het-middelbaar-beroepsonderwijs#:~:text=Urennorm%20bbl%20Entreeopleiding%201%20850,elk%20leerjaar%20minimaal%20610.
According to the national qualification file, the core learning outcomes for this qualification include maintaining financial records, handling accounts payable and receivable, and managing various quantitative records (Samenwerkingsorganisatie Beroepsonderwijs Bedrijfsleven (Foundation for Cooperation on Vocational Education, Training and the Labour Market), 2015[42]). Students learn to maintain daily journals (ledgers) by recording transactions in purchase and sales journals accurately, manage debtors and creditors by processing incoming and outgoing invoices and monitoring payments, and handle quantitative data such as hours-worked administration or stock counts (MBO Bonaire, 2021[44]).
Practical training is supported through simulations (e.g. a mock accounting office) and internship placements. Internships may take the form of two periods (e.g. 8‑10 weeks in year 2 and 12‑20 weeks in year 3) or a spread model (e.g. 2 days/week over a semester), depending on the school. During internships, students work under supervision in finance departments – processing invoices, assisting in credit control, maintaining records, or helping prepare payroll. They apply skills in data entry, document checking, and financial accuracy, learning to handle sensitive information with care.
Assessment combines school-based exams and workplace evaluation. School exams test both theoretical knowledge and practical skills – for instance, writing a professional letter in Dutch, performing a VAT calculation, or using financial software to prepare a ledger. Dutch and English reading/writing are centrally examined, while other competencies are assessed through internal tests. For practical exams, students complete integrated assignments – such as processing a batch of invoices or reconciling payment records – often in a simulated business setting. Final assessment may include a capstone task that tests planning, accuracy, and task prioritisation.
Internship performance is also assessed. Students are evaluated by their workplace mentor and must often submit a portfolio including reflections, examples of completed tasks, and a report on the organisation. The school’s internship supervisor validates these assessments and ensures alignment with qualification requirements. The examination board oversees quality assurance, and the Inspectorate of Education reviews whether assessments match the national standard, especially for practical and generic skills.
Graduates of this programme are equipped to work independently in financial support roles across sectors. Common positions include junior financial administrator, accounts clerk, payroll assistant, or cost control assistant. The diploma also qualifies students to progress to a level 4 MBO programme, such as Bedrijfsadministrateur (Business Administrator), or a more specialised pathway in areas like finance, human resources, or logistics. With a level 4 diploma, further progression to HBO (higher professional education) becomes accessible.
The MBO-Verpleegkundige is a high-level vocational programme (MBO 4, EQF level 4) that trains students to become registered nurses at the vocational level. In the Dutch context, this qualification allows graduates to work as general nurses in hospitals, nursing homes, home care, mental health, etc., and is aligned with the European nursing directive (making it quite comprehensive). It is an upper-secondary VET programme that lasts four years. Graduates receive the diploma “Verpleegkundige” which also gives them access to the official nurses’ registry (BIG register) after meeting any additional requirements (there’s a close alignment with BIG legislation on training hours and content) (Inspectie van het Onderwijs, Ministerie van Onderwijs, Cultuur en Wetenschap, n.d.[20]). This programme is exclusively offered in the school-based route (BOL), though there are also adult-upgrading routes in dual form for existing healthcare workers. Typical entry into the MBO 4 Nursing programme is pre-vocational graduation (with high achievements) or from an MBO 3 in healthcare. Many entrants are 16‑17-year-olds coming directly from secondary school, though a significant number may be adult learners or career changers.
The nursing programme spans four years and must meet a higher-than-usual hour requirement due to statutory and EU guidelines. Students complete at least 4 000 hours of training over the four years (Inspectie van Onderwijs (Inspectorate for Education), n.d.[24]). In practice, schools structure this as roughly 40‑42 weeks per year with an average of 25‑30 hours per week of activities (which may be split between school and clinical practice). Approximately 50‑60% of the time is dedicated to practical training (clinical placements and skills labs), and 40‑50% to theoretical instruction. Annex Table 6.A.3 provides a general breakdown by year.
Source: Verpleegkundige (Nurse) (n.d.[45]), Keuzedelen, www.astrumcollege.nl/studeren-bij-astrum-college/keuzedelen#:~:text=Keuzedelen%20,klokuren%20%3B%20Niveau%204; MPO-Verpleegkundige (Nurse), (n.d.[46]) (MPO Nurse), (2025), deltioncollege.nl, www.deltion.nl/opleidingen/mbo-verpleegkundige.
The nursing school curriculum combines theoretical instruction in health sciences with hands-on skills training in labs where students practice procedures like taking vital signs and injections using mannequins or role-play. It emphasises the nursing process and critical thinking – assessing patient needs, planning interventions, and evaluating outcomes – as well as communication and teamwork skills, including engaging with patients, families, and healthcare teams. Students also gain specialised knowledge in areas like maternity, mental health, geriatrics, and rehabilitation. General education includes Dutch (with medical terminology and report writing), English (B1), and maths focused on medication dosages and fluid balances. Civics content covers healthcare laws and ethics, such as patient rights.
Assessment combines theoretical, practical, and workplace-based evaluations. Students take knowledge exams on topics such as anatomy, physiology, and common diseases, typically through written or computer-based formats. Although not mandated nationally, it is common practice for schools to administer a high-stakes medication calculation test – reflecting the profession’s emphasis on safety and precision. Practical skills are regularly assessed in simulation labs through structured exams. For instance, students may be tested on performing a sterile wound dressing or administering an injection, observed by an instructor using a checklist to verify each step is performed correctly, including hygiene, communication, and procedural accuracy. Critical skills must be demonstrated successfully before students can progress.
Internships include integrated assessments such as the proof of competence exam (proeve van bekwaamheid), where students are observed by both school and workplace assessors over a shift while delivering real patient care. They are expected to perform a full range of nursing duties – such as administering medication, conducting handovers, monitoring vitals, and documenting in patient records – while demonstrating professionalism, teamwork, and planning.
Students also compile a portfolio with case studies, reflective writing, and documented skills, which provides evidence of their development and integration of theoretical knowledge into practice. Additionally, students take general education exams: Dutch and English reading/writing are centrally assessed at 3F and B1 levels respectively, and a 3F maths exam applies. However, due to the high importance of dosage accuracy in nursing, many schools also require an internal medication maths exam to be passed with 100% accuracy, even if national maths exam rules are less stringent (Cedefop, & Centre for Expertise in Vocational Education and Training, (ECBO), 2023[5]).
All these pieces must be passed to graduate. The examination board ensures that the clinical assessments meet the national qualification requirements as well as the Dutch nursing competency framework. The nursing qualification file is closely linked to the national occupational profile for nurses (which in turn aligns to EU Directives). The Inspectorate also checks that nursing programmes meet the required training hours and content breadth (statutory training hours beyond standard MBO applies due to healthcare law) (Inspectie van het Onderwijs, Ministerie van Onderwijs, Cultuur en Wetenschap, n.d.[20]).
MBO nursing graduates can register as qualified nurses and work in hospitals, long-term care, psychiatric institutions, etc. They typically start as staff nurses on a ward or in home care teams, performing direct patient care under supervision of senior nurses or doctors. Many MBO 4 nurses later pursue a Bachelor of Nursing, often after gaining work experience. Universities of applied sciences offer shortened programmes for MBO-qualified nurses (typically 2½ years instead of 4). Bachelors in nursing open doors to broader roles in leadership, research, or specialisation. Around 91% of MBO 4 nursing graduates who continue studying enrol in a higher vocational education programme (Cedefop, & Centre for Expertise in Vocational Education and Training, (ECBO), 2023[5]).