All students who finish compulsory schooling in Norway have a legal right to upper-secondary education, including vocational education and training (VET), irrespective of their grades. VET programmes are guided by national curricula focused on competence-based learning, and they typically follow a “2+2” model of two years in school and two in apprenticeship. Work-based learning begins in the first two years in school and increases during apprenticeships in the last two years. Most VET is delivered by public schools that also deliver general upper-secondary education. VET teachers must have both industry experience and pedagogical training, and ongoing professional development is encouraged. The system’s governance is tripartite, involving government, employers and unions, and multi-level, involving national and county authorities. Funding is primarily public, with no tuition fees for students and comprehensive support for apprentices and training firms.
Vocational Education and Training Systems in Nine Countries
Abstract
Norway’s upper‑secondary education (videregående opplæring) system offers both academic and vocational tracks, typically beginning at age 16 after ten years of compulsory schooling (OECD, 2020[1]). Students choose among five general academic programme areas and ten vocational education programme areas (OECD, 2020[1]) (Cedefop, & Norwegian Directorate for Higher Education and Skills, 2023[2]). These ten upper‑secondary VET programmes are: (1) Agriculture, Fishing and Forestry (Naturbruk); (2) Building and Construction (Bygg- og anleggsteknikk); (3) Crafts, Design and Product Development (Håndverk, design og produktutvikling); (4) Electricity and Electronics (Elektro og datateknologi); (5) Hairdressing, Floral, Interior and Retail Design (Frisør, blomster, interiør og eksponeringsdesign); (6) Healthcare, Childhood and Youth Development (Helse- og oppvekstfag); (7) Information Technology and Media Production (Informasjonsteknologi og medieproduksjon); (8) Restaurant and Food Processing (Restaurant- og matfag); (9) Sales, Service and Tourism (Salgs, service og reiseliv); and (10) Technical and Industrial Production (Teknologi- og industrifag).
The VET programmes are three to four years in duration, and lead to over 190 nationally recognised vocational qualifications at EQF level 4 (ISCED 353) upon completion (OECD, 2022[3]; Utdannings-direktoratet (Norwegian Directorate for Education and Training), 2024[4]). The VET programmes prepare students for skilled employment in a wide range of sectors and also provide pathways to further education. In 2021, 45% of 15-19 year-old upper-secondary students were enrolled in VET programmes in Norway (OECD, 2023[5]).
All young people who finish compulsory lower secondary school in Norway have a statutory right to complete upper‑secondary education and training, ensuring access even for those with lower grades (OECD, 2022[3]). The right to upper‑secondary education lasts until a student has obtained either university admission certification or a vocational qualification (trade or journeyman’s certificate, passed vocational examination, practice candidates whose substantial work experience has been certified), regardless of the time it takes to achieve this. Those who have obtained final qualifications at a lower level, for example a practice certificate, still retain the right to complete (Utdanningsdirektoratet (Norwegian Directorate for Education and Training), 2025[6]). Because all students have a right to upper secondary education, Norway does not use “pre-vocational” or bridging programmes in the way some other countries do. Instead, to prevent dropout and support students at risk to obtain a qualification, Norway has developed alternative VET pathways within the upper‑secondary system (Box 7.1). There is no strict minimum academic achievement requirement to enter a VET programme; however, if a particular school or programme is oversubscribed, admission is determined by prior school grades. Students may switch pathways or pursue additional qualifications – the system’s permeability allows movement between vocational and academic routes, aided by bridging options (described below).
Norway has introduced targeted initiatives to support students who have difficulties succeeding in VET programmes. Two key examples are the Certificate of Practice scheme and the Apprenticeship Candidate scheme, which offer more flexible, workplace-oriented training for those at risk of dropping out.
Certificate of Practice (Praksisbrev)
This two-year alternative VET pathway is aimed at teenagers who struggled in lower secondary school, and alternates school and workplace training. Students spend part of each week in a company and part in school, focusing on practical skills. At the end of two years, they earn a Certificate of Practice, documenting basic competencies in a trade. Crucially, they can transition to a full apprenticeship afterward to pursue a journeyman’s certificate. The strong workplace component and early contact with employers are credited with keeping these students engaged and improving their prospects of completing upper‑secondary VET (OECD, 2020[1]).
Apprenticeship Candidate (Lærekandidatordningen)
This scheme is designed for learners who cannot meet all the requirements of a full trade certificate due to academic or learning challenges. As “apprenticeship candidates,” they follow an individually adapted training plan in a company, aiming for a more limited competence assessment. The programme focuses on developing practical work skills and employability. While relatively few apprenticeship candidates later advance to a full trade certificate, this pathway provides a valued partial qualification and improves their employment outcomes. It represents a “safety net” so that even students with significant difficulties can attain formal proof of skills for the labour market.
Sources: OECD (2020[1]), Education Policy Outlook. Norway, www.oecd.org/content/dam/oecd/en/about/projects/edu/education-policy-outlook/country-profile-Norway-2020.pdf; Cedefop (n.d.[7]), Certificate of Practice (Praksisbrev), www.cedefop.europa.eu/en/tools/vet-toolkit-tackling-early-leaving/resources/certificate-practice-praksisbrev, Utdannings-direktoratet (The Norwegian Directorate for Education and Training (2021[8]), Norwegian Directorate for Education and Training (UDIR), Utdannings-direktoratet (The Norwegian Directorate for Education and Training (2021[8]), Trainee, www.udir.no/utdanningslopet/videregaende-opplaring/andre-varianter/larekandidat/.
After completing ISCED 3 VET, graduates in Norway have multiple progression pathways. The primary destination for most is the labour market. In fact, within one year of passing the trade/journeyman’s exam, about 82% of graduates are employed. At the same time, VET graduates can and do pursue further education and training. Many enter post-secondary vocational colleges (fagskoler), which offer short-cycle higher VET (EQF 5) in specialised fields (OECD, 2022[3]). Others aim for higher education. While a vocational trade certificate alone does not confer general university entrance eligibility, Norway provides a well-established bridging route. VET students can take a one-year supplementary programme (påbyggingsår) in academic subjects to obtain the university admissions certification. This bridging course covers advanced Norwegian, English, mathematics and other theory to equate the academic requirements of general studies. It is common for those who fail to secure an apprenticeship placement to switch to the academic bridging path.
Figure 7.1 provides an overview of Norway’s education system, highlighting the place of ISCED 3 VET and the pathways into and beyond it (Box 7.1).
Note: The reference year is 2023 (school year 2022/2023 in the northern hemisphere). Theoretical starting ages refer to the ages as established by law and regulation for the entry to a programme; actual starting ages may vary depending on the programme.
Source: Adapted from OECD (2023[9]), “Diagram of the education system: Norway”, OECD Education GPS https://gpseducation.oecd.org/CountryProfile?primaryCountry=NOR.
Upper‑secondary VET programmes in Norway are built on national curricula that define learning outcomes, content, and assessment criteria for all subjects. The Ministry of Education and Research holds overall responsibility for VET curriculum and regulates what is taught. A major curriculum reform known as Knowledge Promotion 2020 introduced updated competence-based curricula for both general and vocational education. These new curricula place emphasis on relevant skills, in-depth learning and adaptability to future needs, to ensure that programme content aligns with labour market requirements (Cedefop, & Norwegian Directorate for Higher Education and Skills, 2023[2]).
Most vocational programmes follow the “2+2” model, comprising two years of school-based education followed by two years of apprenticeship training in a company (OECD, 2022[3]). In the school phase (Vg1 and Vg2) students receive both general education and vocational instruction. In the apprenticeship phase (Vg3 and Vg4) training is almost entirely work-based (details in Section 7.3). A few programmes use modified structures – for instance, “medical secretary” is delivered as 3 years in school (3+0) with an extended in-school practical component, while a small number of technical trades use a 1+3 model (one year school + three years apprenticeship) (Regjeringen (Ministry of Foreign Affairs), n.d.[10]).
Within each programme, the curriculum is divided into:
Common core subjects (fellesfag): mandatory academic subjects that all VET students study, providing a baseline of general education. These are Norwegian (first language), English, Mathematics, Natural Science, Social Science, and Physical Education. The scope and level of these courses in vocational programmes are slightly adapted compared to academic programmes, but they follow national subject curricula. Students are assessed and examined in these subjects similarly to their peers in general studies (including centrally administered exams in some subjects).
Programme subjects (programfag): vocational theory and practical subjects specific to the programme area. These are defined centrally for each programme and Vg1/Vg2 level. In Vg1 (the first year), programme subjects provide a broad introduction to the vocational field. In Vg2 (the second year), the programme subjects become more specialised and trade-specific, as students split into narrower specialisations within the programme (Utdannings-direktoratet (Norwegian Directorate for Education and Training), 2020[11]). These programme subjects combine classroom learning with workshop practice.
In-depth practice (Yrkesfaglig fordypning, YFF): a unique component of Norwegian VET curricula allowing students to deepen their practical skills in an area of interest. YFF is an integral part of Vg1 and Vg2, where students can spend time in actual workplaces or school workshops to apply what they’ve learned and explore specific trades. Schools often arrange short-term internships at local companies as part of YFF, or have students work on practical projects simulating industry tasks. YFF has no separate exam but is graded pass/fail based on participation and learning achieved.
Each subject syllabus defines competence aims (kompetansemål) that students should reach, rather than prescribing detailed content (Cedefop, & Norwegian Directorate for Higher Education and Skills, 2023[2]). For instance, in the Vg2 Electrician syllabus, an aim might be “the student can plan and perform the installation of an electrical circuit according to regulations and evaluate their work for safety and functionality.” The new (2020) curricula emphasise core elements and interdisciplinary themes (like digital skills, sustainability, health & life skills) across subjects. Teaching methods are not dictated by the national curriculum – teachers and schools have pedagogical freedom to decide how to achieve the outcomes (Cedefop, & Norwegian Directorate for Higher Education and Skills, 2023[2]) – but there is an expectation of integrating practical and theoretical learning. Practical workshops, project-based learning, simulations, and group work are common pedagogical approaches in VET classrooms.
Assessment in Norwegian VET is criterion-referenced to learning outcomes. Teachers and examiners assess whether students/apprentices meet the defined competence goals. During the two school years, teachers use a variety of assessment methods – written tests, practical skill demonstrations, project work, etc. – to gauge competency. Student performance in each subject is continuously assessed by teachers, and students receive grades (normally on a scale from 1 to 6, where 6 is highest and 2 is the minimum passing grade). VET students must sit certain centrally administered and externally graded examinations in their common academic subjects (e.g. Norwegian, English or Maths) (Cedefop, & Norwegian Directorate for Higher Education and Skills, 2023[2]). They may also have local exams in some vocational theory subjects, prepared and graded at the county level (Cedefop, & Norwegian Directorate for Higher Education and Skills, 2023[2]). Towards the end of Vg2, many counties require an optional cross-disciplinary practical exam (tverrfaglig praktisk eksamen) in the programme subjects, while others rely on extended in-depth practice. Students must pass their exams and all subjects to be eligible to enter an apprenticeship (or to receive a school completion certificate) (utdanning.no, 2025[12]).
In the apprenticeship, employers and training supervisors provide feedback throughout, but the formal final evaluation is the independent trade test. Indeed the culmination of upper‑secondary VET is the trade/journeyman’s examination (fag- eller svenneprøve). This is a comprehensive practical–theoretical exam and is required to earn the full vocational qualification (trade certificate) (Cedefop, & Norwegian Directorate for Higher Education and Skills, 2023[2]). The examination is prepared and overseen by an independent Examination Board (Prøvenemnd) for the specific trade, typically consisting of experienced craftspersons from industry (appointed by the county). Performance is evaluated against national criteria, and the outcome is graded ”Very well passed” or ”Well passed”.
Work-based learning is central part of Norwegian upper-secondary VET, both in the school phase (years 1 and 2) and apprenticeship phase (years 3 and 4).
During the school phase (Vg1 and Vg2) programmes incorporate practical training in workplaces. As part of the curriculum’s In-Depth Practice (YFF) component, many VET students go on short internships or practice placements with local employers, typically a day per week or in multi-week blocks (Utdannings-direktoratet (Norwegian Directorate for Education and Training), 2020[11]). These placements are usually unpaid training experiences and are structured through agreements between the school and the company. Schools themselves also have workshops and simulated work environments (e.g. kitchens for culinary students, auto garages for mechanic students) where a significant portion of learning is “hands-on.” By regulation, the two school years must include practical training in workshops and/or enterprises (Cedefop, & Norwegian Directorate for Higher Education and Skills, 2023[2]).
After completing the school-based portion, students enter into an apprenticeship (læretid) with an approved training company. The standard apprenticeship structure (Vg3 and Vg4) lasts two years, during which the individual is both a learner and an employee. Apprenticeships are regulated by the Education Act and a national Apprenticeship Contract. Key features include:
The apprentice signs a formal apprenticeship contract with the company (and in some cases also with a group training agency). The contract must be approved and registered by the County Education Authority, which verifies that the company is qualified to provide the training (Utdannings-direktoratet (Norwegian Directorate for Education and Training), 2020[11]; Utdannings-direktoratet (Norwegian Directorate for Education and Training), 2024[4]).
The company is obliged to ensure the apprentice can practice the specific competencies listed in the curriculum (often through a logbook or training plan).
Every training company must appoint a “training supervisor” (faglig leder) responsible for the overall training, and one or more skilled worker instructors (instruktører) who work directly with the apprentice on a daily basis. The training supervisor ensures the training plan is followed and liaises with the county apprenticeship authorities.
Unlike some dual systems, Norwegian apprentices do not usually attend weekly vocational school during their apprenticeship. The assumption is that the necessary theory was covered in the first two years of school. However, there are often short refresher courses or workshops organised by counties or industry training offices to help apprentices prepare for the trade exam theory.
Apprentices are considered employees-in-training. They receive a wage that increases over time – commonly starting at about 30‑40% of a fully qualified worker’s wage and rising to around 80‑90% by the end of the apprenticeship. The wage structure is often set by collective agreements. Employers are partially compensated for training apprentices by the state (see Section 7.7, Funding).
To offer apprenticeships, a company must be approved as a training establishment by the county authorities. Approval criteria include having relevant production work to train the apprentice, employing qualified staff to supervise, and commitment to follow the curriculum. Many small companies cannot alone provide the full range of training so collaborate through Apprenticeship Training Agencies (samarbeidsorgan) – consortia of companies that jointly recruit and train apprentices. The apprentice might rotate between member companies to gain all necessary experiences.
For the minority of students who fail to obtain an apprenticeship or have an apprentice’s contract terminated, counties are responsible for providing an alternative solution. One solution is an “alternative vg3” (skoleløp) – a third year of school-based training covering the apprenticeship curriculum in a workshop setting. Additionally, some students who cannot find an apprenticeship choose to take the academic bridging course (switching to general study competence path).
Quality assurance and stakeholder involvement in work-based learning in Norway is underpinned by a collaborative governance approach. At the national level, the National Council for VET (SRY) and the trade-specific councils (Faglige råd) include employer and union representatives who influence apprenticeship standards and content. Locally, each county’s Vocational Training Committee (Yrkesopplæringsnemnd) monitors apprenticeship provision in that region and advises on approvals of training companies and allocation of training places (Cedefop, & Norwegian Directorate for Higher Education and Skills, 2023[2]).
Upper‑secondary VET in Norway is offered by a mix of public and private providers, though the public sector predominates. The country has a unified school system in which almost all upper‑secondary education – both academic and vocational – is delivered by county-level public schools owned and operated by Norway’s county authorities (OECD, 2022[3]; Cedefop, & Norwegian Directorate for Higher Education and Skills, 2023[2]). There are approximately 400 upper‑secondary schools across Norway, and the majority offer one or more vocational programmes in addition to general studies. Urban areas may have larger dedicated vocational colleges (e.g. an engineering college, a health training college).
Alongside the public schools, there is a small private sector in upper‑secondary VET. A handful of private vocational schools (friskoler) exist, typically run by nonprofit foundations, religious organisations, or private companies. These must be approved by the national authorities and follow the national curricula, awarding the same trade certifications. Private upper‑secondary schools receive government funding per student, and they are allowed to supplement with modest tuition fees. However, the share of students in private upper‑secondary education in Norway is very low.
Because Norway’s VET is highly standardised by national curricula, all providers (public or private school, or company) must adhere to the same learning goals. The county authorities co‑ordinate provision to avoid duplication and fill regional skills needs. For example, not every school will offer all ten VET programmes; counties designate certain schools as “specialists” for specific programmes depending on local industry. A rural county might have one school focusing on Agriculture and another on Industrial Technology. Students have the right to attend an out-of-area school if their chosen programme is not offered locally, and in such cases they might live in a dormitory or receive a housing stipend (the state provides relocation grants to support students who must travel to access a VET programme) (Cedefop, & Norwegian Directorate for Higher Education and Skills, 2023[2]). In practice, virtually all students do get into one of their top choices and counties ensure there are enough school places in both academic and vocational streams each year.
Quality assurance of providers is handled via multiple mechanisms. Public schools are subject to national quality audits (through the county governor’s office) and must report key indicators (like student completion rates, exam results). Private schools are supervised by the Directorate and can lose their accreditation for various reasons, including if they do not provide education in line with approved curricula or quality standards (Utdanningsdirektoratet (Norwegian Directorate for Education and Training), 2024[13]).Training companies are regularly evaluated by the county Vocational Training Committee, and their approval can be revoked if they fail to provide proper training or if an apprentice consistently fails exams due to inadequate preparation (Cedefop, & Norwegian Directorate for Higher Education and Skills, 2023[2]).
The vocational education workforce in Norway consists of two main categories: school-based teachers and in-company trainers. Norway holds VET teachers to essentially the same formal standards as general academic teachers, with additional requirements for vocational expertise (OECD, 2022[3]).
In Norwegian upper‑secondary schools, a VET teacher (yrkesfaglærer) typically teaches the vocational programme subjects (and often supervises workshop practice), while academic subjects (Norwegian, English, etc.) are taught by general subject teachers. By law, however, both categories are considered “teachers” with parallel qualification frameworks. All teachers, including those in vocational programmes, must have: (1) expertise in the subject/field they will teach, and (2) an approved teacher education qualification in pedagogy and didactics. For vocational teachers, the subject-matter expertise is usually demonstrated by holding a relevant trade or journeyman’s certificate (and/or a relevant professional education) plus several years of industry work experience in that field (Cedefop, & Norwegian Directorate for Higher Education and Skills, 2023[2]). The national regulations specifically require that vocational teachers have at least four years of relevant work experience in the trade/industry they teach (this can be slightly reduced if they have a higher education in the field).
To acquire pedagogical competency, vocational teachers must complete teacher training through one of two main routes (OECD, 2022[3]):
The Practical Pedagogical Education for vocational teachers (PPU-Y) route: This is a shorter programme (often one year full-time or 1.5-2 years part-time) taken after a person has the vocational qualification and work experience. It focuses on pedagogy, classroom management, and didactics for VET. Many industry professionals who move into teaching take this route. They may start teaching on a temporary basis and simultaneously enrol in PPU to earn their teaching certificate. The government provides grants to schools to give newly hired un-certified VET teachers paid time-off to study pedagogy and covers the cost of a substitute teacher (Cedefop, & Norwegian Directorate for Higher Education and Skills, 2023[2]).
The Vocational Teacher Education Bachelor’s route: Less common than the PPU-Y route, several universities and colleges offer a dedicated 3-year bachelor’s degree in vocational teacher education. Students in these programmes are often young people who choose teaching as a career from the start, focusing on a particular vocational area (e.g. technology, healthcare). The curriculum interweaves subject-specific content, workshop practice, and pedagogical training, and usually includes practicums in schools. Graduates earn a Bachelor of Vocational Education, and there is even an option to extend to a 2-year Master’s degree in vocational pedagogy for further specialisation (Cedefop, & Norwegian Directorate for Higher Education and Skills, 2023[2]).
Norwegian law does not impose a strict requirement for in-service teachers to periodically re-certify or undergo specific hours of continuous professional development (CPD), and CPD is increasingly decentralised to counties (OECD, 2022[3]). However, there is an expectation and culture of ongoing professional development supported by the employer (the county school) and national programmes.
A new system for competence development for teachers in kindergarten and schools, including teachers and instructors in VET, will be implemented from 2025 (regjeringen.no, 2025[14]). For now, VET teachers can take part in the same general CPD opportunities as other teachers (courses on classroom management, ICT in teaching, etc.). Additionally, the government has introduced some VET-specific upskilling initiatives. One innovative measure is a secondment programme (utveksling) that encourages VET teachers to spend some time in industry and company trainers to spend time in schools (Cedefop, & Norwegian Directorate for Higher Education and Skills, 2023[2]). Through a national funding programme (Kompetanse for kvalitet), VET teachers can apply to take further studies (often part-time) in either advanced trade technology or in pedagogy, with the state covering tuition and some salary costs.
Instructors and training supervisors in apprenticeships are crucial educators in the Norwegian VET system. The authorities set expectations that these trainers should be skilled and experienced workers. Some companies voluntarily have their trainers take a course (like the “Train the Trainer” seminars offered by counties or employer associations). The Government offers online training resources and short courses for apprentice instructors. Many trainers also attend continuing education workshops via their industry networks or the Apprenticeship Training Agencies, which may host seminars on mentoring.
The Education Act 2024 provides the legislative framework for VET in Norway. It establishes the right to upper‑secondary education, and covers upper‑secondary education for adults. The Act states that the county municipalities are responsible for public upper‑secondary education, and has rules on, education’s scope and content, the organisation of teaching, and vocational training provided by businesses, among other things (Regjeringen (Ministry for Foreign Affairs), 2025[15]). Policy direction is framed by two recent White Papers: the Completion Reform (Fullføringsreformen) – Meld. St. 21 (2020–2021) – which sets a 90% completion goal and strengthens the right to complete upper‑secondary education; and Meld. St. 11 (2024–2025) Skilled workers for a new era – with higher vocational education, which sets priorities for higher vocational education (fagskoler) and continuing VET (Regjeringen (Ministry of Foreign Affairs), 2020[16]).
Governance of ISCED 3 VET in Norway involves a combination of national oversight and decentralised management, with a strong role for social partners (employers and unions) in decision-making. The system can be described as a tripartite, devolved governance model:
At the national level, the Ministry of Education and Research sets the legal framework (laws and regulations) and national curricula for VET (Cedefop, & Norwegian Directorate for Higher Education and Skills, 2023[2]). The Ministry is responsible for overall strategy and major reforms. Under the Ministry, the Norwegian Directorate for Education and Training is responsible for upper-secondary VET (for youth and adults), while the Norwegian Directorate for Higher Education and Skills is responsible for tertiary VET. The Directorate for Education and Training develops curriculum details, issues guidelines, administers funding schemes, and oversees quality assurance nationally. All qualifications, including vocational trade certificates, are defined in the National Qualifications Framework, and their standards are set at national level.
At the county level, Norway’s county authorities (fylkeskommuner) have the mandate to organise and deliver upper‑secondary education, including VET (Cedefop, & Norwegian Directorate for Higher Education and Skills, 2023[2]). This means counties own the public vocational schools, hire teachers, and are responsible for admitting students and providing training places. Counties receive block grants from the state (and have some local tax revenue) to fund schools and apprenticeships (see Section 7.7). They also approve apprenticeship contracts and training companies. Each county has an Office of Upper‑Secondary Education and Training led by an education director, which handles day-to-day administration of VET (school operations, exams, apprenticeship monitoring, etc.). While adhering to national curricula, counties have some flexibility in resource allocation – e.g. deciding how many VET classes to open, which locations to offer certain programmes, and investments in equipment.
Each county is legally required to have a Vocational Training Committee (Yrkesopplæringsnemnda) (Cedefop, & Norwegian Directorate for Higher Education and Skills, 2023[2]). This committee has a tripartite composition and education sector representatives. It advises the county on all important VET matters. For example, it gives recommendations on approving training establishments, it monitors the supply and demand for apprenticeships, and it can mediate if issues arise between apprentices and companies.
Social partner involvement: A hallmark of Norwegian VET governance is the institutionalised involvement of employers’ organisations and trade unions at all levels (OECD, 2022[3]; Cedefop, & Norwegian Directorate for Higher Education and Skills, 2023[2])
At the national level, the Ministry is advised by the National Council for Vocational Education and Training – in Norwegian Samarbeidsrådet for yrkesopplæring (SRY) (Cedefop, & Norwegian Directorate for Higher Education and Skills, 2023[2]). The SRY is a top-level body comprising representatives from national employers’ associations, national trade union federations, relevant government agencies, and other stakeholders. It meets regularly to discuss VET policy and provides input on major issues (curriculum reforms, capacity, new trades).
Directly under the SRY are ten National Vocational Training Councils (Faglige råd) – one for each vocational programme area (OECD, 2022[3]; Cedefop, & Norwegian Directorate for Higher Education and Skills, 2023[2]). These councils are made up of experts from the specific industry (for example, the construction trades council includes contractors’ federation reps, construction unions, etc., as well as some educators). They have a defined role in curriculum development: they propose updates to trade curricula, and suggest the establishment of new specialisations or the discontinuation of obsolete ones.
At the institutional (school) level, each public VET school has a management team (principal and department heads) responsible to the county, and also often an advisory council for each vocational programme they offer. These school-level advisory councils include local employers and sometimes alumni and students, providing grassroots feedback on the programme. For instance, the automotive programme at a school might have an advisory board with local car repair shops and car dealers who meet with teachers to discuss training content and opportunities for student practice.
Upper‑secondary VET in Norway is publicly funded and free of charge for students. The financing responsibilities are shared between the central government and the county authorities, with no tuition fees for learners in either the school-based or apprenticeship components (Utdanningsdirektoratet, n.d.[17]). In practice, this means the government covers the costs of instruction, school operations, and also heavily subsidises apprenticeship training in companies. Private expenditure in this sector is minimal – only about 3% of total spending on secondary education comes from private sources (e.g. minor fees, private school contributions) (OECD, 2023[18]) – reflecting Norway’s strong commitment to education as a public good.
The Norwegian central government provides block grants to each county for education, as part of an income distribution and tax equalisation system. Counties have the autonomy to allocate these funds among schools. The grant amount is calculated based on factors like the number of students, regional cost levels, and the proportion in vocational programmes (since VET is recognised as more expensive per student than general education). There isn’t a separate earmarked budget for VET vs general within the block grant – counties decide – but the formula accounts for the higher resource needs in VET (smaller class sizes in workshops, equipment, etc.). In addition to block grants, the central government runs specific targeted grants for priority areas in VET, such as equipment upgrades or new initiative pilots.
Counties use their funds to cover school operating costs, like teacher and staff salaries (which form the bulk of costs), facilities maintenance, utilities, and instructional materials. Schools also provide materials and equipment needed for VET at no cost to students. The state’s student aid fund (Lånekassen) also provides a small annual equipment grant (utstyrsstipend) to every upper‑secondary student in a VET programme, which varies by field – trades known to require more personal gear get a larger stipend (Lånekassen, n.d.[19]).
While Norway does not universally offer free school meals at upper secondary (unlike at lower levels), many counties subsidise meals or have arrangements for affordable canteens. Transport costs are often covered – counties typically provide free or discounted bus passes to students who have to commute beyond a certain distance. Additionally, if a student must live away from home to attend a specific VET school, they can receive housing and board allowances. The State Educational Loan Fund (Lånekassen) administers needs-based grants and loans for upper‑secondary students. Typically, students under 18 living at home don’t get stipends (as parents are expected to support them), but those over 18 or living away can get a monthly study grant depending on parental income. For apprentices (who usually start at age 18 or 19), they receive a wage from their employer rather than student support, but if an apprentice’s wage is very low they may be eligible for supplementary loans from Lånekassen (Lånekassen, n.d.[20]).
A significant element of VET funding is the training subsidy to companies that take on apprentices. The government provides a grant for each apprentice to the host firm (or training agency). In 2025, this apprenticeship grant is approximately NOK 182 000 per apprentice over the two-year training period (about USD 17 000) – though it varies slightly by trade and region (Norges Bondelag, 2025[21]).
In addition to direct costs, Norway invests in support structures: career guidance centres, follow-up services for dropouts (the Follow-Up Service is a county service mandated to track and offer training/work to youth not in education or employment), and training offices (which often get some funding indirectly as described). The Follow-Up Service, for instance, is funded through county budgets to ensure every youth who doesn’t immediately continue is contacted and given a second chance opportunity – these could include alternative training programmes that the county funds (sometimes one-year projects combining basic work training and schooling, often in collaboration with NAV, the Labour and Welfare Administration) (Utdannings-direktoratet (The Norwegian Directorate for Education and Training), 2022[22]).
References
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To illustrate how the above elements come together in practice, this annex presents three examples of upper‑secondary VET programmes in Norway, each highlighting a different sector:
Example 1: Electro and Computer Technology programme (Elektro og datateknologi) – Electrician (Elektriker) training pathway.
Example 2: Healthcare, Childhood and Youth Development programme (Helse- og oppvekstfag) – Health Care Worker (Helsefagarbeider) pathway.
Example 3: Technology and Industrial Production programme (Teknologi- og industrifag) – Industrial Mechanic (Industrimekaniker) pathway.
Each example outlines the programme’s structure (subjects, practical training, apprenticeship) and assessment approach from start to finish.
The Electro and Computer Technology programme prepares students for careers in the electrical and electronics trades. It covers a broad range of content – from power distribution and electrical installation to automation and digital communications systems. Within this programme, one of the most popular specialisations is the Electrician trade, which leads to the Electrician Certificate (fagbrev elektriker), qualifying individuals to install and maintain electrical wiring and equipment in buildings.
Annex Table 7.A.1 shows the structure of the Programme.
In the first year (Vg1) at school, students receive a foundational introduction to electrical engineering and electronics. Common core subjects (Norwegian, English, Maths, Science, Social Studies, Physical Education) take up about 50% of the time. Programme subjects in Vg1 include basic electrical theory (Ohm’s law, circuits), Energy and Control Systems (introducing how electrical systems and automation work), and Data and Electronics (covering simple electronics and IT networks) (utdanning.no, n.d.[23]). Students spend extensive time in the school’s workshop, and practical YFF projects might involve wiring a mock household circuit board or assembling a small electronics kit.
In the second year (Vg2) at school, students wanting to become electricians choose the Electrical Energy and Communication (Elenergi og Ekom) specialisation. Common core subjects continue (Norwegian, English, etc., slightly advanced from Vg1), and programme subjects now focus on electrical installations, automation systems, and electro-technical documentation. Students gain hands-on practice in wiring lighting systems, outlet circuits, fuse panels, fire alarm and telecom systems. Each student typically completes at least one extended practical assignment, and likely spend a period in a real electrical firm.
In years 3 and 4, students sign an apprenticeship contract with an electrical installation company. Over the next two years, they work full-time as an Electrician Apprentice, gradually taking on more complex tasks. The training supervisor at the company ensures the apprentice’s work covers all competence goals (including newer technologies like smart-home systems).
Throughout this path, learning outcomes are defined centrally. For example, by the end of Vg2, a student is expected to “be able to plan and install a complete low-voltage electrical circuit with the appropriate components and protections, and test it for functionality and safety.” By the end of the apprenticeship, they should “independently perform electrical installation work in accordance with current regulations, and troubleshoot and repair faults in electrical systems.” These outcomes are verified in the fagprøve. Grading in school courses follows the 1‑6 scale, while the apprenticeship phase culminates in a pass/fail (with merit designation possible) on the trade test (Cedefop, & Norwegian Directorate for Higher Education and Skills, 2023[2]).
The Healthcare, Childhood and Youth Development programme is a broad VET track preparing students for occupations in health care, social care, and early childhood education. One major qualification from this programme is Health Care Worker (Helsefagarbeider), which trains students to become skilled auxiliary nurses/caregivers working in hospitals, nursing homes, home care, and other health services. The Health Care Worker pathway is structured as a 2+2 model and emphasises both the theoretical knowledge of basic nursing and extensive practical caregiving skills.
Annex Table 7.A.2 shows the structure of the Programme.
In the first year (Vg1) at school, students get a foundation in both health care and child care topics. In addition to core subjects (Norwegian, English, etc.), programme subjects cover health promotion, communication and interaction, and practice of the profession (utdanning.no, 2025[12])In the school’s simulation rooms, students learn basic nursing skills and about child development and caregiving for children. Many schools arrange for students to spend short stints at elder care centers or daycare centers to observe and try simple tasks. By year-end, students should demonstrate basic care competencies and understanding of ethics (like patient confidentiality and respect).
In the second year (Vg2) at school, programme subjects go deeper into the same subjects (utdanning.no, 2025[12]). Students spend a lot of time in the school’s nursing lab simulating scenarios and also cover theory. Vg2 includes a substantial internship, with each student typically having a supervised practical placement of ~8‑12 weeks at health institutions. Vg2 students often face a practical cross-subject exam at the end of the year, and must also have satisfactory evaluations from their internship mentors, in order to progress.
In years 3 and 4, the apprenticeships usually take place in the municipal health and care sector or hospitals. Many apprentices spend one year in an elder care/nursing home setting and another year perhaps in home-based care or a hospital ward, to get a breadth of experience (some counties arrange rotation between different sites). As an Apprentice Health Care Worker, they gradually take on the role of an auxiliary nurse, and learn administrative tasks. During apprenticeship, they must complete a set of compulsory learning modules defined by the curriculum. At the end of the two years, the apprentice faces the Health Care Worker trade examination (fagprøve). If the apprentice demonstrates competence across the board, they pass and receive the Health Care Worker trade certificate (fagbrev). Newly qualified Health Care Workers are job-ready to staff nursing homes, home care services, and hospitals as supporting personnel, working under the supervision of nurses.
The Technology and Industrial Production (TIP) programme trains students for a range of technical trades in manufacturing, machinery, and technical maintenance. One representative qualification from this track is Industrial Mechanic (Industrimekaniker), a skilled tradesperson who installs, maintains, and repairs industrial machinery and mechanical systems (sometimes also called an industrial maintenance technician). This pathway emphasises mechanical engineering fundamentals, machining, and maintenance practices.
Annex Table 7.A.3 shows the structure of the Programme.
In the first year (Vg1) at school, students take core subjects with some contextualisation (e.g. maths classes might include technical maths problems on gear ratios or material strength). Programme subjects may include production, technical drawing and CAD, and maintenance and quality. Students spend a lot of time in the workshop using tools and equipment. Many schools have partnerships with local industry – for instance, an excursion to a factory to see real production processes.
In the second year (Vg2) at school, students specialise, and may cover machine tool operations, assembly and maintenance, and industrial fabrication. Theory taught alongside includes mechanics (forces, gear calculations), basics of electricity (since industrial machines have motors and control systems), and reading detailed engineering drawings and maintenance manuals. Many programmes also introduce CAD/CAM. Industrial Tech students typically go on one or two practical placements in local industry. By end of Vg2, students should demonstrate they can work independently on basic machining tasks and understand maintenance routines, which qualifies them to enter apprenticeship.
In years 3 and 4, the student becomes an apprentice industrial mechanic, usually employed by a manufacturing company, engineering workshop, or maintenance contractor. Over two years, they train on the job to achieve full journeyman competence. As they advance, apprentices learn to interpret detailed technical drawings and maintenance documentation on their own, plan work sequences, and eventually take lead on simpler jobs. After about 24 months, the apprentice is ready for the Industrial Mechanic Fagprøve. The format can vary, but often the exam task is a combination project that covers manufacturing and maintenance. If everything is satisfactory, the apprentice passes and is awarded the Industrial Mechanic journeyman’s certificate.