Upper‑secondary vocational education and training (VET) in Finland occurs during compulsory schooling (to age 18). National qualification standards define required competencies and learning outcomes, and programmes are modular and tailored through personal study plans. Work-based learning (WBL) is mandatory and implemented through either training agreements, without strict minimum levels of WBL, or apprenticeships. VET programmes are delivered by public and licensed private providers, who develop their own curricula based on the national qualification requirements. Teachers in VET meet three requirements: appropriate field qualification, relevant work experience, and pedagogical training. Governance of VET is centralised in regulation but decentralised and flexible in implementation, with social partners and local stakeholders strongly involved. Core funding ensures equity, while performance- and outcome-based financing rewards providers for students’ outcomes.
Vocational Education and Training Systems in Nine Countries
Abstract
Finland’s upper‑secondary education comprises two main tracks – general upper‑secondary school (lukio) and vocational education and training (ammatillinen koulutus). Both typically start at age 16 after nine years of comprehensive basic education (peruskoulu). Following a recent reform, compulsory education was extended to age 18 (or until an upper‑secondary qualification is attained) in 2021, meaning virtually all 16‑year-olds must continue and are assured a place in upper‑secondary studies (Eurydice, 2025[1]; European Agency for Special Needs and Inclusive Education, 2025[2]). Both general and vocational upper‑secondary are free of charge for students, including teaching materials and daily school meals.
Students choose either the general or vocational path, with each pathway lasting three years in nominal duration and granting eligibility for higher education upon completion (Eurydice, 2025[1]). About 42 different initial vocational qualifications (perustutkinnot) are defined at the national level, covering all major industries and occupational sectors. Each qualification is broad-based, aiming to impart fundamental skills in the field plus some specialisation (competence area) chosen by the student (Cedefop; Finnish National Agency for Education, 2022[3]). All vocational students, regardless of institution or age, participate in training in real workplaces as part of their studies. In 2021, 45% of 15-19 year-old upper-secondary students were enrolled in VET programmes in Finland (OECD, 2023[4]).
Admission to upper‑secondary VET is primarily based on the basic education certificate. There are no high-stakes entrance exams, but popular programmes may use applicants’ grade point average and other criteria for selection (Cedefop, 2019[5]). In certain fields (e.g. social and health care, technology, business) VET programmes receive more applicants than available places (Cedefop; Finnish National Agency for Education, 2022[3]).
For those who finish basic education without the necessary skills or who are undecided, Finland provides preparatory pathways (Box 4.1).
Preparatory education for upper‑secondary education (Tutkintokoulutukseen valmentava koulutus, TUVA)
Finland has integrated “second chance” routes to guarantee that every learner can enter upper‑secondary VET or general education. In 2022, a new Transitional Preparatory Education (TUVA) programme was introduced, combining the roles of prior preparatory courses into one unified pathway. TUVA is a one-year programme (extendable if needed) designed for students who have completed basic education but are not yet ready to start an upper‑secondary qualification. This includes those who did not attain a study place, school-leavers with low grades, immigrants needing language support, or others uncertain about their career direction. TUVA students follow an individual plan that may include basic academic subjects, Finnish/Swedish language lessons, study skills, career guidance, and periods of workplace orientation (Eurydice, 2025[1]). The aim is to strengthen their capabilities and confidence for pursuing a qualification the following year.
TUVA does not grant a qualification itself; however, time spent in TUVA counts as part of compulsory schooling (since education is mandatory until 18) and importantly, it improves students’ prospects of success in VET. A student can, for example, use TUVA to raise their maths and language proficiency, learn about different vocational fields through hands-on projects, and get counselling on applications. By the end of the programme, most TUVA participants advance into a vocational or general upper‑secondary programme.
Preparatory education and training for work and independent living (Työhön ja itsenäiseen elämään valmentava koulutus, TELMA)
For learners with special educational needs due to disabilities, Finland also offers a tailored preparatory track called TELMA (Työhön ja itsenäiseen elämään valmentava koulutus). TELMA focuses on life skills and functional abilities, preparing students with severe learning difficulties for work activity centers or independent living to the extent possible (Cedefop; Finnish National Agency for Education, 2022[3]). Together, TUVA and TELMA ensure that “no one is left behind” in the transition beyond basic education – every young person has a supported route toward further learning or work.
Finnish VET is primarily oriented towards employment, but also provides routes to higher learning. Upon graduation, VET students receive a vocational qualification certificate a vocational qualification (ammatillinen perustutkinto, EQF level 4) that facilitates their transition to the labour market. As of 2021, about 79% of 25–34 year-olds with a vocational upper‑secondary qualification were employed (though this rate is somewhat lower than in peer Nordic countries) (Ministry of Education and Culture of Finland, 2023[6]).
Completing a vocational qualification also awards general eligibility for tertiary education. VET graduates may sit for the national matriculation exam if they wish, or apply straight to universities of applied sciences (UAS) or universities as general school graduates can (Cedefop, 2019[5]). Around one-fifth of vocational graduates pursue further education relatively soon after graduation, often in UAS which offer bachelor’s degrees in fields like engineering, health care, or business (Cedefop; Finnish National Agency for Education, 2022[3]).
Finland also has a well-developed system of continuing vocational qualifications. After some work experience, individuals can pursue further vocational qualifications (ammattitutkinto, also EQF 4) or specialist vocational qualifications (erikoisammattitutkinto, EQF 5) to deepen or specialise their expertise.Indeed, the average age of VET students in Finland is about 28 years (above the OECD average age of 21) (Ministry of Education and Culture of Finland, 2023[6]). When adult students are included, 68% of all upper‑secondary students are enrolled in vocational programmes, reflecting the strong participation of adults returning for vocational qualifications (Ministry of Education and Culture of Finland, 2023[6]).
Figure 4.1 provides an overview of Finland’s education system, highlighting the place of ISCED 3 VET and the pathways into and beyond it.
Note: The reference year is 2023 (school year 2022/2023 in the northern hemisphere). Theoretical starting ages refer to the ages as established by law and regulation for the entry to a programme; actual starting ages may vary depending on the programme.
Source: Adapted from OECD (2023[7]), “Diagram of the education system: Finland”, OECD Education GPS, https://gpseducation.oecd.org/CountryProfile?primaryCountry=FIN.
Finnish upper‑secondary VET programmes are outcomes-oriented and competence-based, structured into modular qualifications rather than fixed, year-by-year courses. Each national vocational qualification (perustutkinto) has a national qualification standard describing what a learner must demonstrate to be awarded the qualification, and a set of competence requirements and study modules (units), rather than detailed subject-matter syllabi. Learning outcomes incorporate relevant key competences for lifelong learning (e.g. digital skills, sustainable development, entrepreneurship) as integrated parts of vocational skills, rather than as separate subjects. This integration was strengthened in the 2018 reform – now every vocational skill criterion also implicitly covers applicable transversal skills (for instance, a task assessment may consider the student’s teamwork, communication or problem-solving abilities alongside technical execution) (Cedefop; Finnish National Agency for Education, 2022[3]).
The Finnish National Agency for Education (Opetushallitus/EDUFI) establishes national qualification standards, and convenes broad-based working groups (including employers, trade unions, teachers, and sometimes students) to develop and periodically update these requirements. While providers have flexibility in delivery, the overall qualification requirements ensure that graduates attain a common core of skills and knowledge regardless of where or how they studied (Cedefop; Finnish National Agency for Education, 2022[3]).
An initial vocational qualification is formally 180 competence points (osp, opintopistettä), which corresponds to approximately three years of full-time study for a young student (Cedefop, 2019[5]). However, the duration can vary as each learner progresses according to a Personal Competence Development Plan (see below). The qualification is divided into two main components: common units which cover general education content and comprise 35 competence points, and vocational units specific to the field which comprise 145 competence points (JYU Online Courses, 2024[8]). The vocational units are further categorised into compulsory and optional modules. For each vocational unit, competence requirements specify the skills and knowledge the student must have and the criteria for acceptable performance. Table 4.1 summarises the typical composition of an initial VET qualification under the current curriculum framework.
Source: JYU Online Courses (2024[8]), Variety of qualifications, https://onlinecourses.jyu.fi/mod/page/view.php?id=5303#:~:text=A%20vocational%20qualification%20consists%20of,vocational%20unit%20in%20the%20qualification.
All students in upper‑secondary VET programmes must complete common units (35 cp) which cover general transferable skills and basic knowledge. These common studies are grouped into three broad areas: (1) Communication and Interaction (language and communication skills, including Finnish/Swedish, second national language, and a foreign language), (2) Mathematics and Science, and (3) Society and Working Life (civics, entrepreneurship, health, ICT, etc.). The aim of the common units is to ensure that vocational students attain key competencies for lifelong learning and citizenship – for instance, basic numeracy, language proficiency, and understanding of working life rights and responsibilities (JYU Online Courses, 2024[8]). These studies also secure the academic foundation for those who may continue to higher education.
All students in a programme must also complete compulsory vocational modules, which provide broad foundational skills in the occupation. They must also select among optional or specialisation modules, which may reflect their interests and/or local industry needs (Cedefop; Finnish National Agency for Education, 2022[3]). While the 145 vocational competence points are standard, the breakdown between compulsory and optional vocational units differs by programme (as defined in each qualification’s national requirements). For example, in the Vocational Qualification in Business, students take two compulsory modules (total 40 points) and then select optional modules totalling 105 points in topics like marketing, entrepreneurship or customer experience (Business College Helsinki, n.d.[9]).
A cornerstone of Finnish VET is the personal competence development plan (HOKS) that is drawn up for every student at the start of their programme. This plan is created jointly by the student and a guidance counsellor or teacher, and if possible with input from a workplace representative, to tailor the qualification path to the individual’s needs and prior learning. The HOKS documents the student’s existing competencies and maps out what units they will study, in what order, and through which learning methods (school-based instruction, on-the-job training, projects, etc.) (Cedefop; Finnish National Agency for Education, 2022[3]). It also covers any additional support the student might require (for example, language support for immigrants or special education services for those with learning difficulties). Under the HOKS, the length of time to complete a qualification can vary depending on how long it takes them to master competencies. There are no “grade levels” or fixed cohorts in vocational schools; instead, each student’s journey is individualised (Cedefop, 2019[5]).
Finnish VET has a distinctive practical unit-based assessment system focused on competence demonstrations (näyttö). There are no national final examinations in vocational subjects; instead, students demonstrate their skills in each module through real or simulated work tasks, which are then assessed against the national criteria. On-the-job performance is a key part of assessment: during work-based learning stints (see Section 4.3), employers and instructors observe the student’s skills, and often the formal demonstration is integrated into a work placement. The Finnish Education Evaluation Centre (FINEEC) periodically audits the quality of these competence demonstrations to ensure reliability across providers and that assessment criteria are applied consistently. When a student (and their instructors) judge that they are ready in a particular competence area, the VET provider arranges a supervised demonstration, often in a workplace or authentic environment, where the student performs tasks to show their competence. These performances are evaluated by two assessors: a teacher and a workplace representative (such as a company trainer or master craftsman) whenever possible (Cedefop; Finnish National Agency for Education, 2022[3]). The assessment criteria for each module are set out in the national qualification requirements, typically at three grade levels (excellent, good, satisfactory). Numerical grades are then awarded on a scale of 1 (satisfactory) to 5 (excellent) in most cases. Once learners have successfully completed all modules as per their personal plan, they are awarded a nationally recognised vocational qualification certificate by the provider.
Work-based learning is an essential element of Finland’s VET system. All vocational students, regardless of institution or age, participate in training in real workplaces as part of their studies. The 2018 reform explicitly removed rigid time requirements and instead encouraged maximum flexibility in organising WBL, with the guiding principle that skills should be acquired in authentic work environments whenever possible. In practice, this means there is no fixed minimum or maximum length of on-the-job training set at the national level. Instead, each student’s Personal Plan (HOKS) specifies how much of their learning will occur at workplaces, depending on the nature of the qualification and the student’s needs (Cedefop; Finnish National Agency for Education, 2022[3]). Typically, a young full-time student will spend at least several months of the 3-year programme in workplaces, and in some cases substantially more – often around one third of their study time. For adult students or those in apprenticeship-type contracts, the share can be much higher.
Finland distinguishes two main models of work-based learning within VET. About 4 in 5 VET students are in school-based VET with training agreements, while 1 in 5 have apprenticeship contracts (Cedefop; Finnish National Agency for Education, 2022[3]). Both types of WBL have formal arrangements between the VET provider and an employer, but they differ in legal status and responsibilities:
Training agreement (koulutussopimus): This is a non-employment work placement, essentially an internship. Under a training agreement, a student goes to a workplace to learn and practice skills according to an agreed plan, but they are not hired as an employee. Training agreements are very flexible – they can be as short as a few weeks or as long as many months, and a student can have multiple training agreements with different companies to cover various modules. Every training agreement is guided by learning objectives (tied to the student’s curriculum) and the student’s progress is supervised by a workplace instructor and monitored by the VET provider. Training agreements can also be used for international on-the-job learning (e.g. Erasmus+ internships abroad) (Cedefop; Finnish National Agency for Education, 2022[3]). For youth in initial VET, the predominant model remains a school-based programme enriched with significant on-the-job periods via a training agreement, rather than a full apprenticeship from the start.
Apprenticeship training (oppisopimus): This is the employment-contract model of VET. An apprenticeship is a fixed-term work contract between the student (as an apprentice) and an employer, where the apprentice works and learns on the job, and in parallel completes the required studies with the VET provider. Apprentices must be at least 15 years old, and they are paid a salary (determined by collective agreement) for the work they perform. In an apprenticeship, the workplace is the principal learning environment – typically 70–80% of the training time is spent at work, with the remainder spent in theoretical or classroom instruction as needed. The law no longer dictates how or where the “school-based” learning must occur; if the company can provide all necessary theory training internally, the apprentice might not need to attend classes at all. In practice, most apprentices do periodically attend the vocational school (or online classes) for certain technical or general subject lessons. The apprenticeship arrangement is facilitated by the VET provider, which helps match the student and employer, formalises the contract, and ensures the training plan meets curriculum requirements. Employers hosting apprentices receive a training compensation or subsidy from the provider/state to offset mentorship costs (the amount is agreed case-by-case) (Cedefop; Finnish National Agency for Education, 2022[3]).
Finland does not separate “apprenticeship VET” and “school VET” into distinct tracks at the qualification level – they are simply different arrangements to achieve the same vocational qualifications. Crucially, students can also mix and transition between these two WBL forms. For example, a student might start with a training agreement at a company, and if the employer later decides they are a good fit, they could convert it into an apprenticeship contract to complete the qualification while employed. The personal study plan will outline the pathway and can be adjusted if an apprenticeship opportunity arises mid-study (Cedefop; Finnish National Agency for Education, 2022[3]).
In WBL in school-based VET programmes, students are supervised by designated workplace instructors (employees trained or briefed in mentoring) and continue to have contact with their vocational teacher. The teacher might visit the workplace to observe or discuss progress. The learning is guided and goal-oriented, meaning the student is not just an extra pair of hands; they are there to learn specific competencies and are gradually allowed to perform more complex tasks as they prove competent. Employers benefit by gaining potential future employees familiar with their operations, and many companies consider WBL a recruitment tool. A survey-based feedback system was introduced wherein both students and employers provide input on the success of the work-based training, which in turn factors into the provider’s performance funding (an incentive for schools to ensure quality placements) (Cedefop; Finnish National Agency for Education, 2022[3]).
Responsibility for delivering ISCED 3 vocational programmes in Finland rests with a variety of authorised VET providers (koulutuksen järjestäjät), which include public entities and private organisations operating under a license from the Ministry of Education and Culture (Cedefop; Finnish National Agency for Education, 2022[3]). Despite the mix of ownership types, nearly all VET provision is publicly financed and adheres to the national core curricula. Providers have considerable autonomy in organising training, but must satisfy the quality and equity conditions of their license. As of 2022, there were 139 registered public and private VET providers in Finland:
Public providers: The majority of vocational students (roughly 80%) are enrolled in institutions maintained by local authorities (municipalities) or joint municipal federations. Many smaller municipalities have combined resources to form regional consortiums that operate vocational colleges (for example, a group of neighbouring towns jointly running a vocational institute serving the whole region). In addition, a few state-owned institutions exist for specific purposes – for instance, the Sámi Education Institute in northern Lapland, which is state-funded and provides VET in Sami languages for the indigenous Sámi people. By law, municipalities carry the duty to ensure youth have access to upper‑secondary education, so even if a municipality doesn’t run its own school, it must arrange (and finance) places for its residents in a neighbouring area or through another provider. Public providers (municipal or joint) tend to be multi-field colleges offering a range of vocational programmes under one roof (e.g. a single college might have departments for technology, business, health care, hospitality, etc. as seen in Vantaa Varia example (Vantaa Vocational College, n.d.[10]). They typically also offer adult education and short courses as there is no sharp division between “youth VET schools” and adult vocational centres (Cedefop; Finnish National Agency for Education, 2022[3]).
Private providers: About one-fifth of VET students attend institutions operated by private entities. These providers can be foundations, non-profit associations, companies, or other registered organisations. Private providers must obtain a government license and meet the same curriculum requirements as municipal colleges, and receive the same public funding (Cedefop; Finnish National Agency for Education, 2022[3]). Private vocational institutions in Finland often specialize in particular fields or serve niche groups. For instance, Business College Helsinki (maintained by a private foundation) focuses on business and ICT training, including English-language programmes. Some religious or cultural organisations also run vocational schools (e.g. a folk high school offering both general and vocational tracks). Another subset of private providers includes companies or state-owned enterprises that offer VET mainly for their own industry needs – examples include training centres in the forestry sector or the railway company’s vocational school. However, even these function within the national qualifications framework and often enrol external students too. A few institutions specialise in special needs vocational education, catering to students with disabilities who require tailored instruction and support. Some providers cater to Finland’s Swedish-speaking minority: six providers operate in Swedish as the language of instruction, and two are bilingual (Finnish/Swedish).
Over time, Finland has moved from a very fragmented provider network to a more consolidated one. In the mid-1990s there were hundreds of providers, many small, compared to 139 today. The largest providers (in the biggest cities) can have several campuses and thousands of students. Each provider’s license specifies the fields of education and maximum number of students they are allowed to educate. Providers can choose which specific qualifications to organise under those broad fields and can adjust their programme mix in response to local demand (Cedefop; Finnish National Agency for Education, 2022[3]). If they want to expand into a new field or increase student intake, they must apply to the Ministry for a license amendment.
Once granted a licence, VET providers in Finland have a high degree of autonomy in how they arrange education. A provider can innovate with e-learning, simulations, on-the-job training models, etc., as long as students meet the competence requirements. Providers develop their own local curricula based on the national qualification requirements, which can include adding locally relevant content or additional modules to meet regional labour market needs. They also hire staff (teachers, counsellors, etc.) and manage facilities on their own budgets. Municipal providers are governed by local education boards, while private ones have their own boards or trustees.
Collaboration with the world of work is a core expectation for all providers. By regulation, each provider must have an advisory board or similar co‑operation mechanism with local employers and employee representatives to ensure training aligns with skill needs (Cedefop; Finnish National Agency for Education, 2022[3]). Many providers maintain local programme councils for each field, mirroring the national working life committees, to continuously get feedback from companies on curriculum and student performance.
Finland’s VET teachers are highly trained professionals, typically bringing a combination of industry experience and pedagogical education to their roles. In vocational institutions, there are generally two categories of teachers: vocational subject teachers (who teach the specific trade skills) and common studies teachers (who teach language, maths, etc., similar to general education teachers). Additionally, some staff act as workplace instructors or trainers (especially in apprenticeships) and there are special needs teachers and guidance counsellors to support students. To become a teacher of vocational subjects in an upper‑secondary VET, one must typically meet three requirements: appropriate field qualification, relevant work experience, and pedagogical training (Cedefop; Finnish National Agency for Education, 2022[3]).
Educational qualification in the field: Teachers are required to have at least an appropriate higher education degree in their vocational field, usually a bachelor’s or master’s degree. In fields where a higher education degree may not exist or is less common (for example, some crafts or practical trades), a teacher can qualify by having the highest possible vocational qualification in that field (Cedefop; Finnish National Agency for Education, 2022[3]).
Work experience: Vocational teachers must have several years of work experience in their field. The requirement is generally a minimum of 3 years of relevant industry experience (and often more) before entering teaching. This ensures teachers have practical, up-to-date knowledge of the trade. In reality, many VET teacher trainees are mid-career professionals (average age around 40) who have spent a significant portion of their career in industry before switching to teaching. Finland also permits alternative pathways to alleviate teacher shortages: in certain technical fields, an expert can become a teacher by first obtaining a further/specialist vocational qualification plus the pedagogical training, acknowledging their practical mastery even if they lack a traditional degree (Cedefop; Finnish National Agency for Education, 2022[3]).
Pedagogical training: All VET teachers must complete a formal teacher pedagogical training programme of 60 ECTS credits (approximately one year of full-time study) (Studyinfo, n.d.[11]). This is typically done at one of the vocational teacher education colleges, which are units within universities of applied sciences dedicated to teacher preparation. The pedagogical training covers educational science basics, vocational pedagogy, assessment methods, curriculum design, special education, and teaching practice under supervision (JYU Online Courses, 2024[12]). Many candidates undertake this study part-time or alongside work – flexibility is high, with distance and blended learning options, so people can become qualified without leaving their jobs entirely. During the training, trainees often do teaching internships at vocational schools to hone their skills. Once the 60-credit programme is completed, the person is awarded a Teacher’s Pedagogical Qualification, which alongside their field degree and experience, makes them officially qualified (“competent”) to hold a teaching position (Cedefop; Finnish National Agency for Education, 2022[3]).
For teachers of common units (academic subjects like languages, mathematics within VET), the requirements are similar to those in general upper‑secondary: usually a master’s degree in the subject plus teacher pedagogy. They too must complete the 60 ECTS pedagogical studies (often through university faculties of education rather than the vocational teacher colleges).
Vocational teachers in Finland are generally employed by the education providers (municipal or private). Their working conditions and salaries are comparable to those of general education teachers (Cedefop; Finnish National Agency for Education, 2022[3]). The collective agreements ensure standard benefits, and a vocational teacher with similar experience/qualifications earns roughly the same as a general upper‑secondary teacher. Finland encourages industry placements for teachers (teachers can take temporary assignments or sabbaticals to work in industry) and invites industry experts into schools as visiting instructors. There are also cases of part-time teachers who still work in industry and teach occasional courses, bringing fresh insight (for example, a master electrician running a company might teach 1-2 days a week at a vocational institute).
As in other education sectors, VET teachers are expected to engage in continuous learning. While there is no strict requirements for CPD participation in Finland, employers (municipalities or private college boards) are contractually obliged to provide opportunities for teacher training and skills upgrading. Each year, the Ministry of Education and Culture, in co‑operation with EDUFI, sets priority areas for national in-service training initiatives, and earmarks funding for those. Recent focus areas have included digital pedagogy, competence-based assessment practices, inclusion of students with special needs, and co‑operation with working life. Providers receive government grants to send their teachers to these trainings, often organised by universities or central agencies (Cedefop; Finnish National Agency for Education, 2022[3]).
Vocational colleges typically have annual development days, encourage peer learning, and support teachers in pursuing further degrees (some vocational teachers undertake a master’s or doctoral studies in education or in their technical field while teaching). There is also a tradition of teacher networks: teachers from different schools teaching the same subject (say automotive technology or chemistry) meet in workshops or online communities to share teaching materials and industry updates.
Governance of vocational upper‑secondary education in Finland is shared between national authorities and local providers, with a strong emphasis on stakeholder involvement and outcome-based regulation. The Finnish VET system operates under a framework of national legislation and core curricula, but delivery is decentralised to autonomous providers (municipalities, consortiums, or private entities as described in Section 4.4). This governance model can be characterised as “centralised goals, decentralised implementation”, ensuring consistency in qualifications across the country while allowing flexibility to meet regional needs (Cedefop; Finnish National Agency for Education, 2022[3]).
The primary law governing VET is the Vocational Education and Training Act 531/2017, which took effect in 2018 as part of a comprehensive reform. This Act, along with associated Government Decrees, lays out the structure of the vocational qualification system, the competence-based approach, admissions, student rights, and the responsibilities of providers. It unified separate youth and adult vocational provisions into one system and introduced the personal study plan and new funding model. Another significant piece of legislation is the Act on Compulsory Education 1214/2020, which extended compulsory schooling to upper secondary, thereby imposing new obligations on VET providers to accept and support all young learners until 18 (European Agency for Special Needs and Inclusive Education, 2025[2]). General education laws like the Youth Guarantee and education financing laws also intersect with VET. National-level VET policy is formulated by the Ministry of Education and Culture (MOEC), which has overall responsibility for education strategy, drafting legislation, and budget allocation. The Ministry sets broad objectives for VET in its strategies and in the Government Programme (e.g. goals for increasing apprenticeship use, promoting digital learning, or improving quality assurance).
Under the MOEC, the Finnish National Agency for Education (EDUFI, Opetushallitus) is the central administrative body for implementing education policy, including VET. EDUFI is tasked with preparing the National Qualification Requirements for each vocational qualification (essentially the national curricula). It convenes working groups with representatives from employers’ organisations, trade unions, teacher groups and sometimes student bodies to develop these requirements and keep them up-to-date (Cedefop; Finnish National Agency for Education, 2022[3]). Once approved, the National Qualification Requirements are binding for providers. EDUFI also manages the joint application system for upper‑secondary admissions, administers development projects, and maintains the digital database of national curricula and the student study record registry. It oversees the recognition of prior learning and foreign qualifications, and produces statistics and analysis on VET.
Finland has no inspectorate that regularly inspects schools. While not a regulator in the traditional sense, the Education Evaluation Centre (FINEEC) conducts evaluations and audits of education quality, including VET. FINEEC undertakes thematic evaluations of VET and may audit provider-level quality systems. By law, VET providers must self-evaluate their operations and participate in external evaluations (Cedefop; Finnish National Agency for Education, 2022[3]) which FINEEC facilitates. The results feed back into development but do not carry punitive consequences; rather, they are used for continuous improvement and informing policy if needed.
A distinctive feature of Finnish VET governance is the systematic involvement of social partners. Nationally, Working Life Committees (Työelämätoimikunnat) corresponding to each broad sector (and qualification) have been established by law. These committees consist of equal representation from employer organisations and trade unions of the sector, as well as teacher representatives and often self-employed professionals for fields where relevant. Their mandated role is to ensure the quality of competence demonstrations and to develop the qualifications. They do this by, for example, validating the assessment criteria, sampling and reviewing completed student assessment records from providers across the country, and giving recommendations if inconsistencies are found. They also propose updates to qualification requirements when they see new skill needs. Although they don’t have direct regulatory power, any major change in curriculum or policy is expected to be negotiated and agreed upon in partnership with these social partners (Cedefop; Finnish National Agency for Education, 2022[3]).
Most vocational colleges have advisory boards or local committees for each vocational field they teach (sometimes called leadership groups or industry advisory councils). These include local company representatives, sometimes union reps and alumni, who meet periodically to discuss the programme content, suggest improvements, and assist in arranging internships and apprentice positions (Cedefop; Finnish National Agency for Education, 2022[3]). This local employer engagement helps tailor the nationally-set curricula to local conditions – for instance, a college in a maritime region might, with stakeholder input, emphasise shipbuilding skills in its curriculum, whereas an inland college might focus on metal fabrication. Moreover, such councils help providers respond quickly if local labour demand shifts (say, a new factory opens and needs mechanics, the school can adjust optional modules accordingly).
Finnish VET governance emphasises trust and improvement over control. Providers must have an internal quality management system and are encouraged to voluntarily seek feedback and engage in learning with other institutions. The funding model’s effectiveness component indirectly governs quality by measuring graduate outcomes and satisfaction – a provider whose graduates consistently fare poorly would see funding impacts, prompting action. In 2022, Finland introduced new national quality criteria for VET providers (for example, requiring that each provider have a plan for developing staff competencies, or for ensuring the consistency of assessment) (Cedefop; Finnish National Agency for Education, 2022[3]). Compliance with these criteria is monitored through providers’ self-assessment reports which are reviewed by authorities.
Locally, municipal and joint municipal providers are overseen by boards usually appointed by municipal councils (hence containing local politicians, employer reps, etc.), which set broad strategy and approve budgets. Private providers have boards of directors or trustees as per their founding charter. Each vocational school is led by a Principal (Rehtori), who is pedagogically and administratively responsible. Many larger institutions have departmental heads for each educational sector (e.g. Head of Technology Department, Head of Services Department) (Vantaa Vocational College, n.d.[10]). Principals in VET have similar status to those in general education and often have a teaching background plus management training. They have autonomy to recruit staff (within budget limits), make partnership agreements with companies, and decide on internal resource allocation (like which new equipment to buy, which programmes to emphasise).
Finland’s vocational upper‑secondary education is publicly funded and provided free of charge to students, with a funding model that increasingly emphasises outcomes and efficiency. The financing of VET involves both the central government and local authorities, and since the 2018 reform, a unified funding framework covers all vocational training (young and adult, school-based and apprenticeship) (Cedefop; Finnish National Agency for Education, 2022[3]).
Vocational education financing is a combination of state and municipal funding. Unlike general upper‑secondary schools (which are fully municipal-funded with state grants in the background), VET providers receive direct funding from the central government based on a formula, but municipalities also contribute a substantial share. Approximately 70% of public funding for VET comes from municipalities (largely via their general education budgets) and 30% from the State subsidies (Cedefop; Finnish National Agency for Education, 2022[3]). For municipally-run institutions, the municipality’s own tax revenue covers part of the costs, supplemented by a block grant from the central government. For private providers, the state funding covers the majority of costs, with any shortfall possibly made up by the owning organisation or modest tuition fees for non-basic programmes (e.g. providers can charge for some adult courses or services).
Students pay no tuition or textbook fees in upper‑secondary VET. Materials and tools that students need for training are generally provided by the school or subsidised (especially after the extension of compulsory education, when free learning materials were expanded to cover upper secondary) (Eurydice, 2025[1]). Students also receive a daily free meal and have access to free health services at school (Vantaa Vocational College, n.d.[10]).
Under the current model (fully in effect from 2022), funding to each provider is composed of: core funding (70%), performance-based funding (20%), effectiveness-based funding (10%), plus a small strategic funding element (Cedefop; Finnish National Agency for Education, 2022[3]).
Core funding (70%) – This is essentially enrolment-based funding. It is calculated on the number of students (measured in full-time equivalent) at the provider. The state uses a formula that accounts for the volume of training provided. However, different fields have a different “price” or coefficient due to varying costs. For example, training an aviation mechanic or a forestry machine operator is far more expensive than training a retail salesperson. Finland’s funding model accounts for these differences by assigning different coefficient values to different study programmes. For instance, in the funding formula for core funding, each student is weighted (a forestry student might count as 1.8 “student units” vs a business student as 1.0). The National Agency (EDUFI) publishes these coefficients (sometimes referred to as the “price list”) annually to guide how providers’ core funding is calculated (Finnish National Agency for Education, 2025[13]). Core funding’s purpose is to ensure providers have stable base financing to maintain capacity and keep education available in all regions and fields, regardless of short-term outcome fluctuations (Cedefop; Finnish National Agency for Education, 2022[3]).
Performance funding (20%) – This part rewards providers for outputs, specifically the number of qualifications and qualification units completed by students (Cedefop; Finnish National Agency for Education, 2022[3]). In other words, funding follows successful completions. Each full qualification attained contributes to performance points for the provider (and partial completions of modules also count).
Effectiveness funding (10%) – This component allocates money based on the outcomes of graduates and feedback from stakeholders. A portion of effectiveness funding is directly tied to student feedback collected through a national survey taken at the start and end of studies. Another portion is tied to graduates’ employment or higher study enrolment at ~6 months to a year after graduation (this data is tracked via national registers) (Cedefop; Finnish National Agency for Education, 2022[3]). VET providers have autonomy in using funds, but they must deliver these outcomes or else face funding dips.
Strategic funding (~approximately 0‑5%) – Parliament or the Ministry can allocate a small share of funding for strategic priorities or development initiatives (Cedefop; Finnish National Agency for Education, 2022[3]). This is not fixed in percentage annually but is an additional mechanism. For example, a certain amount might be reserved to implement the compulsory education extension (helping schools provide free materials and guidance for the new age group) and to develop digital learning tools.
Another difference is apprenticeships vs school-based costs. Apprenticeship training is notably cheaper for the education budget per student-year because the apprentice’s wages are paid by the employer (not the school), and apprentices typically spend less time on campus. The funding system acknowledges this by effectively channelling more funds per student to providers for school-based students and less for apprentices. However, providers do pay employers a negotiated training compensation for each apprentice, which is factored into their costs (Cedefop; Finnish National Agency for Education, 2022[3]).
References
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[1] Eurydice (2025), Upper secondary and post-secondary non-tertiary education. Finland, https://eurydice.eacea.ec.europa.eu/eurypedia/finland/upper-secondary-and-post-secondary-non-tertiary-education#:~:text=After%20completing%20the%20compulsory%20nine,members%20of%20every%20age%20group (accessed on 4 August 2025).
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[30] OSAO (n.d.), Liiketoiminnan perustutkinto, Merkonomi, Vocational Qualification in Business, https://www.osao.fi/koulutukset/liiketoiminnan-perustutkinto-merkonomi-vocational-qualification-in-business/ (accessed on 4 August 2025).
[36] Peda.net (n.d.), Asiakaspalvelu (15 osp), Customer Service (15 credits), https://peda.net/poke/oppimisymparisto/kaha/lp2/Asiakaspalvelu (accessed on 4 August 2025).
[29] perho.fi (n.d.), Tutkinnon osat (Units of the qualification), https://perho.fi/perustutkinnot/liiketoiminta/tutkinnon-osat-elokuu-2024-alkaen/ (accessed on 4 August 2025).
[19] Samiedu.fi (n.d.), Sosiaali- ja terveysalan perustutkinto, lähihoitaja (Vocational Qualification in Social and Health Care, Practical Nurse), https://samiedu.fi/koulutukset/sosiaali-ja-terveysalan-perustutkinto/ (accessed on 4 August 2025).
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To illustrate how Finland’s competence-based curriculum is applied in practice, this annex presents three examples of upper‑secondary VET qualifications (ISCED 3) in different fields. Each example outlines the qualification’s structure (modules and competence points), key learning outcomes, and the approach to work-based learning and assessment in that programme. These examples correspond to real qualifications under the national framework as of 2025, demonstrating the diversity of vocational pathways:
Example 1: Vocational Qualification in Electrical and Automation Engineering (Sähkö- ja automaatioalan perustutkinto) – with a competence area as an Electrician.
Example 2: Vocational Qualification in Social and Health Care (Sosiaali- ja terveysalan perustutkinto) – with the qualification title Practical Nurse (lähihoitaja), focusing on healthcare.
Example 3: Vocational Qualification in Business (Liiketoiminnan perustutkinto) – with a focus on Customer Service and Sales (merkonomi).
Each qualification carries 180 competence points and leads to an EQF level 4 certificate.
The Vocational Qualification in Electrical and Automation Engineering prepares students for careers in the electrical and automation field, such as building electricians, automation installers, and maintenance technicians. Annex Table 4.A.1 shows the typical structure of the Electrical and Automation Engineering (Electrician) VET programme.
Source: Europass (2009[14]), Vocational Qualification in Electrical and Automation Engineering, 120 credits, Study Programme/Competence Area in Electrical and Automation Engineering, Automation Assembler/Electrician (EN), www.theme-eu.net/ressoucres/results/occupations/mechatronic/ECS_Theme_Mechatronics_FI_AutomationAssembler.pdf#:~:text=Composition%20of%20the%20qualification%20The,Electrical%20and%20Automation%20Engineering%20specialising;
Hyria (n.d.[15]), Hyria, www.hyria.fi/hyria-english; Taitotalo Finland (n.d.[16]), Taitotalo, www.taitotalo.com/en/us/
In terms of the required units for the Electrical and Automation Engineering (Electrician) programme:
Common units (35cp) in languages, maths, etc., are integrated, and electrical students may choose to focus their common studies in applied maths/physics related to electricity.
The compulsory vocational modules cover fundamental competences like reading electrical schematics, using tools and materials safely, installing electrical circuits and automation components, and understanding regulations. After the core, students choose a competence area – in this example, the Electrician track. Electrician-focused students take an additional compulsory module specific to Electrical Power Technology (20 cp) covering topics such as electrical distribution systems and energy technology.
Optional modules allow students to deepen or broaden their skills. There is flexibility to choose modules that align with local industry needs or personal interest – for instance, a student interested in industrial automation might take an optional module in PLC programming, whereas another might take one in data cabling and networks (Europass, 2009[14]).
Electrical students usually spend significant time in authentic worksites. During Year 2, a student might have a 6-week on-the-job training period with an electrical contractor. In Year 3, a longer WBL period (perhaps 8‑10 weeks) is common, often serving as the capstone training. WBL often doubles as the setting for final competence demonstrations. For example, as a culmination, the student might be tasked with independently wiring a small house from scratch (lighting circuits, fuse panel, network cabling). The workplace mentor and the vocational teacher jointly assess this performance on criteria like technical accuracy, adherence to safety rules, and ability to interpret the electrical drawings (Europass, 2009[14]).
The National qualification standard defines learning outcomes for four assessment dimensions (Work process; Work methods & tools; Problem-solving & quality; Collaboration & customer orientation) and three grade categories with five scores (Excellent (5); Good (3‑4); Satisfactory (1‑2)) for all vocational units. In the Electrical and Automation Engineering (Electrician) programme for “Work methods and tools”, for example, a student could receive:
A grade of excellent and score of 5 if they select the most appropriate method, materials and measuring devices; use digital tools skilfully; comply with SFS 6002 & company QMS.
A grade of satisfactory and score of 1‑2 if they need guidance in selecting tools; and follow instructions to complete work (JEDU Koulutuskeskus, 2022[17]) (Finlex, 2017[18]).
Typically, an electrician student graduates with not only the diploma but also some additional industry certificates like first aid, which providers arrange knowing employers value them. Throughout their training, students also take an Electrical Safety Card course and exam (a certification often required in Finland to work on electrical sites), though that is supplementary to the qualification itself. Graduates of this qualification can work as electrician apprentices (fully authorised electrician status in Finland often requires two years of work experience plus an extra standardised test for an electrical contractor’s license). Many immediately find employment with construction or electrical service companies. The broad content (including some automation) also enables them to work in industrial maintenance or continue studies, for example pursuing an Electrical Engineering UAS degree.
The Vocational Qualification in Social and Health Care (Sosiaali- ja terveysalan perustutkinto) equips learners to work as lähihoitaja (Practical Nurse) in hospitals, primary-care centres, home-care services and other health-care settings. Graduates can perform basic nursing, medication administration and rehabilitative tasks under Finland’s patient-safety legislation, and they may specialise – at ISCED 3 – in competence areas such as Nursing & Care (Sairaanhoidon ja huolenpidon osaamisala) (Samiedu.fi, n.d.[19]) (Superliito.fi, 2024[20]). Annex Table 4.A.2 shows the typical structure of the Practical Nurse VET programme.
In terms of the required units for the Social and Health Care (Practical Nurse) programme:
Common units (35 cp) integrate language, STEM and civics; many providers contextualise maths to drug-dose calculation and physics to mobility-aid ergonomics (Samiedu.fi, n.d.[19]).
Compulsory vocational core (55 cp) builds the foundation: respectful client interaction, health-promotion skills, and safe pharmacotherapy under the National Medicines Agency (Fimea) guidelines (Samiedu.fi, n.d.[19]) (Opetushallitus utbildningsstyrelsen (National Board of Education), 2024[21]).
After the core, students select one competence area. In this example the Nursing & Care path adds two compulsory 30 cp units covering clinical nursing in wards and home settings – together worth 60 cp (Samiedu.fi, n.d.[19]).
Optional units (15‑30 cp) offer flexibility. A learner aiming for acute care might choose Näytteenotto hoitotyössä (Sample Collection), whereas another headed for gerontology could take Ikääntyneiden akuuttitilanteissa toimiminen (studentum.fi, n.d.[23]).
Finnish regulations require that at least 40 cp of the 180 cp be acquired through supervised work-based learning, typically split across Years 2 and 3 (OSAO, 2015[24]).
Year 2: a 6-week placement on a primary-care ward introduces morning-shift routines, medication rounds and electronic patient records.
Year 3: an 8-to-10-week placement – often the capstone – may be completed in a surgical ward or home-care team. The student plans a full shift, administers oral and sub-cutaneous medicines, documents care and evaluates outcomes.
Assessment: the workplace mentor and VET teacher jointly observe the demonstration and grade it within seven days, uploading the result to the national KOSKI register (OSAO, 2015[24]) (Finlex, 2017[18]).
The National qualification standard defines learning outcomes for four assessment dimensions (Work process; Work methods & tools; Problem-solving & quality; Collaboration & customer orientation) and three grade categories with five scores (Excellent (5); Good (3‑4); Satisfactory (1‑2)) for all vocational units. In the Social and Health Care (Practical Nurse) programme for “Work methods and tools”, for example, a student could receive:
A grade of excellent and score of 5 if they select the most appropriate care methods, evidence-based protocols and digital records; and follow infection-control best practice rigorously.
A grade of satisfactory and score of 1-2 if they need help choosing tools; and follow instructions to complete work (Opetushallitus Utbildningsstyrelsen (Finnish National Agency for Education), 2024[25]) (Finlex, 2017[18]).
By graduation, a Nursing & Care Practical Nurse must show they can plan and implement evidence-based nursing, administer medicines safely, monitor client outcomes and work autonomously within a multi-professional team. (Opetushallitus Utbildningsstyrelsen (Finnish National Agency for Education), 2024[25]) (Superliito.fi, 2024[20]). Providers often embed additional industry certificates (e.g. Hygiene Passport, First-Aid EA 1) because employers value them (Superliito.fi, 2024[20]). Once all required units are passed, the student receives the qualification; most take up positions in municipal hospitals, home-care services or continue to a Nursing B.Sc. programme (StadinAO, n.d.[26]) (Step-koulutus, n.d.[27]).
The Vocational Qualification in Business – Customer Service & Sales builds broad commercial literacy, strong customer-experience skills and sales competence for work in retail, e-commerce and service organisations. From 1 August 2024 the national curriculum narrows the compulsory core to 40 osp and modernises the optional menu with digital-commerce, sustainability and AI-aware modules (Utbildningsstyrelsen Opetushallitus (Finnish National Agency for Education), 2024[28]). Annex Table 4.A.3 shows the typical structure of the Business (Customer Service and Sales) VET programme.
In terms of the required units for the Business (Customer Service and Sales) programme:
Common units (35 cp) integrate maths into margin and VAT calculations, science into product life-cycle impacts and civics into consumer-protection law. (perho.fi, n.d.[29]).
Compulsory vocational core (40 cp) provides the commercial “driver’s licence”: learners analyse the firm’s ecosystem, use office-suite & collaboration software securely, and practise multilingual service encounters across channels. (Opetushallitus Utbildningsstyrelsen (Finnish National Board of Education), 2024[31]).
Optional vocational units (≥ 105 cp) let students deepen in retail, e-commerce, marketing or financial services. A learner aiming for omnichannel retail can combine Sales Work 30 cp, Myymälässä toimiminen 15 cp and Digital Commerce 15 cp, while another interested in events might pick Marketing Communication 30 cp plus Event Organisation 15 cp. (Utbildningsstyrelsen Opetushallitus (Finnish National Agency for Education), 2024[28]). Finnish VET rules require learners to acquire at least 30 osp through supervised WBL – most providers schedule one 6‑week placement in Year 2 and an 8‑12 week capstone in Year 3. (City of Helsinki, 2016[32]) (tredu.fi, 2025[33]).
Year 2 sample: a department-store placement where the learner rotates between customer-service desk and the sales floor, logging KPIs and shadowing inventory processes.
Year 3 sample (capstone): the learner plans and executes a promotional campaign, staffs point-of-sale events, reports sales and evaluates customer feedback.
Demonstration & assessment: workplace mentor and VET teacher jointly observe practical tasks, apply the national criteria, agree a grade within seven days and enter it in the KOSKI register. (Business College Helsinki, 2021[34]).
The National qualification standard defines learning outcomes for four assessment dimensions (Work process; Work methods & tools; Problem-solving & quality; Collaboration & customer orientation) and three grade categories with five scores (Excellent (5); Good (3‑4); Satisfactory (1‑2)) for all vocational units. In the Business (Customer Service and Sales) programme for “Work methods and tools”, for example, a student could receive:
A grade of excellent and score of 5 if they select optimum sales techniques, digital tools and data for decisions; and comply with GDPR and cybersecurity policies.
A grade of satisfactory and score of 1-2 if they need help choosing tools; and follows instructions to complete work (Valtioneuvoston asetus ammatillisesta koulutuksesta (Government Decree on Vocational Education and Training), 2017[35]).
A Customer Service & Sales merkonomi must demonstrate the ability to analyse business environments, deliver multilingual customer service, drive profitable sales, use digital commerce tools and act responsibly and sustainably (Utbildningsstyrelsen Opetushallitus (Finnish National Agency for Education), 2024[28]) (Peda.net, n.d.[36]). Providers usually embed extra certificates (e.g. Hygiene Passport, First-Aid EA 1) that employers value. Graduates find work as sales advisors, customer-experience specialists, e-commerce co‑ordinators or continue to business studies at universities of applied sciences. (OSAO, n.d.[30]).