Upper-secondary vocational education and training (VET) is the largest component of most countries’ VET systems. This chapter provides context for the report by exploring available comparative data on countries’ VET systems. The chapter also summarises each subsequent chapter on the upper-secondary VET systems of the nine included countries. While countries pursue similar goals in upper-secondary VET, both the data and descriptions highlight key differences in how countries design and implement VET to achieve these goals.
Vocational Education and Training Systems in Nine Countries
Abstract
This report describes the upper-secondary VET systems of nine countries, to provide insights into how different countries design and organise upper-secondary VET. It was undertaken with the support and input of the Gatsby Charitable Foundation in the United Kingdom (Gatsby).
The selection of countries and topics reveals interesting differences in important features of VET systems. The report describes the upper-secondary VET system for nine countries: Austria, Denmark, Finland, Germany, the Netherlands, Norway, Singapore, Sweden, and Switzerland. These countries differ on several dimensions, such as: when and at what level VET commences, how many students choose VET, pathways into and after VET, how centralised VET curricula are, the nature and extent of work-based learning, which public and/or private institutions provide VET and which programmes they offer, and how VET is governed and financed among national and sub-national governments, social partners, institutions and individuals.
This report complements other OECD VET work. It provides detailed qualitative descriptions of VET systems that complement the detailed comparative data on VET in the OECD’s flagship publication Education at a Glance. It also complements a range of thematic VET reports, providing a “prequel” to the OECD’s recent reports on higher VET (OECD, 2022[1]; OECD, 2024[2]), and drawing on, bringing together and building upon the findings of focused studies on VET providers (OECD, 2022[3]), teachers (OECD, 2021[4]; OECD, 2022[5]), and employer engagement (OECD, 2022[6]).
The information for this report has been sourced from existing OECD research and analysis, official publicly available sources for the nine countries, and other publicly available literature. It has been reviewed by official representatives of each of the nine countries who are experts in VET.
Upper-secondary VET marks the completion of secondary education and prepares participants for direct entry into specific occupations, while typically also providing options for continuing into higher levels of education (Box 1.1).
Upper-secondary education
Programmes at the upper‑secondary education level are more specialised than those at lower secondary and offer students more choices and diverse pathways for completing their secondary education. The range of subjects studied by a single student tends to be narrower than at lower levels of education, but the content is more complex and the study more in-depth. Programmes offered are differentiated by orientation and often by broad subject groups. Programmes classified at ISCED level 3 may be referred to in many ways, for example: secondary school (stage two/upper grades), senior secondary school or (senior) high school. For international comparability purposes, the term ‘upper‑secondary education’ is used to label ISCED level 3 (OECD/Eurostat/UNESCO Institute for Statistics, 2015[7]). Pupils enter upper‑secondary education typically between age 14 and age 16, and typically leave it around age 17 or 18 (usually after 12 years of education) (Stronati, 2023[8]).
Vocational education and training
Vocational programmes exist both to offer options to young people who might otherwise leave school without any qualifications from an upper‑secondary programme, as well as for those wishing to prepare for skilled worker and/or technician-level jobs. Vocational programmes are further divided into two categories based on the amount of training provided in school and the workplace: school-based programmes and combined school- and work-based programmes. Successful completion of such programmes leads to a vocational or technical qualification that is relevant to the labour market. Increasingly, VET programmes allow graduates to continue into higher levels of training, often including tertiary education.
Source: OECD/Eurostat/UNESCO Institute for Statistics (2015[7]), ISCED 2011 Operational Manual: Guidelines for Classifying National Education Programmes and Related Qualifications, https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264228368-en, UNESCO Institute for Statistics (2012[9]), International Standard Classification of Education, ISCED 2011, http://uis.unesco.org/en/topic/international-standard-classification-education-isced; Stronati, C. (2023[8]), “The design of upper secondary education across OECD countries: Managing choice, coherence and specialisation”, OECD Education Working Papers, No. 288, https://doi.org/10.1787/158101f0-en; OECD (2019[10]), “What characterises upper secondary vocational education and training?”, Education Indicators in Focus, 5, www.oecd.org/en/publications/2019/04/what-characterises-upper-secondary-vocational-education-and-training_7ae872d8.html.
VET plays an important role in each of the nine countries covered by this report. However, the size of the upper-secondary VET systems in these countries differs, reflecting differing policy, economic, social and cultural factors. Key policy factors include the starting age for VET programmes, the accessibility of upper-secondary VET for different groups, and educational opportunities after upper-secondary VET. Broader factors like the structure of the economy and employment opportunities after VET, as well as the esteem society attributes to VET, also influence the size of upper-secondary VET systems. These factors are important in isolation and relative to general and higher education systems.
1.3.1. More than one-in-five young adults have an upper-secondary VET qualification
For one-in-five young adults (25-34 year-olds) across OECD countries, upper-secondary VET is their highest level of education. Across the eight countries in this report for which comparative data are available in 2023 (excludes Singapore), this share ranges from 15% in Sweden to 37% in Finland, above the rate in the United Kingdom (12%) (Figure 1.1). These data refer to the highest qualification of the individual, and some of those who have attained a post-secondary education qualification (including at the tertiary level) will also hold an upper-secondary VET qualification.
Percentage of 25-34 year-olds with a given level of education as the highest level attained
Note: The OECD countries excluded from this chart have either missing values or data included in another category for upper‑secondary vocational education. Countries are ranked in descending order of the share of 25-34 year-olds whose highest education level attained is upper‑secondary vocational education.
Source: OECD (2023[11]), Adults' educational attainment distribution, by age group and gender (database), OECD Data Explorer, https://data-explorer.oecd.org/s/2on.
1.3.2. Upper secondary represents the lion’s share of total VET in most countries
Most VET takes place at the upper-secondary level across OECD countries. The share of total VET enrolments that are in upper-secondary education ranges from about 56% in Germany to 93% in Switzerland, compared to 71% in the United Kingdom (Figure 1.2).
Note: Countries are ranked in descending order of the share of total VET students who are enrolled at the upper-secondary level.
Source: Authors’ calculations based on OECD (2023[12]), Number of enrolled students, new entrants and graduates by age (database), OECD Data Explorer, https://data-explorer.oecd.org/s/2ol.
1.3.3. More than one-in-three upper-secondary students are in VET
About 37% of younger upper-secondary students (15-19 year-olds) across the OECD and in the United Kingdom were enrolled in VET in 2021. Across the eight countries in this report for which comparative data are available (excludes Singapore), this share ranges from 19% in Denmark to 68% in Austria. The shares are even higher for older upper-secondary students (20-24 year-olds) (Figure 1.3).
Students enrolled in full-time and part-time programmes in both public and private institutions
Note: Countries are ranked in descending order of the share of 15-19 year-olds students in 2021.
The OECD countries excluded from this chart have either missing values or data included in another category for upper‑secondary vocational education.
Source: OECD (2023[13]), Education at a Glance 2023: OECD Indicators, https://doi.org/10.1787/e13bef63-en, Table B1.2.
1.3.4. The extent of work-based learning differs across countries and VET programmes
Across OECD countries in 2021, about 45% of students in upper-secondary VET were in combined school- and work-based programmes (OECD, 2023[13]).1 Across the seven countries in this report for which comparative data are available (excludes the Netherlands and Singapore), the share of VET students in combined school- and work-based programmes ranges from 8% in Sweden to 100% in Denmark (Figure 1.4). While work-based learning is mandatory in the vast majority of Swedish upper-secondary VET programmes, it usually accounts for 15% of total instruction time. Conversely, practically all Danish upper-secondary VET programmes follow an apprenticeship model in which work-based learning is mandatory, paid and accounts for at least 50% of the curriculum.
Note: The work-based component is between 25% and 90% of the curriculum in combined school and work-based programmes. These programmes can be organised in conjunction with education authorities or institutions.
Source: OECD (2023[13]), Education at a Glance 2023: OECD Indicators, https://doi.org/10.1787/e13bef63-en, Table B1.2.
1.3.5. Pathways out of upper-secondary VET differ across countries and programmes
Around one-third of upper-secondary VET graduates are enrolled in an education programme one year after graduation, across the OECD on average (OECD, 2023[13]). Across the five countries in this report for which comparative data are available (Austria, Finland, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland), this share ranges from around 10% in Sweden to over 30% in Austria. In Sweden, these continuing learners choose a diverse range of general and vocational programmes at various levels. In Austria, they are almost entirely in short-cycle tertiary programmes (Figure 1.5). Overall, vocational upper‑secondary graduates are less likely to be enrolled in any education programme one year after graduation than their peers who graduated from general programmes. This makes sense given vocational programmes are designed to prepare students for entry into the labour market. For example, in Sweden 82% of upper‑secondary vocational graduates who are not enrolled one year after graduation are employed (OECD, 2023[13]).
Note: The data presented here come from an ad-hoc survey and only concern initial education programmes.
1. Year of reference differs from 2020. Refer to the source table for more details.
2. Other type of programme shows students who have received a public student loan to study abroad in the autumn of 2019 and are not students in schools in Iceland. Countries and other participants are ranked in descending order of the share of upper‑secondary vocational programme graduates who are not enrolled in any programme one year after graduation.
Source: OECD (2023[13]), Education at a Glance 2023: OECD Indicators, https://doi.org/10.1787/e13bef63-en, Table B3.3. For more information see source section and Education at a Glance 2023 Sources, Methodologies and Technical Notes, (OECD, 2023[13]).
This section summarises each subsequent chapter on the upper-secondary VET systems of the nine assessed countries.
1.4.1. Austria
Upper-secondary vocational education and training (VET) sits at the heart of Austria’s education system. After nine years of compulsory schooling (age 15), about two-thirds of learners choose one of three VET options: dual apprenticeships (≈45% of VET students), three- to four-year intermediate vocational schools (BMS) and five-year higher vocational colleges (BHS). The three strands differ in duration and level but all confer nationally recognised qualifications and well-trodden bridges to tertiary study, notably via the Berufsreifeprüfung or the Matura obtained in BHS programmes.
All programmes are governed by centrally issued curricula or training regulations that spell out occupational profiles, learning outcomes and minimum volumes of general education. In BMS and BHS, roughly one-third of teaching time is practical, delivered in workshops, practice firms or laboratories. Apprenticeships, by contrast, follow an occupational training regulation that specifies the competencies to be developed in workplaces and ensures their alignment with the curriculum in vocational schools. School routes culminate in a board examination (Abschlussprüfung or Reife- und Diplomprüfung), whereas apprentices sit the federally standardised examination (Lehrabschlussprüfung) before a chamber board.
Authentic workplace experience is mandatory. Apprentices train 3-4 days per week or in intensive blocks in a certified company, depending on the programme and state. School-based students must complete industry internships (typically 4 weeks per year in BMS and 8‑12 weeks over five years in BHS) and often carry out firm-based diploma projects. Supra-company centres provide training places for young people who do not secure an apprenticeship.
Around 27 000 approved companies host apprentices, while over 500 public BMS/BHS schools deliver full-time VET. Specialised schools (e.g. agricultural colleges) are run by the agriculture ministry and Länder; many private, mainly Catholic, institutions enjoy public-law status and teach the same national curricula.
Vocational theory teachers usually hold a relevant higher-education degree, industry experience and a pedagogical diploma. Workshop teachers can enter with a master craftsperson (Meister) certificate and complete pedagogical training. In-company trainers (Ausbilder) must hold an appropriate occupational qualification, as well as a recognised trainer qualification.
Governance is multi-level and tripartite. The Federal Ministry of Education, Science and Research sets school curricula and funds vocational schools, while the Federal Ministry of Labour and Economy issues apprenticeship regulations and oversees in-company training. Both ministries work through formal committees with the Economic and Labour Chambers, unions and Länder governments to update qualifications, and oversee final exams.
School-based VET is funded jointly by the federation and Länder. Apprenticeships are largely financed by employers through wages and training costs, with grants administered by the chambers and public employment service to reimburse exam fees and trainer courses, and provide incentives for disadvantaged groups. The federal budget covers vocational schools and supra-company training, with Länder co-funding.
1.4.2. Denmark
Despite its relatively small size, the upper-secondary vocational education and training (VET) system in Denmark plays a crucial role in the country's education landscape.
Secondary students typically begin upper-secondary VET at age 16. Only about one fifth of 15- to 19-year-olds enrolled in upper-secondary education were in VET in 2021. Students choose among more than 100 specialist programmes, which last 2–5 years and lead to a nationally recognised skilled-worker certificate at ISCED 3. Alternative pathways ensure access for students with weaker school results or older learners. Ambitious students can add the EUX double-qualification, gaining both a journeyman’s certificate and the general upper-secondary exam that confers general eligibility for higher education.
Curricula follow a two-stage structure. All learners complete two school-based basic courses, then progress to the Main Course that alternates blocks in college with paid apprenticeship periods in one or more companies. Sector trade committees translate labour-market needs into detailed programme orders and competence goals. Assessment is continuous in both settings and culminates in a comprehensive practical trade test (svendeprøve). Successful candidates receive a journeyman’s certificate that is valued nationwide and can open the door to tertiary professional programmes.
Work-based learning lies at the system’s core, occupying the majority of programme time. Employers approved by the relevant trade committee train apprentices under a company mentor who follows an individual training plan. When a placement cannot be found immediately, the learner continues practical training in a school-based training centre until a firm is secured. Apprentices may divide training across several enterprises and can undertake short exchanges, including abroad. Recent tripartite agreements added bonuses and surcharges to reward companies that meet intake targets and to expand placement capacity.
Provision is concentrated in over 80 self-governing vocational colleges that receive state funding but enjoy operational autonomy. Each college board brings together employers, unions, staff and students and decides the local programme portfolio within national limits. Colleges often run both technical and commercial strands and may host adult training, higher vocational programmes and the school-based training centres. A smaller group of specialist providers – agricultural schools, maritime schools, guild workshops and private niche centres – deliver parts of certain programmes under the same quality regime.
General subject teachers hold an academic degree and a teaching qualification. Vocational teachers are recruited from industry with at least five years of trade experience and must complete the part-time Diploma in Vocational Pedagogy within six years of hire. Continuous professional development is organised at college level. Company trainers are experienced journeymen but face no statutory pedagogical requirement.
Governance is a shared endeavour. Parliament and the Ministry of Children and Education set the legal framework, while social partner trade committees design programme content, approve training companies and run final tests. Local training committees advise colleges and mediate workplace issues. College boards give providers strategic direction, and the Danish Evaluation Institute supports external quality assurance.
Financing mirrors these roles. The State pays for the school element through a per-student base grant and social-equity supplements, giving colleges flexibility to invest in equipment or staff. Employers fund the work-based part via a universal levy to the Employers’ Reimbursement Fund (AUB). AUB reimburses firms for apprentice wages during school periods, pays allowances for school-based apprenticeships and distributes bonuses that encourage higher intake. Education is free for learners, and apprentice wages are negotiated in collective agreements.
1.4.3. Finland
Finland’s upper-secondary vocational education and training (VET) begins immediately after nine years of comprehensive schooling and is part of compulsory education. In 2021 around 45 % of 15-19-year-old upper‑secondary students were in VET programmes. Forty-two broad initial qualifications at EQF level 4 cover all major sectors and can be adapted through a Personal Competence Development Plan (HOKS) that recognises prior learning and sets an individual trajectory. Successful graduates gain both a vocational certificate and general eligibility for higher education, while entering the workforce. For learners needing extra preparation, one-year pathways bridge the gap to full programmes and count towards the compulsory schooling requirement.
Programmes are competence-based rather than time-based. Each national qualification standard, drafted by the Finnish National Agency for Education together with social partners, consists of 180 competence points: 35 points of common units plus 145 points of compulsory and optional vocational units. Students demonstrate mastery unit by unit through authentic work tasks, assessed jointly by a teacher and a workplace representative. There is no national final examination. Progress depends on achieving agreed competences, so programme length can vary.
Work-based learning is core component planned in each learner’s HOKS. Around two in five students undertake one or more training-agreement placements, remaining learners rather than employees, while roughly one in five follow an apprenticeship contract. Students can move between the two modes as opportunities arise, and the volume of workplace learning is fixed in each HOKS rather than by national minima. Feedback from employers and students on placement quality feeds into provider funding and quality assurance.
Provision rests with over 130 licensed VET providers. About one quarter are joint-municipal or municipal/state-owned providers, who account for around 80% of VET students. Roughly two‑thirds of providers are non-government (foundations, associations and companies). All providers receive equal public funding and must meet licence conditions on equity, quality and co‑operation with working life, but they enjoy wide autonomy to shape local curricula, staffing and delivery modes. Employers and unions sit on obligatory advisory boards, ensuring programmes remain responsive to regional skill needs.
Vocational teachers must hold an appropriate tertiary qualification in their field, several years of relevant industry experience and a pedagogical qualification. Common-studies teachers follow the same academic route as their general-school peers. Continuous professional development and periodic evaluations by the Finnish Education Evaluation Centre underpin teaching quality.
Governance of VET is centralised in regulation but decentralised and flexible in implementation. The Ministry of Education and Culture sets legislation and funding rules, and EDUFI defines qualification requirements. Providers decide how to deliver them, while local stakeholders help shape content. Social-partner influence is formalised in national working-life committees that also monitor assessment standards.
Financing combines a core allocation that reflects student numbers and promotes equitable access with a sizable performance component that rewards credentials completed, learning outcomes demonstrated and graduate employment. This outcome-based element encourages providers to secure high-quality workplace learning, maintain completion rates and support smooth transitions into further studies or work.
1.4.4. Germany
Germany’s upper-secondary vocational education and training (VET) sits alongside the general track and is the dominant route into skilled employment. Around one-third of all 15-19-year-old upper-secondary students are enrolled in VET, the vast majority in apprenticeships. Entry is possible after completion of compulsory schooling, and there is no upper age limit for starting an apprenticeship. Successful graduates earn nationally recognised craft or skilled-worker certificates and may move on to tertiary study via bridging options such as the Fachhochschulreife or the vocational baccalaureate.
Programmes are built on a blend of federal training regulations and Länder framework syllabi. Training regulations, negotiated by federal authorities and the social partners, set out the occupational profile, the in-company training plan and examination requirements for more than 320 recognised training occupations. The Länder implement these as competence-based school curricula covering vocational theory, general subjects and key competences. Chambers organise mid-term and final trade exams while vocational schools grade classroom learning, with both issuing certificates to graduates.
Even the school-based routes keep a foothold in the workplace. Full-time vocational schools must embed internships whose length varies by programme and by state, ranging from a few weeks to several months, in order to guarantee practical experience and industry feedback on student performance.
Training takes place across three learning venues. Employers (training establishments) deliver hands-on skills; roughly one in five German establishments train apprentices. Vocational schools provide related theory and general education (1-2 days a week, or in intensive blocks). Inter-company training centres step in when small firms cannot cover every task in the occupational profile and when advanced equipment is needed. They are co-funded by the Federal Government and the Länder, often with chamber/industry contributions.
Those who teach and train are specialised. Vocational teachers normally hold a university degree in their field followed by pedagogical preparation, while workshop teachers enter through a practice-oriented pathway. In-company trainers must possess a relevant occupational qualification plus any required permit/aptitude, ensuring that apprentices receive structured guidance at work.
Governance is tripartite. The Federal Government drafts training regulations and sets overarching VET law, the Länder run vocational schools and oversee school assessments, and employers’ associations together with unions co-develop standards and sit on examination boards. Funding mirrors this division. Länder finance teachers, municipalities maintain schools and fund buildings/operational costs, and employers bear the wage and in-company training costs and co-finance inter-company centres. Targeted federal or Länder schemes subsidise small and medium-sized enterprises and disadvantaged learners to keep participation broad. The result is a system that combines national coherence with regional flexibility and labour-market relevance.
1.4.5. Netherlands
Upper-secondary vocational education and training (middelbaar beroepsonderwijs, MBO) is a backbone of Dutch skills formation. More than half of 15-19-year-olds in upper-secondary education choose one of over 700 programmes spread across three ISCED 3 qualification levels. Entry typically follows four years of pre-vocational lower-secondary schooling, and learners must stay in education until they earn at least a “start qualification” (MBO level 2, a higher general upper‑secondary, or pre-university diploma) or turn 18. Level 2 and 3 graduates can progress within upper-secondary VET, while level 4 graduates can progress to tertiary education in universities of applied sciences.
Programmes are defined nationally through competence-based qualification files devised by the public-private Cooperation Organisation for Vocational Education, Training and the Labour Market (SBB) in partnership with employers, unions and colleges. Each file sets learning outcomes for an occupational family and combines a generic and a basic vocational component, and job-specific optional modules. Regional training centres and occupational colleges translate these files into their own curricula, choosing delivery methods and modules that fit local labour needs. Assessment blends school and centrally administered examinations, as well as employer evaluations of workplace performance, with internal examination boards safeguarding validity and consistency across both pathways.
Students can achieve a diploma through a school-based or apprenticeship track. In the school-based pathway (BOL) students spend at least 20% of learning time (1-2 days a week) in an accredited company, with at least 900 hours of WBL across a three-year programme. In apprenticeship programmes (BBL) at least 60% of time (3-4 days a week) is paid work combined with one day at school. More than 250 000 training enterprises provide WBL, and are monitored regularly for suitable facilities, qualified mentors and alignment with qualification requirements.
Teaching is delivered by publicly funded colleges with wide autonomy, supported by a small private sector serving adults and niche fields under the same quality rules. Classroom teachers hold a second- or first-degree teaching licence or an industry degree plus a pedagogical certificate. Practical lessons may involve instructors and workshop supervisors, while workplace mentors must have basic coaching skills and expertise at least equivalent to the student’s programme, requirements enforced through SBB accreditation.
The Ministry of Education, Culture and Science sets legislation, funds institutions and formally recognises diplomas, but governance is shared with social partners through the SBB and with the Council of VET Schools (MBO Raad) that represents colleges in national negotiations. The Inspectorate of Education audits both school and assessment quality. Funding mirrors responsibilities: colleges receive lump-sum grants weighted by cost and performance, and education is free for learners under 18. Employers pay apprentice wages and can claim subsidies per trainee. Together these elements create a flexible, competence-oriented VET system that aligns with labour-market demand and supports lifelong learning.
1.4.6. Norway
Norway guarantees every young person who finishes ten years of compulsory schooling a legal right to complete upper-secondary education, and almost half choose the vocational track. Learners start at around age 16 in one of ten broad vocational programme areas that lead to over 180 trade or journeyman certificates at EQF level 4. Students can move between vocational and academic routes or add a one-year academic supplement for university entry. Those needing extra support can follow tailored practice certificates or apprenticeship-candidate schemes.
Programmes are organised through national competence-based curricula. Most programmes follow the “2 + 2” structure, which gives two school years of common core subjects, broad vocational theory and in-depth practice modules, followed by two paid apprenticeship years in an approved training company. Even in the school phase students log workplace hours through the compulsory in-depth practice component, and in the apprenticeship phase they are paid employees whose wages rise over time. All routes end with a practical-theoretical trade examination, externally assessed by a county-appointed industry board.
Most provision is delivered by public county schools that also offer general education. Schools give vocational learners access to modern workshops and simulated workplaces. Companies of every size can train apprentices once licensed, and many small firms share responsibility through county-approved training offices so that each apprentice rotates across tasks needed for the full curriculum. Vocational teachers must hold a trade certificate or equivalent professional qualification, have at least four years of industry experience and complete pedagogical training. They keep skills current through structured professional development, while workplace trainers often take short, recognised mentoring courses.
Governance is distinctly tripartite under legislation. National authorities set curricula and overall regulation, counties plan provision and approve training companies, and employer organisations and unions shape content through national and county vocational training councils and sit on examination boards. Tuition is free and counties finance vocational schools and pay a training grant to companies (with state funding) for each apprentice to offset supervision costs. Employers cover the wage costs of apprentices, and students receive the same financial support schemes as their peers in general education.
1.4.7. Singapore
In Singapore, vocational education and training largely begins after secondary school (ISCED 4). Students are typically 17 when they enter the Institute of Technical Education (ITE), the country’s state-owned provider of ISCED 4 VET programmes. Normal (Academic) and Normal (Technical) graduates choose among 99 full‑time programmes that lead to National ITE Certificates (Nitec) or Higher Nitec awards in six broad fields, from engineering and info-comm technology to hospitality. There are alternative pathways into post-secondary VET at ITE for students with varying academic backgrounds, including a preparatory programme focusing on enhancing foundation skills. Upon graduation from VET programmes, most learners step straight into skilled work, yet high achievers can secure places in polytechnics and, in a few cases, universities.
ITE designs all curricula centrally with industry advisory committees. Each course is modular and blends three components: technical “core” modules, life-skills modules that build communication and teamwork, and a small elective selection. Teaching is intensely hands-on – around 70% of scheduled hours take place in workshops, laboratories, training restaurants or simulated clinics. Students have 35‑40 contact hours per week, in programmes that last two to three years. Assessment is continuous and competency-based; learners must pass every module and maintain a satisfactory grade-point average to collect the qualification that employers and further-study selectors scrutinise.
Work-based learning is compulsory. Full-time students complete a structured industry attachment – about six months for a two-year Nitec and up to nine months spread over the new three-year Higher Nitec – while a smaller cohort follows the traineeship mode, being employed and paid while studying part-time at ITE. Lecturers and host-company supervisors (“trainers”) jointly set learning objectives and grade students’ workplace modules.
ITE’s “One System, Three Colleges” model means all ISCED 4 provision is delivered on three large campuses, each offering similar programmes but with niche centres of excellence. Private schools and employer academies do operate, yet their awards sit outside the national Nitec/Higher Nitec framework. Lecturers, recruited largely from industry, need strong occupational expertise. Once hired they complete in-house pedagogical training at the ITE Academy and later refresh their skills through industry attachments.
Governance is highly centralised. The Ministry of Education sets strategy, funds ITE and approves new courses, while SkillsFuture Singapore contributes labour-market intelligence and incentives for internships and traineeships. Public investment per VET learner is generous and has risen further under SkillsFuture reforms that lengthened internships and merged many Nitec–Higher Nitec sequences into seamless three-year pathways. Singapore’s post-secondary VET system offers a compact yet comprehensive route from school to skilled employment.
1.4.8. Sweden
Sweden’s upper-secondary vocational education and training (VET) begins after nine years of compulsory schooling. Twelve nationally-regulated three-year programmes span fields from construction and electricity to hospitality and health care. Roughly one-third of 15-19-year-old upper‑secondary students choose VET programmes. They earn a vocational diploma that signals readiness for skilled work. Since a 2023 reform, VET programmes include courses that make students eligible for tertiary education by default (out of which students can opt). Learners who lack the entry grades can reach VET through four introductory routes that blend basic subjects, guidance and, in the case of the vocational introduction track, early work experience.
Each VET programme is built from nationally defined courses, typically adding up to 2500 credits and including common foundation subjects, programme-specific core courses, an orientation course(s), blocks for programme deepening, individual choice courses and a mandatory diploma project to demonstrate occupational competence. Knowledge requirements are expressed as A‑E grade descriptors, and teachers grade every course (although from 2025, grades are set at subject levels). National tests exist only in Swedish, English and mathematics. There is no external final exam in vocational subjects, but the diploma project must meet the overall programme goals.
Work-based learning (Arbetsplatsförlagt lärande, APL) is compulsory for all school-based students and must cover at least 15 weeks over the three years. A written agreement between school, learner and employer sets objectives, and the workplace supervisor’s feedback informs course grades given by the school teacher. Students may instead select the apprenticeship pathway, in which more than half of instruction occurs at one or more companies. About one in eight VET learners follow this option, supported by a national Apprenticeship Centre, employer compensation and a study allowance for apprentices.
Municipal schools remain the principal providers, but about a third of VET students attend tuition-free independent schools, and a small number study in specialised industry schools. Municipalities must guarantee access, often through regional consortia or by funding a student’s place in another municipality or an independent provider.
Two distinct teacher groups staff VET. Foundation-subject teachers hold academic degrees plus teaching certification. Vocational teachers must combine a relevant occupational qualification and industry experience with pedagogical training. Alternative fast-track routes and industry placements support recruitment and continuous professional development.
Governance combines strong national direction with local social-partner engagement. The Swedish National Agency for Education sets curricula and hosts national programme councils that review competence profiles (descriptions of knowledge, skills and competence graduates require for an occupation), while every school maintains at least one local programme council where employers and unions shape provision and secure workplace training.
Funding is wholly public. Municipalities finance VET provision from local budgets, supported by general state grants and a municipal equalisation system that covers teaching, materials and student support. State grants top-up apprenticeship costs and targeted initiatives. Education is free for learners. Apprentices receive study allowances and employers hosting apprentices can receive compensation.
1.4.9. Switzerland
Swiss upper-secondary VET commences after nine years of compulsory schooling. In 2021, 58% of 15-19 year-old upper-secondary students were in VET. Students choose from around 250 federally recognised occupations that lead either to a three- or four-year Federal VET Diploma (EFZ) or a two-year Federal VET Certificate (EBA). About 90 % of learners follow the dual-track apprenticeship, spending three to four days a week training in a host company, one to two days in a cantonal vocational school and several short inter-company courses organised by professional associations. Apprenticeship places are offered by more than 58 000 approved firms (almost 10% of all firms in 2020), and small businesses can share training through consortium arrangements.
Every occupation is governed by a federal training ordinance and a detailed education plan developed jointly by the Confederation, the 26 cantons and the professional organisations. These documents specify competences, the division of learning venues and the final qualification procedure, guaranteeing national consistency while allowing periodic updates. Vocational schools teach occupational theory, languages, mathematics and civics while companies focus on practical skills.
Assessment is continuous but culminates in a nationally regulated final examination, combining a substantial practical task, vocational knowledge tests and general-education papers. Successful candidates earn a federal credential that is portable across Switzerland. Graduates may add the optional vocational baccalaureate, which can be taken in parallel or after training and opens the door to Universities of Applied Sciences. With an additional “Passerelle” exam they may also enter research universities.
Three types of providers offer upper-secondary VET programmes. Training companies employ and mentor apprentices using certified in-company trainers, a route chosen by about 90% of VET students. More than 350 public vocational schools nationwide offer the classroom strand and also host entirely school-based programmes. Sectoral bodies run the inter-company training centres. Vocational school teachers complete specialised pedagogy at the Swiss Federal University for VET, while general-subject teachers add a VET-specific module to their academic-school qualification. Workplace trainers hold at least an EFZ or EBA and at least two years’ relevant work experience, and complete a federally recognised instructor course. Regular continuing professional development is mandatory for VET school teachers under cantonal rules.
Governance and funding are tripartite. The Confederation steers strategic issues and finances vocational schools’ teacher training; cantons licence companies, run the schools and organise exams; professional organisations draft ordinances, provide trainers and oversee labour-market relevance. Training companies cover apprentice wages and in-company supervision, cantons finance vocational schools, and the Confederation covers the costs of teacher-education infrastructure.
Including a non-member (Singapore) in the analysis was explicitly requested by the Gatsby Charitable Foundation and provides beneficial insights for OECD countries. Singapore has consistently outperformed many OECD countries in the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA). Its vocational education and training system is different to that of many OECD member countries in several ways. VET in Singapore largely commences in post-secondary education. It is delivered through a concentrated public network – one Institute of Technical Education (ITE) offering ISCED 4 programmes and polytechnics offering ISCED 5 programmes. This supports coherent standards, rapid curriculum updates and quality assurance. Employer involvement is structured through SkillsFuture skills frameworks and ITE advisory committees, through which employers contribute to VET curricula. Work-study pathways integrate paid employment with credit-bearing study and clear progression routes. These features – tight industry-provider governance, codified skills frameworks, and scaled work-study – offer concrete options for OECD countries seeking better labour-market alignment, smoother upper-secondary-to-tertiary progression, and stronger adult upskilling systems.
References
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← 1. These are VET programmes in which the work-based element (e.g. internships or apprenticeships) constituted 25%-90% of the curriculum.