Upper-secondary vocational education and training (VET) in Sweden occurs after compulsory education and comprises 12 vocational programmes. Each programme is based on high-level national curricula and competence profiles designed with social partner input, which are translated into more detailed programme and diploma goals and subject syllabi. In school-based VET, a minimum of 15 weeks of study time must be spent in work-based learning (WBL). Upper-secondary VET is provided by municipal schools, independent providers and specialised industry schools. The VET workforce includes foundation subject teachers and vocational teachers, each with distinct qualification requirements. Centralised curriculum and legal frameworks are delivered de-centrally by municipalities and independent providers, also involving national and local programme councils with employer and union participation. Sweden’s upper-secondary VET is entirely publicly funded and free for students.
Vocational Education and Training Systems in Nine Countries
Abstract
Sweden’s upper‑secondary education (gymnasieskola) is voluntary and typically starts at age 16 after nine years of compulsory schooling (grundskola). It comprises 18 national programmes: 12 vocational programmes (yrkesprogram) and 6 higher education preparatory programmes (högskoleförberedande program) (Cedefop, & Skolverket (Swedish National Agency for Education), 2023[1]). The 12 vocational programmes are (1) Child and Recreation Programme; (2) Building and Construction Programme; (3) Electricity and Energy Construction Programme; (4) Vehicle and Transport Programme; (5) Handicraft Programme (e.g Hairdresser); (6) Sales and Service Programme; (7) Hotel and Tourism Programme; (8) Industrial Technology Programme; (9) Natural Resources Programme; (10) Restaurant Management and Food Programme; (11) HVAC and Property Maintenance Programme; and (12) Health and Social Care Programme. These programmes support occupational preparation across a broad spectrum of sectors and offer a nationally recognised vocational upper‑secondary diploma upon completion.
As of 2023/24, approximately 367 000 students are enrolled in upper‑secondary education (all programmes) across Sweden (Sveriges oficiella statistik, 2024[2]). In 2021, one-third of 15-19 year-old students in upper‑secondary education pursued vocational programmes, while two-thirds choose academic tracks (OECD, 2023[3]). Vocational programmes (ISCED 353, EQF level 4) run for three years and lead to an upper‑secondary vocational diploma (Cedefop, & Skolverket (Swedish National Agency for Education), 2023[1]). They prepare students for direct entry into the labour market, as well as further studies.
Admission into upper‑secondary VET requires passing grades (A–E) in Swedish or Swedish as a Second Language, English, mathematics, and five other subjects (compared to nine other subjects for general upper secondary). Students who lack eligibility can attend one of four introductory programmes (introduktionsprogram) to reach the required level (Cedefop, & Skolverket (Swedish National Agency for Education), 2023[1]) (Box 9.1).
Sweden offers four introductory programmes (Introduktionsprogram [IM]) (lasting 1‑3 years) to give pupils who finish compulsory school without the grades required for a national upper-secondary programme a second chance to progress or work. All IMs require an individual study plan, systematic career guidance and guaranteed access to student-health services (Skolverket (Swedish National Agency for Education), 2025[4]). Municipalities may also integrate work-experience placements and welfare support (e.g., free lunches for all students, travel cards for those far from the place of learning), which can benefit low-income families in particular (Sveriges Kommuner och Regioner, 2024[5]). IMs do not confer a VET qualification but can enable transfer into a national VET programme or entry into jobs as semi-skilled workers.
Programme‑oriented option (Programinriktat val [IMV])
IMV is a bridge allowing a pupil who is missing one core-subject to enrol and transfer into their preferred programme when the subject is passed (Gymnasie Guiden, 2025[6]). Schools may open IMV both for groups and for single learners, making it a flexible on-ramp for low achievers who nevertheless have clear vocational ambitions. One follow-up study shows IMV participants record the highest transition rate to national VET and higher employment than peers in more general IMs. (Skolverket (Swedish National Agency for Education), 2025[7]).
Vocational introduction (Reintroduction [IMY])
IMY blends basic subjects with workplace training aimed at semi-skilled jobs or later entry to a vocational programme. Municipalities must also offer it to pupils from special needs schools, broadening access for disadvantaged youth with learning difficulties. IMY graduates have a significantly higher probability of being employed within two years than those graduating more academic IMs (Skolverket (Swedish National Agency for Education), 2025[7]).
Individual alternative (Individuellt alternativ [IMA])
IMA is the most personalised track. Schools assemble a 1‑3‑year plan mixing basic courses, therapeutic support, vocational tasters and social-skills modules for pupils lacking several passes or facing complex barriers such as truancy, neuro-divergence or family poverty (Gymnasieantagningen Storsthlm, 2025[8]). Close mentoring and a compulsory study-plan review every term help rebuild study habits and self-efficacy before students step into IMY, IMV or adult education (Skolverket (Swedish National Agency for Education), 2025[7]).
Language introduction (Språkintroduktion [IMS])
IMS targets newly arrived migrants aged up to 19 who need intensive Swedish as a Second Language (SVA) before regular VET study (Skolverket (Swedish National Agency for Education), 2025[7]; Gymnasieantagningen Storsthlm, 2025[8]). Provision can last three years and includes mathematics, English and guidance on Swedish society, with individual pacing so literate and illiterate refugees alike can advance (Skolverket (Swedish National Agency for Education), 2025[9]).
Source: Gymnasie Guiden (2025[6]), Programinriktatval, www.gymnasieguiden.se/gymnasieprogram/IMV; Skolverket (Swedish National Agency for Education) (2025[7]), Introduktionsprogram (Introductory programme), www.skolverket.se/undervisning/gymnasieskolan/introduktionsprogram; Gymnasieantagningen Storsthlm (2025[8]), Gymnasieprogram, https://gymnasieantagningen.storsthlm.se/gymnasieprogram/introduktionsprogram/.
After completing ISCED 3 VET, graduates have multiple pathways. Many enter the workforce directly – in sectors like construction or care, a large majority secure jobs within a few years of graduation. Others pursue further education and training. Until recently, vocational students did not automatically qualify for university, but had to take additional courses to do so. In 2022 only 36% of vocational graduates had taken the additional courses to obtain university eligibility (Skolverket (Swedish National Agency for Education), 2024[10]). However, a reform in 2023 introduced grundläggande högskolebehörighet (general eligibility for higher education) into all VET programmes by default. This means upper-intermediate courses in Swedish and English are now included in the subject syllabi, increasing the course-load of VET programmes. However, students may opt out of the extra university-preparatory courses if they prefer (instead of having to opt in as before) and still earn a vocational diploma. With or without extra university preparatory courses, VET graduates also have the option to attend higher vocational education (HVE delivered by yrkeshögskola, ISCED 4/5) which offers advanced VET certificates and diplomas in specific fields (Cedefop, 2023[11]).
Figure 9.1 shows educational pathways into and after ISCED 3 VET in Sweden.
Note: The reference year is 2023 (school year 2022/2023 in the northern hemisphere). Theoretical starting ages refer to the ages as established by law and regulation for the entry to a programme; actual starting ages may vary depending on the programme.
Source: Adapted from OECD (2023[12]), “Diagram of the education system: Sweden”, OECD Education GPS, https://gpseducation.oecd.org/CountryProfile?primaryCountry=SWE.
Upper‑secondary VET programmes in Sweden are based on high-level national curricula (aims and goals for all programmes), competence profiles (structured descriptions of knowledge, skills and competence graduates require for an occupation), programme and diploma goals (Examensmål) and subject syllabi (Ämnesplan) aligned with curricula and competence profiles (OECD, 2022[13]). The competence profiles are not legally binding but are advisory tools developed with input from national programme councils (nationella programråd) composed of employer & union representatives. The programme and diploma goals express learning outcomes in terms of learners’ ’ability to’, ’knowledge about’, ’understanding of’ and ’skills in’, and these become more demanding at higher grades (Cedefop, & Skolverket (Swedish National Agency for Education), 2023[1]). Subject syllabi for specific courses describe the aims, core content and knowledge requirements, the last of which has grade-linked descriptors (A–E), providing a grading scale for assessment. The mandatory 100-credit diploma project (Gymnasiearbete) undertaken in the third (final) year must demonstrate that the student achieves the overall programme goals.
Upper‑secondary VET programmes in Sweden span three years and are built on nationally-defined courses with fixed credit values. A full programme involves 2 500 credits of coursework (which corresponds to three years of full-time study), though with the new higher education option the subject syllabi can extend up to 2 700‑2 800 credits if all additional courses are taken (Skolverket (Swedish National Agency for Education), 2025[7]). Within the school-based VET pathway, a minimum of 15 weeks must be allocated to workplace training. All national programmes – academic and vocational – share a common structure defined centrally by the Swedish National Agency for Education (Skolverket) (Cedefop, & Skolverket (Swedish National Agency for Education), 2023[1]). This structure comprises:
Gymnasiegemensamma ämnen (Foundation subjects): These are compulsory for all students and ensure all students acquire fundamental competencies and soft skills (communication, civic knowledge, etc.). They include Swedish (or Swedish as a second language), English, Mathematics, Science, Social Studies, Religion, History, and Physical Education. In vocational programmes, the foundation subjects have historically included a smaller subset of courses (e.g. Maths 1a, English 5, etc.). After 2023, vocational students take up to 900 credits in foundation subjects (instead of 600) if they follow the added Swedish 2, 3 and English 6 for higher education eligibility (gymnasium.se, 2025[14]).
Programgemensamma karaktärsämnen (Programme-specific subjects): Each VET programme has foundational vocational subjects common to the field to establish core vocational competencies before specialisation, amounting to around 400 credits (Skolverket (Swedish National Agency for Education), 2025[15]). These introduce students to the knowledge and skills of the occupational area.
Inriktningar (Orientations/Specialisations): Most vocational programmes offer one or more orientations that students choose, typically from the second year. An orientation is a set of courses (usually 400‑600 credits) focusing on a sub-field or trade within the broader programme (Skolverket (Swedish National Agency for Education), 2025[4]).
Programfördjupningar (Programme augmentation/deepening courses): These are additional elective vocational courses within the programme framework, typically 500‑800 credits available, of which students choose a subset (often ~300 credits) to deepen or broaden their competencies (Skolverket (Swedish National Agency for Education), 2025[4]). The National Agency specifies which courses can be offered as programfördjupning for each programme. Schools often use these to cater to local industry needs or student interests.
Individuellt val (Individual options): All students, including VET students, have 200 credits for free electives, which they can use to take courses of personal interest. They may choose to deepen vocational skills or take additional academic subjects.
Gymnasiearbete (Diploma project): In the final year, every student must complete a major project of 100 credits related to their field. In vocational programmes this gymnasiearbete typically takes the form of a practical task or investigation demonstrating the student’s vocational skills and knowledge in a real or simulated work context. The diploma project is assessed on a pass/fail basis and a “pass” is required for graduation.
While vocational programmes are built upon nationally-defined courses with fixed credit values, head-teachers and providers have flexibility with regards to which elective blocks (programfördjupning and individuellt val), orientations (inriktningar), and programme-deepening courses to offer learners (see Section 9.6).
Assessment in upper‑secondary VET is course-based and criterion-referenced. Teachers assess students continuously through assignments, practical tests, and exams, and issue grades at the end of each course. Failing the diploma project or too many courses means the student receives a study certificate but not an official diploma. According to national statistics, about 79% of students complete a full upper‑secondary diploma within three years (a figure that has been rising over the last decade) (Skolverket (Swedish National Agency for Education), 2024[10]). Those who do not finish in three years can continue a fourth year, switch to adult education, or receive partial study certificates. Students starting their upper‑secondary education from August 2025 will have a revised grading system. Grades will be set after each level in a subject, but the grade in a higher course will cover both the higher and the lower course. As a consequence, all subjects and courses have been revised to fit in a progression model.
There are no national final exams in vocational subjects, but students sit national standardised tests in the foundation subjects (Swedish, English, and Mathematics). Teachers use these tests as one component of course assessment for those subjects. Vocational competence is primarily assessed by the school’s own teachers according to the knowledge requirements in the subject syllabi, which have grade-linked descriptors that provide an A–E grading scale for assessment. To ensure reliability and relevance, many programmes involve employers in assessment: for example, during work-based learning stints, workplace trainers give feedback on the student’s performance which the teacher considers when grading. In some craft-oriented programmes, there are industry certification tests that students take toward the end of their studies, which are separate from and additional to the state diploma (e.g. the ECY-certifikat in the Electricity & Energy programme). The regular school assessment, however, remains centred on course grades and the diploma project.
Work-based learning is a central component of Swedish VET at ISCED level 3 and involves (parts of) courses being delivered in a workplace(s). All school-based vocational programmes include mandatory workplace training periods known as Arbetsplatsförlagt lärande (APL). By regulation, a minimum of 15 weeks of a vocational student’s study time must be spent in authentic work settings for a standard 3-year programme (Skolverket, n.d.[16]). This amounts to around 15% of the total instructional time, although many schools and programmes exceed this minimum. Schools usually spread these workplace periods across the second and third year (some programmes do a few weeks each term; others might have a longer block each year). Each student’s WBL is structured via a formal agreement between the school and the host company. The programme and diploma goals (Examensmål) and subject syllabi also apply to WBL, helping to ensure WBL is not mere menial work but helps to develop the abilities, knowledge, understanding and skills defined for the programme. A workplace trainer is appointed to guide and monitor the student. This trainer collaborates with the school’s vocational teacher – together they plan the tasks the student should learn and later evaluate the student’s performance. However, assessment responsibility rests with the school teacher, since grades are an educational matter (Cedefop, 2023[11]). To support quality, the National Agency for Education provides guidance and training for workplace mentors.
In addition to the standard school-based VET with WBL, students can also choose an apprenticeship pathway (gymnasial lärlingsutbildning) following the same curricula, with over half the training at workplaces (OECD, 2022[13]). Sweden offers a formal apprenticeship track as an alternative way to complete a vocational programme. Introduced nationally in 2011, the apprenticeship pathway offers the same programmes, diplomas and subject syllabi as school-based VET, but over 50% of the education is conducted at one or more workplaces. Students can opt into apprenticeship in the first, second, or even third year of their programme, depending on local arrangements, at which point the 50% WBL requirement kicks in. Once a student becomes an apprentice, a training contract is drawn up involving the student, school, and employer, specifying how the on-the-job training is organised and which skills are to be mastered on site. In 2014, Sweden established a dedicated Apprenticeship Centre (Lärlingscentrum) under Skolverket to promote apprenticeships and assist schools and employers with arranging high-quality WBL. The centre also offers courses for apprentice supervisors and encourages regional networks between schools and local industries (Cedefop, 2023[11]).
By 2022/23, roughly 13.2% of all upper‑secondary VET students (about 14 000 learners) were apprentices. The government provides a targeted state grant to education providers for each apprentice and apprentices themselves are eligible for a special study allowance. Apprentices can receive an apprenticeship allowance from the state or be directly employed under a “Upper Secondary Apprentice Employment” contract (Gymnasial lärlingsanställning, GLA), whereby an employer pays a training wage (Cedefop, 2023[11]). Financial incentives are also available to employers (see Section 9.7).
Sweden’s approach to WBL emphasises close school-employer collaboration. Each school is required to set up one or several local programme councils (lokala programråd) that include representatives of the local working life for their vocational programmes (Cedefop, 2023[11]). These councils often assist in finding WBL placements, ensuring training equipment is up to industry standard, and sometimes in evaluating students’ final projects. The Schools Inspectorate (Skolinspektionen) conducts regular supervision of how schools manage workplace training.
Upper‑secondary VET in Sweden is offered by municipal and specialised providers following national curricula. Municipalities ensure access, often co‑operating regionally, while independent schools – publicly funded and tuition-free – serve about a third of VET students with specialised programmes (OECD, 2022[13]).
Municipalities (kommuner) bear the statutory responsibility to ensure availability of upper‑secondary education for their resident youth (Sveriges Kommuner och Regioner, 2024[5]) and most students attend municipally-run schools (Kommunal gymnasieskola). These schools are financed by municipal budgets (with state grants and tax equalisation, see Section 9.7. Funding) and are governed by elected local school boards. In some cases, county councils (regioner) act as education providers – historically, county authorities ran certain vocational schools like healthcare training centres and agricultural schools. Today, most of those have been transferred to municipalities. A municipality may fulfil its duty to provide upper-secondary VET by running a gymnasium school(s) of its own or in collaboration with neighbouring municipalities, or by funding places at independent schools chosen by students. Many smaller municipalities join regional consortia (gymnasieförbund) to jointly operate schools and share resources.
Public providers have an obligation to offer a broad range of programmes to meet student demand and regional labour needs. Not every municipality can offer all 12 vocational programmes, so students often commute or relocate to attend the programme of their choice. If a student enrolls in a public or private school outside their home municipality, the home municipality must fund their education via a set national “voucher” amount (or via a regional agreement).
A significant portion of VET is delivered by independent providers (Fristående gymnasieskola). These are typically privately owned schools (by companies, foundations, or non-profits) that are approved by the Schools Inspectorate to offer national programmes and receive public funding for each student. Many of these schools specialise in certain fields or pedagogical models. For example, there are niche private schools focusing only on, say, vehicles and transport or IT and media. Independent providers must adhere to the same programme and diploma goals (Examensmål) and subject syllabi (Ämnesplan), and their students sit the same national tests, ensuring comparability of outcomes. Independent schools are free for students and cannot charge tuition – they operate on the public funding plus any private sponsorships. By 2024/25, Sweden had 459 independent upper‑secondary school units, representing about 36% of all upper‑secondary schools (Riksförbund, 2023[17]). In terms of student enrolment, roughly 31% of secondary students (about 114 000 out of 364 000) attend independent schools (Sveriges Kommuner och Regioner, 2024[5]).
Sweden also has a small number of industry schools (Branschskola) - specialised facilities jointly run by municipalities (or consortiums of municipalities) and industry to serve a whole region. These focus on fields with expensive equipment or very specialised training (like mining or aviation). It also has special national vocational arts schools. For example, some programmes like yrkesdansarutbildningen (professional dance) are overseen by national bodies (e.g. the Arts federation) in collaboration with school providers and grant vocational ISCED 3 qualifications (e.g. dance as a vocational arts diploma).
Finally, Sweden has voluntary, regionally governed quality‑assurance networks (“college” brands) for engineering/industrial technology and health & social care respectively. They certify existing schools (public or independent) whose programmes meet industry‑defined standards. For instance, Teknikcollege is a collaborative framework where clusters of schools and industries in a region co‑ordinate engineering and industrial tech education, often sharing facilities and internship arrangements (Cedefop, 2023[11]).
Although outside the youth school system, municipal adult education (Komvux) and folk high schools also deliver ISCED 3 vocational courses, often using the same subject syllabi. For example, an adult can study a yrkespaket (vocational package – a cluster of courses recommended by programme councils) in plumbing or caregiving via Komvux. These programmes are financed and organised separately (under adult education legislation) but underscore that VET qualifications can be obtained beyond the age of 19 in Sweden’s highly permeable system (Cedefop, 2023[11]; Cedefop, & Skolverket (Swedish National Agency for Education), 2023[1]).
In Sweden, vocational teachers combine advanced industry qualifications with specialised pedagogical training and official certification. To address teacher shortages, flexible education pathways crediting professional experience have been introduced, alongside efforts to attract professionals from higher technical education fields. Continuous professional development, including industry externships and collaboration with employers, ensures teachers remain updated with evolving workplace technologies and practices (OECD, 2021[18]; OECD, 2023[19]).
The vocational education workforce in Sweden is broadly divided into two categories: subject teachers (for foundation subjects like languages, maths, etc.) and vocational teachers (for the practical and vocational subjects) (Cedefop, 2023[11]). Each group has distinct qualification requirements, though both ultimately must obtain teaching certification (lärarlegitimation).
To teach a vocational subject in upper‑secondary VET, an individual typically needs: (a) a relevant vocational qualification or mastery in the occupational field, and (b) pedagogical training at tertiary level in the form of a vocational teacher education programme. The Swedish Education Act stipulates that a vocational teacher should have at least one level higher qualification than the level at which they teach. In practice, since upper‑secondary VET corresponds to SeQF level 4 (EQF 4), a vocational teacher is expected to have a qualification at SeQF level 5 or higher in that field. Often this is not a formal degree but a journey-level craft certificate or similar advanced credential. In addition, professional work experience (usually a minimum of a few years) in the relevant industry is required for admission to a vocational teacher training programme (Cedefop, 2023[11]).
Sweden reformed teacher education in 2011, introducing specialised programmes for different categories of teachers. One of these is the Vocational Teacher Education programme (Yrkeslärarprogrammet), typically a 90-credit (1.5 years) university programme focusing on educational science, teaching methods, and supervised teaching practice specifically tailored for future VET teachers. Candidates for this programme are often mid-career tradespeople, technicians, or professionals who bring their industry expertise and then learn how to teach and adapt their skills to a school environment. The curriculum covers pedagogy, assessment, curriculum theory, and how to integrate practical and theoretical instruction. There is also an induction period where the trainee teacher practices teaching under mentorship (Cedefop, 2023[11]).
After completing the 90 credits Vocational Teacher Education programme (Yrkeslärarprogrammet), a new teacher must apply to Skolverket for certification as a vocational teacher (lärarlegitimation). Teacher certification is a licensing system intended to assure teacher quality. According to the law, only certified teachers are allowed to issue final grades to students (Cedefop, 2023[11]). Skolverket evaluates applicants’ educational credentials and work experience. In the case of vocational teachers, there is recognition of real-work experience as part of qualifications. Once certified, a teacher is authorised to teach specific subjects or courses listed on the certificate.
To address the challenge of a shortage of qualified VET teachers, various measures have been tried: shortened pathways for those with extensive work experience, campaigns to encourage industry professionals to consider teaching, and salary increases in shortage subjects. In addition, schools sometimes hire non-certified instructors (such as a skilled craftsperson without pedagogical training) on a temporary basis when no certified teacher is available. The law allows non-certified teachers to be employed for up to one year at a time, with the possibility of extension if no qualified teacher can be found. However, these teachers must work under the supervision of a certified teacher, especially for grading purposes (Cedefop, 2023[11]). These teachers can become qualified by undertaking a shortened vocational teacher education of 60 credits, since they are credited with 30 credits through their professional experience as teachers. Most programmes are offered part-time and distance, allowing participants to work and study in parallel (Antera, 2022[20]).
The teachers who deliver foundation subjects (like Swedish, English, mathematics, etc.) in vocational programmes must meet the same requirements as those in academic programmes (Cedefop, 2023[11]). They typically hold a university degree in their subject plus a teaching qualification (often a Master of Education). These teachers often teach across both vocational and academic classes. For instance, an English teacher might have classes composed of students from the Business Administration programme and others from the Science programme – the English 5 course is identical.
The Swedish law (Education Act 2010) emphasises that teachers should continuously develop their skills, but it does not prescribe exact amounts or forms of CPD. Instead, the responsibility is placed on the school principal and the governing body (municipality or company) to provide and facilitate professional development. The specifics of teachers’ working time and development hours are governed by collective agreements between employers and teacher unions. The main agreement for municipal schools (also adopted by many independent schools) allocates about 104 hours per year of a teacher’s working time for professional development. This is roughly 6% of annual work hours (Cedefop, 2023[11]). In practice, these hours might be used in various ways: in-service training days, courses, workshops, or self-study. Many vocational teachers engage in externship opportunities – for example, spending a few days at a company to learn about the latest equipment which they then incorporate into their teaching. Some schools have arrangements with local firms to allow teachers periodic refreshers. The National Agency for Education disseminates best practices and sometimes offers training modules (for instance, on how to coach students in workplace learning or how to integrate sustainability in vocational subjects). Additionally, through the EU’s Erasmus+ programme, many VET teachers in Sweden take part in international exchanges or training courses in Europe to broaden their expertise.
Sweden’s VET governance combines national-level curriculum control and legal frameworks with decentralised delivery managed by municipalities and independent providers. National and local programme councils involve employers and unions in shaping content, while the Schools Inspectorate oversees quality and compliance, in order to promote labour market alignment and local adaptability (OECD, 2024[21]). The chief law is the Education Act (Skollag 2010:800), supplemented by the Upper Secondary School Ordinance (Gymnasieförordning 2010:2039), which together stipulate the structure of programmes, students’ rights, teacher requirements, etc. At the national level, the Ministry of Education and Research is responsible for education policy, and under it several agencies handle implementation and oversight.
The Swedish National Agency for Education (Skolverket) is the central administrative authority for the school system. It develops the national programmes, course syllabi, and regulations for all programmes (Cedefop, 2023[11]). For VET, Skolverket issues the specific programme definitions (programme goals, structures, course syllabi for each vocational programme) and updates them as needed. It also manages the teacher certification process and national school statistics. Skolverket provides support materials and evaluations to ensure the programmes/courses are delivered effectively across the country. Importantly, Skolverket convenes national reference groups to keep vocational content current (see below). While Skolverket sets “what” should be taught (learning outcomes), the “how” is largely left to schools – reflecting decentralisation. School principals and providers have flexibility with regard to which elective course blocks (individuellt val), orientations (inriktningar) and programme-deepening (programfördjupning) courses they offer learners.
For each of the 12 national vocational programmes, there is a National Programme Council (nationella programråd) appointed by Skolverket. These councils consist of representatives from employers’ organisations, trade unions, professional associations and sometimes higher education or public employment services. The councils have a consultative role – they advise Skolverket on the subject syllabus development, propose updates or new courses, and identify emerging skill needs in the labour market. They do not have decision-making power; final decisions rest with Skolverket and the Government (Cedefop, 2023[11]).
The Swedish Schools Inspectorate (Skolinspektionen) is the national authority that supervises and evaluates all schools (public and independent). It conducts regular inspections of and thematic reports on upper‑secondary schools, assessing aspects like teaching quality, compliance with regulations, and student outcomes. In VET, the Inspectorate examines the quality of WBL and how schools co‑operate with workplaces (Cedefop, 2023[11]). If serious deficiencies are found, the Inspectorate can mandate improvements or as a last resort revoke a school’s license (in the case of independent schools) or require the municipality to take action. Recent inspection themes have included how well schools implement the new higher education eligibility courses in VET and how they ensure equal access to equipment for practical training.
At the regional/local level, governance is largely the responsibility of municipalities and independent school owners. Municipalities plan and provide education and must offer the national programmes either in its own schools or via agreements. They have autonomy in allocating resources, organising school management, adapting teaching to local circumstances and hiring teachers. In practice, school principals (rektor), organise recruitment processes, conduct interviews and decide which candidates to propose for employment contracts within the municipal (or independent-school) budget. They also co‑ordinate with local businesses for WBL placements. Several municipalities might form a steering group at county level to discuss education supply vs. labour demand (especially since state grants encourage regional co‑ordination in VET for adults (Cedefop, 2023[11]) which often overlaps with youth VET facilities). While municipalities cannot change the subject syllabus, they decide, for example, which orientations of a programme to offer, based on student interest and employer input.
Each school that provides vocational programmes is expected to have Local Programme Councils (lokala programråd) for those programmes, mirroring national councils. These typically include local employers, craftsmen, and sometimes alumni or student representatives. Their function is to strengthen school-work life collaboration – advising on training content, helping arrange workplace training, and validating that the skills taught meet local industry requirements (Cedefop, 2023[11]).
Sweden’s upper‑secondary vocational education is fully publicly funded and free for students. Municipal and national funding, with tax equalisation, ensures equitable access and covers costs like study allowances, materials, and meals. Per-student funding is high due to practical training needs, and additional state grants support strategic VET priorities (OECD, 2024[21]).
The primary responsibility for financing upper‑secondary schools (including vocational programmes) lies with municipalities. Each municipality allocates money from its budget (largely funded by local income taxes) to run its schools or pay for its residents in other schools. To ensure that all municipalities can provide a similar quality of education regardless of their tax base, Sweden uses a state grant and tax equalisation system. The national government gives an annual general grant to municipalities for education, calculated based on factors like population size, demographics, and socio-economic indicators (Cedefop, 2023[11]). This is supplemented by an equalisation formula that redistributes funds so that poorer municipalities receive extra support while wealthier ones contribute.
In addition to general funding, the central government provides targeted grants for specific priorities in VET. For instance, there have been earmarked funds to expand apprenticeship, to support vocational training for adults (komvux), and to improve WBL quality (Cedefop, 2023[11]). One example is the state subsidy introduced when apprenticeship was launched: schools could get a certain sum per apprentice to cover costs of co‑ordinating with workplaces. These targeted funds are often time-limited and require applications, but they can significantly bolster VET provision in areas of strategic importance (like ICT or green technologies).
Since students have the right to choose schools (public or independent), Sweden employs a voucher-like funding model for upper‑secondary education. Municipalities finance each student through a per-student allocation that follows the student to the school they attend. Independent upper-secondary schools (fristående gymnasieskolor) are privately managed but publicly funded on exactly the same per-student basis as municipal schools. To ensure fairness and transparency, Skolverket annually publishes a reference price list (riksprislistan) that estimates the average cost per student for each programme. This accounts for factors like teacher-student ratios, equipment needs, and consumables in different programmes. Vocational programmes generally cost more per student than academic programmes due to workshops, materials, and smaller practical group sizes. Indeed, there are considerable cost differences between vocational programmes themselves – some technical programmes requiring expensive machinery or consumables have much higher costs than, say, business or childcare programmes. According to Skolverket’s calculations, the most costly VET programme can require more than twice the funding per student as the least costly programme (Cedefop, 2023[11]). For example, a student in Natural Resources might warrant over SEK 200 000 /year, while one in Business admin is perhaps around SEK 100 000 /year.
All essential aspects of education are covered by public funding: instruction, textbooks, tools, and for VET, personal protective equipment (PPE) and necessary materials for training are provided to the student. Students in upper‑secondary education also typically get subsidised meals at school (a continuation of Sweden’s free school lunch policy). In vocational programmes, if special gear is needed (say chef uniforms, welding helmets), schools either lend them or give an allowance to students to purchase them. Transportation costs are often covered or subsidised by municipalities especially if students travel far for WBL or to another town for a programme not offered locally.
Students do not receive salaries during WBL (since they are not employees), but as noted, those who choose the apprenticeship track can receive an additional allowance on top of the student allowance from the state (approx. SEK 1 000 monthly) (Cedefop, 2023[11]). This is intended to ensure that choosing apprenticeship (and spending more time at a workplace) does not burden students financially. If an apprentice enters a GLA employment (see Section 9.3), then the employer pays them a wage according to union agreements (which might be lower than a fully qualified worker’s wage, reflecting their trainee status).
References
[20] Antera, S. (2022), “Important and achieved competence for Swedish vocational teachers: A survey with teachers and principals”, Nordic Journal of Vocational Education and Training, Vol. 12(1), pp. 76–102, https://njvet.ep.liu.se/article/view/3942 (accessed on 12 July 2025).
[11] Cedefop (2023), Spotlight on VET. Sweden, https://www.cedefop.europa.eu/en/publications/8143 (accessed on 10 July 2025).
[1] Cedefop, & Skolverket (Swedish National Agency for Education) (2023), Vocational education and training in Europe: VET in Europe database – detailed VET system descriptions, https://www.cedefop.europa.eu/en/tools/vet-in-europe/systems/sweden-u3#:~:text=programr%C3%A5d,specialisations%20to%20meet%20local%20needs (accessed on 10 July 2025).
[6] Gymnasie Guiden (2025), Programinriktat val, https://www.gymnasieguiden.se/gymnasieprogram/IMV?%22Programinriktat%20val%20-%20GymnasieGuiden%22 (accessed on 9 July 2025).
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[14] gymnasium.se (2025), gymnasium.se, https://www.gymnasium.se/nyheter/inspiration/sa-fungerar-yrkesprogrammen-2023-23138#:~:text=gymnasium,fr%C3%A5n%20600%20till%20900%20po%C3%A4ng (accessed on 10 July 2025).
[21] OECD (2024), Higher Technical Education in England, United Kingdom: Insights from Selected International Experience, OECD Reviews of Vocational Education and Training, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/7c00dff7-en.
[19] OECD (2023), Building Future-Ready Vocational Education and Training Systems, OECD Reviews of Vocational Education and Training, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/28551a79-en.
[12] OECD (2023), “Diagram of the education system: Sweden”, OECD Education GPS, http://gpseducation.oecd.org/CountryProfile?primaryCountry=SWE (accessed on 3 September 2025).
[3] OECD (2023), Spotlight on Vocational Education and Training: Findings from Education at a Glance 2023, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/acff263d-en.
[13] OECD (2022), The Landscape of Providers of Vocational Education and Training, OECD Reviews of Vocational Education and Training, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/c44f2715-en.
[18] OECD (2021), Teachers and Leaders in Vocational Education and Training, OECD Reviews of Vocational Education and Training, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/59d4fbb1-en.
[17] Riksförbund, F. (2023), Skolor och elever, https://www.friskola.se/skolor-och-elever/#:~:text=Det%20finns%204%20193%20frist%C3%A5ende,2 (accessed on 10 July 2025).
[24] Skolverket (2014), Nationella program, https://utbildningsguiden.skolverket.se/gymnasieskolan/gymnasieskolans-program#1 (accessed on 10 July 2025).
[16] Skolverket (n.d.), Bygg- och anläggningsprogrammet, https://utbildningsguiden.skolverket.se/gymnasieskolan/gymnasieskolans-program/bygg--och-anlaggningsprogrammet#:~:text=Delar%20av%20utbildningen%20%C3%A4ger%20rum,av%20n%C3%A4r%20du%20s%C3%B6ker%20jobb (accessed on 10 July 2025).
[22] Skolverket (n.d.), El- och energiprogrammet, https://utbildningsguiden.skolverket.se/gymnasieskolan/gymnasieskolans-program/el--och-energiprogrammet (accessed on 10 July 2025).
[23] Skolverket (n.d.), Vård- och omsorgsprogrammet, https://utbildningsguiden.skolverket.se/gymnasieskolan/gymnasieskolans-program/vard--och-omsorgsprogrammet (accessed on 10 July 2025).
[15] Skolverket (Swedish National Agency for Education) (2025), Behörighetsregler och meritvärde, https://utbildningsguiden.skolverket.se/gymnasieskolan/ansokan-behorighet-och-meritvarde/behorighetsregler-och-meritvarde#:~:text=S%C3%A5%20h%C3%A4r%20r%C3%A4knar%20du%20ut%20ditt%20meritv%C3%A4rde,-Program%20som%20har&text=F%C3%B6r%20att%20ber%C3%A4kna%2.
[9] Skolverket (Swedish National Agency for Education) (2025), Bygg- och anläggningsprogrammet (The building and civil engineering programme), Skolverket, https://utbildningsguiden.skolverket.se/gymnasieskolan/gymnasieskolans-program/bygg--och-anlaggningsprogrammet#:~:text=Delar%20av%20utbildningen%20%C3%A4ger%20rum,av%20n%C3%A4r%20du%20s%C3%B6ker%20jobb.
[4] Skolverket (Swedish National Agency for Education) (2025), Gymnasieskolans yrkesprogram ger grundläggande behörighet till högskola och universitet, https://www.skolverket.se/styrning-och-ansvar/forandringar-inom-skolomradet/sidor-tidigare-forandringar/grundlaggande-behorighet-pa-gymnasieskolans-yrkesprogram (accessed on 10 July 2025).
[7] Skolverket (Swedish National Agency for Education) (2025), Introduktionsprogram, https://www.skolverket.se/undervisning/gymnasieskolan/introduktionsprogram?%22Introduktionsprogram%20-%20Skolverket%22 (accessed on 9 July 2025).
[10] Skolverket (Swedish National Agency for Education) (2024), Betyg och studieresultat i gymnasieskolan år 2024, https://www.skolverket.se.
[5] Sveriges Kommuner och Regioner (2024), Sveriges Kommuner och Regioner, https://skr.se/skr/skolakulturfritid/forskolagrundochgymnasieskolakomvux/gymnasieskolaanpassadgymnasieskola.15526.html#:~:text=Varje%20kommun%20har%20ett%20ansvar,kommunalf%C3%B6rbund%20gymnasief%C3%B6rbund%20och%20enskilda%20huvudm%C3%A4n (accessed on 10 July 2025).
[2] Sveriges oficiella statistik (2024), Betyg och studieresultat i gymnasieskolan år 2024 (Grades and study results in upper secondary school in 2024), Skolverket, https://www.skolverket.se/download/18.6b8c1151936aed25c029/1732702300971/pdf13172.pdf (accessed on 10 July 2025).
To illustrate how the above elements come together in practice, this annex presents three examples of upper‑secondary VET programmes in Sweden:
Example 1: Electricity and Energy Programme (El- och energiprogrammet) – Orientation Electrical Technology (Elteknik).
Example 2: Health and Social Care Programme (Vård- och omsorgsprogrammet – VO).
Example 3: Building and Construction Programme (Bygg- och anläggningsprogrammet – BA) – Orientation: House Building (Husbyggnad).
Each example outlines the programme’s structure (subjects, credits, practical training), learning outcomes and grading structure. This annex describes upper-secondary VET programmes for students who started before or in 2024. Sweden’s National Agency for Education has recently revised subjects and courses for students starting in or after August 2025.
The Electricity and Energy Programme (EE) prepares students for careers in the electrical and IT sectors. It covers a broad range of content – from power generation and electrical installation to automation and computer networking. Within EE, students can specialise in areas like Elteknik (Electrical Technology), Automation, Energi (energy technology), or Dator- och kommunikationsteknik (computer and communications technology) (Skolverket, n.d.[22]) (Skolverket, n.d.[23]). A popular choice is the Electrical Technology orientation, which leads towards becoming an installation electrician (installing and maintaining electrical systems in buildings).
The Electrical Technology programme comprises the standard 2 500 credits (with an option up to 2 800 if including all extra courses). Annex Table 9.A.1 shows the detailed course and credit structure for the Programme.
Note: For students starting in or before 2024.
In the first year, all EE students follow a common curriculum: they take the 600 credits of foundation subjects (Swedish, English, Maths) plus the programme-specific vocational subjects (400 credits) which are foundational to the field. At the end of year 1, students select an orientation (inriktning). In year 2 and 3, they then take specialised courses totalling 500 credits in that orientation (Skolverket, 2014[24]). Students spend significant time in workshop sessions wiring circuits, installing fixtures on mock walls, and troubleshooting systems. Additionally, students choose Programme-Deepening (Programfördjupning) courses of 600-800 credits. Schools often tailor these offerings to local industry needs. For instance, a school in a region with many industrial automation firms may offer extra PLC programming courses, while another might offer solar energy installation as a deepening course. Students can also take 200 credits of any upper-secondary course the school offers under the Individual Option (Individuellt val). Each student’s exact course portfolio thus vary.
Learning outcomes and an A-E grading structure for each subject are defined centrally by the Swedish National Agency for Education (Skolverket). For example, for the Electrical Technology 1 (Elteknik 1) subject, the learning outcomes are to:
use suitable tools and measuring instruments safely
plan, perform and evaluate basic low-voltage work
apply regulations on electrical safety and environment
interpret simple drawings and symbols
communicate using technical terminology.
In terms of grades:
Grade A is given to a student who independently performs electrical tasks with very good skill and safety, explains electrical principles in a detailed and nuanced way, and shows strong environmental awareness.
Grade E is given to a student who performs basic electrical tasks with some skill and safety, gives a general explanation of electrical principles, and shows acceptable environmental knowledge.
All students must complete a Diploma Project (Gymnasiearbete) to graduate. An EE student’s diploma project might involve planning and installing an electrical system for a small mock building or designing an automation solution – for example, building a programmed model of smart home lighting. They must write a report linking to theory and often present the project to a panel (sometimes including an industry representative). The project is graded pass/fail and demonstrates their readiness for working life.
Over the three years, an EE student has at least 15 weeks of WBL (workplace training). Commonly, this is arranged as shorter stints during year 2 and a longer block in year 3. An electrician student typically does WBL with electrical contractors or maintenance departments. For example, in year 2 they might spend 4 weeks with a local electrician company assisting on residential wiring jobs (installing outlets, lighting, running cables under supervision). In year 3, they might do 6‑8 weeks at a larger industrial site or construction project, getting exposure to more complex three-phase installations or automation systems. During WBL, the student follows regular work hours and tasks, while a licensed electrician at the company acts as trainer. The student keeps a logbook tied to school learning outcomes – e.g. documenting that they have practiced reading electrical blueprints, or performed certain types of installations. As in all VET programmes, the student’s WBL is assessed against the same course knowledge-requirement grids that apply in the classroom. The workplace mentor and the vocational teacher jointly collect evidence and grade the course(s) concerned, and each school draws up an individual WBL plan mapping workplace tasks to those national course outcomes; this plan is local and not published centrally.
The Health and Social Care Programme (VO) prepares students for roles in healthcare and caregiving, primarily as undersköterska (enrolled nurse/healthcare assistant) in elder care, hospitals, or disability support. As of 2023 and the regulation of the profession, this programme has no formal orientations (inriktningar) – it is designed as a cohesive curriculum covering various aspects of care, from basic nursing and medicine to social services. This change was made recently to broaden students’ competence; previously there were tracks like health care, social care, or psychiatric care, but now all students receive a comprehensive foundation (Skolverket, n.d.[23]). Students can still customise their learning through programme deepening (programfördjupningar).
The full programme comprises the standard 2 700 credits (the extra 200 credits come from Swedish 3 and English 6, added automatically since 2023). Annex Table 9.A.2 shows the official course-and-credit structure.
Note: For students starting in or before 2024.
Education providers allocate the courses to ensure that students have a balanced workload over the three years. During year 1, learners take foundation courses plus the credits of programme-specific subjects such as Anatomy and Physiology 1–2 and Nursing 1 (Omvårdnad 1). From years 2‑3 they add 200 credits of programme-deepening courses selected by the school to reflect local labour-market demand – e.g. Acute Health Care in a regional hospital area or Psychiatric Care in a municipality with extensive mental-health services. Learners also choose 200 credits under Individuellt val, which can be further care modules or a general subject like Entrepreneurship.
Learning outcomes and an A-E grading structure for each subject are defined centrally by the Swedish National Agency for Education (Skolverket). For example, for the Nursing 1 (Omvårdnad 1) subject, the learning outcomes are to:
observe, plan, perform and evaluate basic nursing measures
apply hygiene, ergonomics and infection-control routines
document and communicate care using digital systems
act in accordance with laws, ethics and patient-safety principles
co‑operate in teams and use correct medical terminology.
In terms of grades:
Grade A is given to a student who provides person-centred care independently and systematically, documents accurately, and critically evaluates and improves practice.
Grade E is given to a student who provides basic care with guidance, keeps simple notes, and gives a general explanation of nursing actions and hygiene rules.
As with other VET programmes, all students must complete a Diploma Project (Gymnasiearbete) to graduate. Typical projects include designing and running a health-promotion activity for older adults and analysing its outcomes in a written report. The project is graded pass/fail and demonstrates their readiness for working life.
As with other VET programmes, over the three years students have at least 15 weeks of WBL (workplace training) in real care settings (hospital wards, nursing homes, home-care units). Typically, a student will have WBL rotations in an elderly care home (nursing home), which is fundamental since many undersköterska jobs are in eldercare; a hospital (could be a specific ward, like internal medicine or surgery, doing assistant tasks); and possibly home care services or a group home for people with disabilities. Some schools also arrange an WBL in psychiatric care or primary health centres. Students’ WBL is supervised by nursing staff (often an experienced undersköterska or a nurse) who ensures they practice skills safely. The student is assessed against the same course knowledge-requirement grids that apply in the classroom. The workplace mentor and the vocational teacher jointly collect evidence and grade the course(s) concerned, and each school draws up an individual WBL plan mapping workplace tasks to those national course outcomes; this plan is local and not published centrally.
The Building and Construction Programme (BA) equips students for skilled trades in the construction industry. Students learn to construct, repair, and maintain buildings and infrastructure. In the second year, they pick an orientation such as Husbyggnad (house building), Mark och anläggning (groundworks and civil engineering), Måleri (painting and decorating), or Plåtslageri (sheet metal work). The Husbyggnad orientation is a popular choice that leads to occupations like carpenter (framing, roofing, interior finishing), concrete worker, or bricklayer. Many of these trades are governed by craft traditions and apprenticeship systems after school.
The full programme comprises 2 500-2 800 credits. Annex Table 9.A.3 shows the official course-and-credit structure.
Note: For students starting in or before 2024.
In year 1, BA students get a taste of various construction trades through the programme-specific subjects (400 credits). During or after this initial phase, students choose their orientation for specialisation in years 2‑3. In the Husbyggnad orientation, the curriculum dives deeper into building construction. Students take sequential courses (totalling 600 credits) that cover different stages of building work. Beyond that, each student takes programfördjupning courses (perhaps 600-800 credits) tailored to their chosen trade. A student leaning towards carpentry might take extra courses in Träarbete (Woodwork) or Inredningsmontage (interior fittings), while one interested in concrete work might take Betongarbeten (concrete construction techniques). The available deepening courses often reflect local industry needs. The diploma project often ties into these specialisations (e.g. a carpentry student’s project might be to construct a small structure or a complicated roof truss system as a capstone).
Learning outcomes and an A-E grading structure for each subject are defined centrally by the Swedish National Agency for Education (Skolverket). For example, for the Building & Construction 1 (Bygg och anläggning 1) subject, the learning outcomes are to:
plan, execute and evaluate basic carpentry, concrete and formwork tasks
select and use materials, tools and machines appropriately
read and apply technical drawings and dimensions
work with occupational health & safety measures and sustainable methods
communicate using professional construction terminology/
In terms of grades:
Grade A is given to a student who executes basic construction tasks independently, safely and with high precision; evaluates results and proposes improvements.
Grade E is given to a student who executes simple tasks with guidance; describes fundamental safety aspects and materials in general terms.
As with other VET programmes, all students must complete a Diploma Project (Gymnasiearbete) to graduate. A House-Building learner might build a small timber frame section from drawing to finish, submit calculations and reflect on sustainability. The project is graded pass/fail.
As with other VET programmes, over the three years students have at least 15 weeks of WBL (workplace training) on construction sites. Typically, year 2 students might do a 4‑5 week block with a construction company where they basically join a crew on a building site. Initially they might do simpler tasks (moving materials, basic carpentry under supervision). By year 3, many are sufficiently skilled to contribute substantively; their WBL might be longer or more frequent, effectively integrating them into a workplace team. The student’s WBL is assessed against the same course knowledge-requirement grids that apply in the classroom. The workplace mentor and the vocational teacher jointly collect evidence and grade the course(s) concerned, and each school draws up an individual WBL plan mapping workplace tasks to those national course outcomes; this plan is local and not published centrally.