Despite its relatively small size, the upper-secondary vocational education and training (VET) system in Denmark plays a crucial role in the country's education landscape. It offers a dual system that combines school-based instruction with apprenticeship training in various occupational fields. There are multiple pathways for students to enter VET and multiple pathways into further education for those who choose. The curriculum is structured into a basic course followed by a main course, with a significant emphasis on work-based learning. Governance of the VET system involves a strong partnership between the state and social partners. VET is free for students and publicly financed, while the costs of work-based learning is largely covered by employers.
Vocational Education and Training Systems in Nine Countries
Abstract
Denmark’s upper‑secondary education system is voluntary and typically begins at age 16 after completion of compulsory basic education (Folkeskolen, covering Grades 0‑9, with an optional Grade 10) (OECD, 2022[1]). Students can choose between general academic upper‑secondary programmes and vocational programmes (erhvervsuddannelser, EUD). Vocational upper‑secondary programmes are offered in a broad range of occupational fields and are organised as a dual system combining school-based instruction with apprenticeship training in companies. There are over 100 different vocational specialisations in Denmark, which have been structured into four broad entry routes: (1) Care, health and pedagogy; (2) Office, commerce and business services; (3) Food, agriculture and “experiences” (hospitality/tourism); and (4) Technology, construction and transportation (Cedefop & University College Copenhagen (UCC), 2023[2]). All VET programmes lead to nationally recognised skilled worker qualifications at ISCED level 3 upon completion.
A relatively small share of Danish upper-secondary students undertake VET. In 2021, 19% of 15-19 year‑old upper-secondary students were enrolled in VET programmes in Denmark (OECD, 2023[3]). VET programmes in Denmark typically span 3 to 4 years in duration, which is slightly longer than general upper‑secondary programmes (3 years) (OECD, 2022[1]). This longer duration is due to extensive workplace training requirements (usually about two-thirds of the programme spent in apprenticeships) (Cedefop & University College Copenhagen (UCC), 2023[2]).
Admission into upper‑secondary VET (EUD) is open to youth who have completed compulsory schooling. Entry requirements include having achieved at least a grade 2.0 (on the 7-point scale) in Danish and mathematics in the Grade 9 or Grade 10 leaving examinations. Students who do not meet these requirements have alternative pathways to enter VET (Box 3.1). There is also no age limit for starting initial VET – many students enter after one or more years in other education or the labour market. For example, 39% of upper-secondary VET students were aged 25 or over in Denmark in 2021 (OECD, 2024[4]). Students aged 25 years or over follow a shortened adult track (EUV, Erhvervsuddannelse for voksne) that credits their prior experience (European Commission, 2024[5]).
Denmark has introduced several measures to ensure young people who are not immediately ready for VET at age 16 can still access vocational education at a later stage. Students finishing lower secondary school without the required grades in Danish and Mathematics have access to preparatory options to boost their skills and eventually enter VET:
EUD10 (Grade 10 vocational pathway) – An optional Grade 10 programme with a focus on VET preparation. EUD10 allows students to improve basic academic skills (especially in Danish and maths) and explore vocational subjects in a school setting, so that they can meet the entry requirements for a vocational programme (European Commission, 2025[6]). Many youth who need an extra year opt for this targeted Grade 10, which combines normal academic curriculum with hands-on workshops and career guidance towards VET. Successful completion can lead directly into a VET foundational course.
FGU – Preparatory Basic Education and Training (Forberedende Grunduddannelse) – A new comprehensive preparatory programme launched in 2019 as a merger of previous schemes. FGU is a flexible education of up to 2 years for 15–24 year-olds who are not in education or employment and lack the qualifications for youth education. It offers individually tailored teaching in basic academics, practical skills workshops, and work-based learning internships, aiming to motivate and qualify learners to enter either VET or general upper‑secondary programmes (Ministry of Children and Education, 2022[7]).
“Ny Mesterlære” (New Apprenticeship) – An alternative entry route into VET for students with a very practical learning style. In Ny Mesterlære, the entire first year of the VET programme (the basic course) is spent in a company as an apprentice, under close guidance of a mentor “master” craftsman (Cedefop & University College Copenhagen (UCC), 2023[2]). This on-the-job immersion replaces the school-based basic course and is intended for those who learn better through work than in the classroom. After this first year, the student continues with the regular dual programme (joining the main course).
In addition to these programmes, municipalities and VET schools provide enhanced guidance and support to help at-risk youth access VET. For example, guidance counsellors work with students in compulsory school to identify those who might benefit from EUD10 or FGU, and special initiatives exist to create local training placements for youth who have difficulty finding an apprenticeship (including school-based training centers, skoleoplæring, where available) (UddannelsesGuiden (The Education Guide), n.d.[8]). These pathways reflect Denmark’s goal that at least 90% of all young people achieve an upper‑secondary qualification by age 25 (Ministry of Children and Education, 2022[7]).
Upon completing the programme and passing the final trade test (svendeprøve), graduates of upper-secondary VET receive a journeyman’s certificate that is nationally recognised by employers across the labour market (Federal Institute for Vocational Education and Training (BIBB), 2024[9]). Many use this qualification to directly enter trades and crafts, private companies or public sector jobs. However, an increasing share also pursues further education. Graduates can access specific tertiary programmes – short-cycle higher VET programmes at academies (erhvervsakademiuddannelser) or professional bachelor programmes in related fields. Moreover, Denmark offers a hybrid EUX option (Erhvervsfaglig studentereksamen) whereby motivated students can graduate with both a skilled worker diploma and a full general upper‑secondary exam, giving them general eligibility to higher education alongside their vocational qualification. The EUX pathway extends the course of study to roughly 4‑4½ years and entails additional academic subjects at higher levels, reflecting the double qualification (Cedefop & University College Copenhagen (UCC), 2023[2]).
Figure 3.1 shows educational pathways into and after ISCED 3 VET in Denmark.
Note: The reference year is 2023 (school year 2022/2023 in the northern hemisphere). Theoretical starting ages refer to the ages as established by law and regulation for the entry to a programme; actual starting ages may vary depending on the programme.
Source: Adapted from OECD (2023[10]), “Diagram of the education system: Denmark”, OECD Education GPS, https://gpseducation.oecd.org/CountryProfile?primaryCountry=DEN.
Upper-secondary initial VET in Denmark is built on the Act on Vocational Education and Training (Lov om erhvervsuddannelser) and curriculum decrees (bekendtgørelser) issued by the Ministry of Children and Education. These prescribe a two-stage structure of Basic Course (Grundforløb 1 & 2, normally 20 weeks each) and Main Course (hovedforløb) for upper-secondary VET (Cedefop, 2025[11]).
The basic course is school-based and provides fundamental knowledge and skills common to a broad occupational field, preparing the student for specialisation. The basic course is split into Grundforløb 1 (20 weeks, for those entering directly after Grade 9 or Grade 10) and Grundforløb 2 (20 weeks) (NEG, n.d.[12]).
In Grundforløb 1, the curriculum focuses on broad introductory content related to one of the four main vocational areas (e.g. care, business, technology, etc.), including practical projects and basic theoretical concepts.
Grundforløb 2 is oriented toward the specific trade that the student wishes to pursue (e.g. carpentry, electrical installations, healthcare) and must be completed before entering a training contract in that trade’s main programme (NEG, n.d.[12]).
At the end of the basic course, students typically take a basic course examination (grundforløbsprøve). Passing this exam and meeting any trade-specific requirements are necessary to progress to the main course (NEG, n.d.[12]). Students receive a certificate listing the subjects and levels attained in the basic course (Cedefop, 2012[13]), which serves as the foundation for their individual training plan in the main course.
The main course (Hovedforløb) constitutes the core of the vocational programme, where students alternate between periods of college-based instruction and apprenticeship training in a company. During the college-based sessions in the main course, students typically attend blocks of theoretical and workshop training that complement their on-the-job experience. By law, a minimum of 50% of programme duration must be spent as on-the-job training (many trades exceed this) (Cedefop & University College Copenhagen (UCC), 2023[2]). All Danish VET programmes include a significant work-based component: a typical youth EUD programme comprises about 2/3 of the time in enterprises and 1/3 in school (Cedefop & University College Copenhagen (UCC), 2023[2]).
For each of Denmark’s 100 or so VET programmes, a social-partner trade committee (fagligt udvalg) composed of employer and employee representatives drafts and updates a more detailed and binding programme order (uddannelsesordning), building on the high-level curriculum decree. Each order contains a joint competence description (fælles kompetencebeskrivelse) that translates labour-market skill needs into knowledge, skills and competence goals for school and workplace learning (Cedefop & Copenhagen University College, 2022[14]) Within this framework, curricula for the classroom element of VET programmes consist of four types of subjects:
1. Basic subjects (grundfag) – general education subjects (such as Danish, mathematics, English, natural science, social studies) taught at varying levels to ensure students attain core skills.
2. Area subjects (områdefag) – vocational theory and practical subjects common to the broader occupational area.
3. Speciality subjects (specialefag) – trade-specific technical subjects and skills directly related to the student’s chosen specialisation.
4. Elective subjects (valgfag) – optional courses chosen by the student (or offered by the college) to deepen or broaden competencies, including possible higher-level general subjects for those pursuing EUX (UddannelsesGuiden (The Education Guide), n.d.[8]).
For every basic, area, speciality or elective subject, a subject syllabus (fagplan) spells out what the learner has knowledge of, is able to do, and is competent to do. These outcomes are tied to Denmark’s 7-point grading scale, whose grade descriptors indicate the degree to which the goals are met (UddannelsesGuiden, n.d.[15]). Colleges must respect the aforementioned elements when they write their local teaching plans.
Assessment procedures in Danish VET are closely aligned with the learning objectives of each programme defined in decrees and programme orders. Throughout both school and workplace phases, apprentices undergo continuous assessment. In school, they receive grades or pass/fail evaluations in their courses, and must attain passing marks in the required basic subjects and vocational area subjects. In-company training is evaluated through the achievement of practical competencies; employers and local training advisors certify when an apprentice has mastered certain tasks. The workplace training is guided by training logbooks or competence checklists corresponding to the curriculum, developed by sectoral trade committees. The apprentice’s skills are periodically assessed by the company trainer and the VET college to ensure all required competences are being developed. Notably, each apprentice has an individual training plan agreed upon by the student, the VET college, and the employer, which outlines the sequence of school modules and work placements.
The culmination of an initial VET programme is the final examination, which is normally a comprehensive trade test (svendeprøve). This final exam is set by the trade committee for that occupation and typically consists of a practical project or work sample, often accompanied by an oral or written theoretical test. A panel of examiners – usually including industry representatives and teachers – evaluates the performance using national criteria. Upon passing the final exam, the apprentice is awarded the journeyman’s certificate, formally recognising them as a skilled worker (Federal Institute for Vocational Education and Training (BIBB), 2024[9]; Cedefop & Copenhagen University College, 2022[14]). The final certificate also lists the courses completed and their grades.
Work-based learning is the cornerstone of Danish upper‑secondary VET, which can be characterised as a unified apprenticeship system. By law, a minimum of 50% of programme duration must be spent as on-the-job training and a typical youth EUD programme comprises about 2/3 of the time in enterprises and 1/3 in school. Students are responsible for obtaining a training placement, with support from the school, while employers are responsible for offering placements. To enter the main course, a student must have a signed training agreement with an approved company. Approximately 65% of VET students had secured an apprenticeship by the end of their basic course in 2022, while many other students do so after a longer period (Cedefop & University College Copenhagen (UCC), 2023[2]).
There are also mechanisms to support WBL even when a regular company apprenticeship is not immediately available. Students who do not immediately find an employer placement have the option (in many programmes) to continue their practical training at a school-based training centre (skolepraktik, also known as praktikcenter). These training centres, usually attached to VET colleges, simulate workplace environments and carry out real or practice production tasks so that the apprentice can keep learning practical skills until they secure a company spot (Cedefop & University College Copenhagen (UCC), 2023[2]). School-based apprentices receive hands-on assignments and often work on projects for actual clients (e.g. producing furniture for local institutions in a woodworking programme) under instructor supervision. The goal is to transfer them to a company apprenticeship as soon as possible; the school training is a safety net to prevent dropout due to lack of placement. Not all VET programmes offer the skolepraktik option – it is available in trades where there is a shortage of apprenticeship places or as determined by the trade committee.
During the work-based learning component, the employer is responsible for providing training according to the national curriculum decrees and programme orders. Companies must be approved as training establishments by trade committees, which involves meeting criteria such as having the range of work and qualified staff to train an apprentice (Cedefop & Copenhagen University College, 2022[14]) (Cedefop & Copenhagen University College, 2019[16]). Local training committees (lokale uddannelsesudvalg) associated with each college help ensure quality WBL by assisting in vetting local companies and mediating any issues between apprentices and firms (Cedefop & University College Copenhagen (UCC), 2023[2]). Every apprentice has a designated journeyman or supervisor at the workplace who oversees their learning. The training plan specifies which practical skills and tasks the apprentice should experience during each placement period. Work-based learning in Denmark is not confined to a single employer in many cases – apprentices can split their apprenticeship (“kombinationsaftale”) between multiple enterprises if needed to obtain all required skills (commonly done in smaller firms). Additionally, short internship exchange periods are possible, wherein an apprentice temporarily trains at another company (or abroad) to gain specific experience.
The government and social partners have taken steps to strengthen WBL and ensure sufficient apprenticeship opportunities, including through the use of financial incentive and compensation for training companies (see Section 3.7).
In Denmark, upper-secondary VET programmes are delivered by vocational colleges (erhvervsskoler). These colleges are state funded and operate as technical colleges (tekniske skoler), health and social colleges (SOSU skoler) or business colleges (handelsskoler) (OECD, 2022[1]). In 2021 there were 83 vocational colleges in Denmark, some of which also offered general upper‑secondary courses (European Commission, 2024[17]).
All vocational colleges in Denmark are classified as self-governing public institutions under the authority of the Ministry of Children and Education. This means they operate independently on a day-to-day basis but rely on government funding and must adhere to national regulations and curricula. Each college is governed by a board (bestyrelse) that has overall responsibility for school management, finances, and strategic decisions. By law, the governing board includes representatives of local employers and employee organisations (social partners), as well as members of the school staff and students. The board appoints the college director/principal and approves budgets, and it decides which VET programmes and how many student places the college will offer (Cedefop & University College Copenhagen (UCC), 2023[2]). Municipalities do not have a role in running VET Colleges as they do in general upper‑secondary schools - their role is more about youth guidance and supporting students’ transition.
Despite their autonomy, vocational colleges are subject to national regulations regarding programme provision. They can only offer the specific VET programmes for which they are approved by the Ministry, usually based on regional labour market needs. In some areas, more than one college may offer the same programme, leading to competition for students. In other cases, a college may be the only provider of a niche programme nationwide.
After years of network consolidation, a typical VET college today offers multiple entry routes and specialisations – often covering both technical and commercial programmes. The majority of VET colleges specialise in technical and commercial education. A smaller number offer agricultural and social and healthcare qualifications (Cedefop & Copenhagen University College, 2019[16]). Colleges may also offer supplementary training such as adult vocational training (AMU) and higher vocational programmes (Academy Profession degrees), creating hubs of vocational learning (sometimes branded as “campuses”).
In addition to VET colleges, a small array of other institutions are involved in delivering parts of VET. Private training centres or institutions can offer more niche programmes, typically under special agreements. For instance, some apprenticeship training in craft trades can occur in guild training workshops or vocational academies. There are also agricultural training centres (landbrugsskoler) for farming and horticulture programmes and Maritime training schools for ship-related vocations. The school-based training centres (praktikcentre) attached to vocational colleges are also considered part of the provider landscape – these centres, usually located at the colleges, take in students who are in the school-based apprenticeship track and co‑ordinate their practical assignments. Importantly, all these provider types operate under the same national qualifications framework and quality assurance system.
The VET workforce in Denmark is composed of two categories of teachers: general subject teachers and vocational subject teachers (including workshop instructors) (OECD, 2022[1]). General subject teachers in VET (for subjects like Danish, English, mathematics, etc.) typically have an academic education similar to gymnasium (general school) teachers. This includes a university degree in the subject and a professional teaching qualification (often a Professional Bachelor’s in Education). Vocational subject teachers, on the other hand, are usually recruited from industry and have a background as skilled workers or professionals in the trade they teach. By regulation, a vocational teacher is expected to have a relevant vocational qualification (at least at the level they will teach) and substantial work experience – typically a minimum of five years of industry experience (Cedefop & University College Copenhagen (UCC), 2023[2]). Many vocational teachers are master craftsmen, technicians or former supervisors who transition into teaching after a career in the trade.
Denmark mandates that all VET teachers acquire pedagogical training while in service. There is no requirement to possess a teaching diploma at the point of hire for vocational teachers. Instead, newly hired VET teachers must enrol in the Diploma in Vocational Pedagogy (Diplomuddannelsen i Erhvervspædagogik) within the first two years of employment. This is a part-time in-service training programme equivalent to 60 ECTS credits (one year of full-time study) at EQF level 6, typically completed over 2‑4 years alongside teaching duties. New teachers usually teach under the guidance of experienced colleagues while they pursue this diploma. The programme must be completed within 6 years of hire (Cedefop & University College Copenhagen (UCC), 2023[2]) and colleges typically finance or heavily subsidise this training as part of staff development.
In addition to formal qualifications, Denmark places emphasis on industry experience for VET trainers. Many workshop instructors and part-time teachers are still connected to industry or come on temporary contracts from companies. Vocational colleges hire teachers directly and have autonomy in recruitment, which means they can bring in experts from business for specific courses without lengthy formalities. Teacher recruitment panels often include industry representatives as well, to ensure candidates have the right profile (Cedefop & University College Copenhagen (UCC), 2023[2]).
Continuous professional development (CPD) for VET teachers is encouraged but not centrally mandated beyond the initial diploma. There is no statutory requirement for a fixed number of in-service training days per year for VET teachers. Instead, each college is responsible for developing a staff development plan that aligns with its goals and ensures teachers keep their skills current (Cedefop & University College Copenhagen (UCC), 2023[2]). Common CPD activities include short courses on new technologies, participation in development projects, or industry placements. Teachers frequently engage in peer learning groups, attend conferences (such as the annual Vocational Education Conference), and some pursue further degrees (like a Master’s in education) voluntarily.
Regarding in-company trainers (the master craftspersons who guide apprentices at workplaces), Denmark does not impose a compulsory training requirement. Company trainers are usually experienced journeymen or supervisors who take on apprentices as part of their job. Various resources are available to them, including short voluntary courses on mentoring apprentices (often offered by the trade committees or adult training centres), but these are not mandatory (Cedefop & University College Copenhagen (UCC), 2023[2]). Instead, quality is maintained by the approval process for training companies and the oversight by local training committees. Some sectors have developed guidelines or one-day seminars for new apprentice supervisors to introduce them to pedagogy and the VET structure. The government and social partners encourage participation in such courses to improve the training quality in companies.
Denmark’s VET governance is characterised by a strong partnership between the State and the social partners (employers’ and workers’ organisations), combining centralised regulation with decentralised delivery. At the highest level, the Danish Parliament (Folketing) and the Ministry of Children and Education hold legislative and executive authority over VET. The primary law governing upper‑secondary VET is the Act on Vocational Education and Training (Lov om erhvervsuddannelser), which sets out the objectives, structure, and responsibilities in the system. The Ministry issues detailed regulations and national curricula for each vocational programme, typically in the form of ministerial orders developed in consultation with social partner committees (Cedefop & Copenhagen University College, 2022[14]; Cedefop & Copenhagen University College, 2019[16]). The Ministry also allocates funding to colleges, supervises quality assurance, and monitors outcomes. However, the content and updating of VET programmes are heavily influenced by labour market stakeholders through a corporatist governance structure.
A central body in the governance system is the National Advisory Council for VET (Rådet for de Grundlæggende Erhvervsrettede Uddannelser) (Cedefop & Copenhagen University College, 2022[14]). This council consists of about 31 members representing employers’ organisations, trade unions, and other stakeholders, and it advises the Ministry on overall VET policy, such as the need for new programmes, major reforms, or structural adjustments (OECD, 2022[1]). For instance, the advisory council monitors societal and technological developments and can recommend the creation of a new apprenticeship programme or the merger of existing ones if occupations converge. While its role is advisory, its recommendations carry weight due to the consensus-based approach in Denmark.
The main driver of detailed curriculum and qualification decisions are the National Trade Committees (faglige udvalg). There are roughly 50 trade committees in Denmark, each responsible for one or more of Denmark’s 100 or so VET programmes (OECD, 2022[1]). A trade committee is a statutory body composed equally of 10‑14 representatives from the relevant employer associations and trade unions for that sector. The trade committees are financed by the employer levy (AUB), reinforcing their independence (Cedefop & Copenhagen University College, 2022[14]). These committees are legally tasked with a range of responsibilities:
Designing and updating programmes: Trade committees propose the curriculum frameworks, including duration of the programme, the division between school and apprenticeship (e.g. 2:1 work/school ratio), and the competencies to be achieved. They formulate the learning objectives and final examination requirements for their trades, ensuring alignment with industry skill needs (Cedefop & Copenhagen University College, 2019[16]). They also decide on any specialisations (tracks) within the programme and the optional electives that can be offered (Cedefop & Copenhagen University College, 2022[14]). Any significant changes (like introducing a new technology module) typically originate from the trade committee and are then approved by the Ministry.
Approving training companies: Trade committees (often delegating to regional bodies) grant approval to companies that wish to take apprentices, verifying that the company’s work and facilities will provide sufficient training opportunities (Cedefop & Copenhagen University College, 2019[16]). They can withdraw approval if a company fails to meet training obligations.
Conflict resolution: If disputes arise between an apprentice and their employer (for example, about training conditions or contract terms), the trade committee acts as an arbitration panel of sorts (Cedefop & Copenhagen University College, 2019[16]). They mediate conflicts and can ultimately decide on solutions such as moving the apprentice to another firm.
Examinations and certification: Trade committees play a key role in the final assessment. They either set the journeyman’s test assignments or approve them, appoint external examiners (censors), and oversee the conduct of exams. They are responsible for issuing the official journeyman’s certificates to those who pass, thus controlling entry into the trade as qualified workers (Cedefop & Copenhagen University College, 2019[16]). This makes them the guarantors of skill standards.
Analysing skill needs: Trade committees monitor trends in their sector (e.g. new regulations, technological change) and initiate curriculum updates or new short courses accordingly. They often run development projects or surveys to keep training relevant (Cedefop & Copenhagen University College, 2022[14]).
At the local level, each vocational college has one or more Local Training Committees (lokale uddannelsesudvalg) for each broad programme area it offers (Cedefop & Copenhagen University College, 2019[16]). These are subsets of the national committees or their local representatives, again including employers and employees, along with college staff. The local committees adapt the implementation of programmes to regional conditions: they advise the college on elective subjects to offer, local business partnerships, and outreach. They also help in the very practical task of finding enough apprenticeship placements by mobilising local companies (Cedefop & University College Copenhagen (UCC), 2023[2]).
The vocational colleges themselves are governed by boards that include social partner representatives, and they enjoy autonomy in administration and teaching methods (pedagogy, teacher hiring, etc.) within the boundaries set by the national framework (Cedefop & University College Copenhagen (UCC), 2023[2]). Colleges are accountable to the Ministry through annual reports and performance indicators (e.g. completion rates, employment outcomes). The Ministry uses a set of quality indicators and audits to supervise colleges – for example, if a college has very low completion, the Ministry can initiate an improvement plan. There is also an external evaluation body, the Danish Evaluation Institute (EVA), which periodically evaluates VET programmes or thematic issues (like quality of apprenticeships) and provides recommendations to the Ministry and schools.
Denmark’s ISCED 3 VET system is publicly financed and enrolment is free of charge for students. The funding responsibilities are shared between the government and employers. Broadly, the State (central government) funds the school-based education component, while companies bear the costs of the work‑based training component – with significant subsidies and sharing mechanisms in place.
Vocational colleges receive funding from the national government primarily through a “taximeter” system of per-student grants. Colleges are funded based on their enrolment and student activity, incentivising colleges to attract and retain students (Cedefop & University College Copenhagen (UCC), 2023[2]). Different programmes or subject areas may have different rates reflecting cost differences. The funding formula also rewards completion: colleges may receive additional output-based grants when students pass exams or complete their apprenticeship.
In addition to the per-student funding, each college gets an annual base grant to cover fixed costs (facility maintenance, administration. All the state grants are combined into a block grant that the college can use autonomously This block grant approach gives colleges flexibility in budgeting – for instance, they can decide to invest in new workshops or extra teacher training. In 2022, the Danish State’s total expenditure on initial VET was about DKK 3.5 billion (approximately EUR 470 million. By comparison, government spending on general upper‑secondary education was much (around DKK 12.9 billion in 2022), largely reflecting greater student numbers. Spending on preparatory programmes (FGU, etc.) and other youth training was about DKK 2.7 billion (Cedefop & University College Copenhagen (UCC), 2023[2]).
A “social taximeter” supplement provides extra funds for colleges based on the number of disadvantaged students, to ensure inclusive education. The government additionally finances national support initiatives, such as development projects, new equipment grants (for expensive technology updates), and the training of VET teachers (e.g. the aforementioned DKK 400 million for teacher upskilling was a targeted fund).
Funding for work-based learning comes primarily from employers via the Employers’ Reimbursement Fund (AUB, Arbejdsgivernes Uddannelsesbidrag). Every employer, both public and private, pays a flat annual contribution per employee to AUB (for example, around DKK 3 000 per full-time employee in recent years). This creates a collective fund to support apprenticeships. From this fund, companies that train apprentices receive reimbursements to offset the wages paid to apprentices during periods when apprentices are attending school. In Denmark, apprentices are paid a salary by their employer for the entire apprenticeship (both work and school periods) as stipulated in collective agreements. The AUB fund also finances various bonuses and incentives. As of the 2020 tripartite deal, companies that meet or exceed certain apprentice intake targets get a bonus rebate on their AUB contributions, whereas those who take in very few may pay an additional surcharger. This effectively rewards active training companies and pushes companies in sectors with training shortages to contribute more financially. Furthermore, AUB covers costs of school-based apprenticeships – if a student is in the skolepraktik scheme, their training allowance (a student stipend similar to apprentice wage) is funded by AUB so that the vocational college can support them until they find a real employer (Cedefop & University College Copenhagen (UCC), 2023[2]).
For students, initial VET is free and there are no tuition or examination fees. Young VET students under 18 receive no statutory student stipend (since education is free and they typically live with parents), but once they sign a company contract, they start getting the apprentice wage paid by the employer. Students over 18 who are in the school-based part without an apprenticeship can receive the normal state Education Grant (SU), the same as academic students (UddannelsesGuiden (The Education Guide), n.d.[8]). Apprentices’ wages are negotiated by unions and are usually a percentage of a qualified worker’s wage, increasing each training year (for example, starting at ~60% and ending at 80-90% by the final year).
References
[11] Cedefop (2025), Denmark: new VET pathway introduced in lower secondary education, https://www.cedefop.europa.eu/en/news/denmark-new-vet-pathway-introduced-lower-secondary-education? (accessed on 29 July 2025).
[13] Cedefop (2012), Vocational education and training in Denmark, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg, https://www.cedefop.europa.eu/files/4112_en.pdf#:~:text=,for%20entering%20the%20main%20programme (accessed on 29 July 2025).
[14] Cedefop & Copenhagen University College (2022), Vocational education and training in Europe - Denmark: system description, https://www.cedefop.europa.eu/en/tools/vet-in-europe/systems/denmark-u2 (accessed on 29 July 2025).
[16] Cedefop & Copenhagen University College (2019), Vocational education and training in Europe: Denmark, https://www.cedefop.europa.eu/en/tools/vet-in-europe/systems/denmark (accessed on 29 July 2025).
[2] Cedefop & University College Copenhagen (UCC) (2023), Vocational education and training in Europe - Denmark: system description. In Cedefop & ReferNet (2024), Cedefop. Refernet, https://www.refernet.de/dokumente/pdf/2023_VET%20system_DK.pdf (accessed on 29 July 2025).
[20] Danish Ministry for Education and Children (Uddannelses- og Forskningsministeriet) (n.d.), TEKNIQ Arbejdsgiverne, https://www.tekniq.dk/ (accessed on 30 September 2025).
[19] El-Forbund, D. (n.d.), Uddannelsen: Indhold og muligheder (Training: content and options), https://elektrikeruddannelsen.dk/uddannelsen/#:~:text=Uddannelsens%20opbygning%20,uger%3B%204%20eller%205 (accessed on 29 July 2025).
[6] European Commission (2025), Organisation of vocational upper secondary education, https://eurydice.eacea.ec.europa.eu/eurypedia/denmark/organisation-vocational-upper-secondary-education#:~:text=Students%20can%20only%20be%20admitted,The (accessed on 29 July 2025).
[17] European Commission (2024), Statistics on educational institutions, https://eurydice.eacea.ec.europa.eu/eurypedia/denmark/statistics-educational-institutions#:~:text=Sources%3A%C2%A0Statistics%20Denmark%2C%C2%A02021,Accessed%3A%203%20December%C2%A02021 (accessed on 29 July 2025).
[5] European Commission (2024), Teaching and learning in vocational upper secondary education, https://eurydice.eacea.ec.europa.eu/eurypedia/denmark/teaching-and-learning-vocational-upper-secondary-education#:~:text=,who%20wish%20to%20combine%20a (accessed on 29 July 2025).
[9] Federal Institute for Vocational Education and Training (BIBB) (2024), Examination and certification, https://www.bibb.de/en/146909.php (accessed on 29 July 2025).
[27] Gymnasieuddannelser, L. (2024), Lokal undervisningsplan tømrer 5. hovedforløb (Local teaching plan for carpenters, 5th main course), https://neg.dk/wp-content/uploads/LUP_toemrer_H5_Juli-2024.pdf#:~:text=Denne%20opgave%20er%20det%20som,skulle%20bestille%20materialer%20til%20denne (accessed on 29 July 2025).
[7] Ministry of Children and Education (2022), Preparatory basic education and training (FGU), https://eng.uvm.dk/upper-secondary-education/preparatory-basic-education-and-training--fgu-#:~:text=To%20reach%20this%20ambition%20there,to%20start%20in%20August%202019 (accessed on 29 July 2025).
[22] Ministry of Children and Education (2019), Vocational education and training in Denmark, https://eng.uvm.dk/upper-secondary-education/vocational-education-and-training-in-denmark#:~:text=The%20four%20main%20subject%20areas,the%20Danish%20VET%20system%20are (accessed on 29 July 2025).
[12] NEG (n.d.), Elektriker-grundforlob, https://neg.dk/elektriker-grundforlob-2/#:~:text=Hvis%20du%20kommer%20direkte%20fra,du%20starte%20p%C3%A5%20grundforl%C3%B8b%201 (accessed on 29 July 2025).
[25] NEXT (n.d.), Tømrer (Carpenter), https://www.nextkbh.dk/erhvervsuddannelser/toemrer/#:~:text=,Hovedforl%C3%B8b%205%3A%20Traditionelle%20tr%C3%A6samlinger%2C%20svendepr%C3%B8ve (accessed on 29 July 2025).
[4] OECD (2024), Education at a Glance 2024: OECD Indicators, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/c00cad36-en.
[10] OECD (2023), “Diagram of the education system: Denmark”, OECD Education GPS, http://gpseducation.oecd.org/CountryProfile?primaryCountry=DNK (accessed on 3 September 2025).
[3] OECD (2023), Spotlight on Vocational Education and Training: Findings from Education at a Glance 2023, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/acff263d-en.
[1] OECD (2022), Preparing Vocational Teachers and Trainers: Case Studies on Entry Requirements and Initial Training, OECD Reviews of Vocational Education and Training, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/c44f2715-en.
[24] Retsinformation (2019), Bekendtgørelse om træfagenes byggeuddannelse (Executive Order on Construction Training for Wood Trades), https://www.retsinformation.dk/eli/lta/2019/388#:~:text=Bekendtg%C3%B8relse%20om%20tr%C3%A6fagenes%20byggeuddannelse%20,som%20erhvervsuddannelse%20for%20unge%2C (accessed on 29 July 2025).
[23] SEVU (2019), Tekstdel - Uddannelsesordning for social- og sundhedsassistentuddannelsen (Text section - Training program for social and health care assistant training), https://www.sevu.dk/sites/default/files/2021-05/01.08.2019%20UO%20Social-%20og%20sundhedsassistent.pdf#:~:text=Social,praktikplaner%20skal%20derfor (accessed on 29 July 2025).
[26] Uddannelser, B. (2018), Fastsættelse af uddannelsestid (Determination of training time), https://bygud.dk/uddannelser/erhvervsuddannelser/erhvervsuddannelser/toemrer/fastsaettelse-af-uddannelsestid/#:~:text=Fasts%C3%A6ttelse%20af%20uddannelsestid%20,4%20%C3%A5r (accessed on 29 July 2025).
[18] UddannelsesGuiden (n.d.), Elektriker, https://www.ug.dk/uddannelser/erhvervsuddannelser/teknologibyggeriogtransport/elektriker#:~:text=Navn%3A%20Elektriker%20Varighed%3A%204%20%C3%A5r,2%2C0%20i%20dansk%20og%20matematik (accessed on 29 July 2025).
[15] UddannelsesGuiden (n.d.), Karakterskala - 7-trinsskalaen (Grading scale - 7 point grading scale), https://www.ug.dk/uddannelser/artikleromuddannelser/karakterskala-7-trinsskalaen? (accessed on 29 July 2025).
[21] UddannelsesGuiden (n.d.), Social- og sundhedsassistent (Social and health care assistant), https://www.ug.dk/uddannelser/erhvervsuddannelser/omsorgsundhedogpaedagogik/social-og-sundhedsassistent#:~:text=Du%20l%C3%A6rer%20at%20yde%20omsorg%2C,deres%20symptomer%2C%20%C3%A5rsager%20og%20behandling (accessed on 29 July 2025).
[8] UddannelsesGuiden (The Education Guide) (n.d.), Træfagenes byggeuddannelse (Construction training in the wood trades), UddannelsesGuiden (The Education Guide), https://www.ug.dk/uddannelser/erhvervsuddannelser/teknologibyggeriogtransport/traefagenes-byggeuddannelse#:~:text=SU%20og%20l%C3%A6rlingel%C3%B8n%20Muligheder%20for,mere%20i%20afsnittet%20Mere%20uddannelse (accessed on 29 July 2025).
To illustrate how the above elements come together in practice, this annex presents three examples of upper‑secondary VET programmes in Denmark:
Example 1: Electrician (Elektriker) – a technical trade in the Technology, construction and transportation sector.
Example 2: Social and Health Care Assistant (Social- og sundhedsassistent) – a healthcare programme in the Care, health and pedagogy sector.
Example 3: Carpenter (Tømrer) under “Træfagenes byggeuddannelse” – a construction trade in the Technology, construction and transportation sector (woodcraft building programme).
Each example outlines the programme’s structure (basic and main course components, school and apprenticeship breakdown, key subjects) and its assessment structure (including any final project or exam specifics). These examples demonstrate the common dual model as well as the diversity of content across vocational fields.
The Electrician programme is one of Denmark’s larger vocational programmes, preparing students for careers in electrical installations, maintenance, and automation. Electricians plan, install, and repair electrical systems in buildings, infrastructure, and industrial settings. Within the programme, there are a couple of specialisation levels often referred to as Elektriker 1 and Elektriker 2 (which historically indicated standard and advanced options, though today all follow a unified structure with optional modules) (UddannelsesGuiden, n.d.[18])The typical duration of the electrician VET programme is 4 years and 6 months (up to 5 years if all optional modules are taken or if pursuing the EUX track) (UddannelsesGuiden, n.d.[18]). This includes the basic course and main apprenticeship course. An overview of the curriculum structure is shown in Annex Table 3.A.1.
Annex Table 3.A.1 shows the detailed course and credit structure for the Elektriker Programme, drawing on the national curriculum decree, trade-committee programme order and public guidance sites and college handbooks.
Source: Danish Ministry of Children and Education (n.d.[20]), TEKNIQ Arbejdsgiverne, www.tekniq.dk/.
The electrician programme concludes with a comprehensive final assessment – the Journeyman’s Test (svendeprøve) – typically held in the last 4‑8 weeks of the programme (overlapping with the final school block). For electricians, this test takes the form of a practical project and an oral defence. Apprentices are given a real-world inspired task set by the Electrical Trade Committee (for example, design and install the complete electrical system for a small house or an industrial section). Over several days, the apprentice must produce wiring diagrams, perform required calculations (loads, fuse sizing, etc.), and physically construct the installation on a test board or mock-up – including mounting panels, cables, outlets, switches, motors or alarm systems as specified. Additionally, the apprentice typically submits a brief report or is questioned orally about the project. They must explain how their installation meets safety regulations and client requirements, demonstrating theoretical understanding of their practical work. External examiners (experienced electricians appointed by the trade committee, called censors) join a college instructor to evaluate the journeyman project, suing set criteria. The examiners jointly assign a grade (using the 7-point grading scale). Successful candidates are awarded the Electrician Journeyman’s Certificate, officially recognising them as a skilled electrician. This certificate enables immediate entry into the trade as a qualified electrician (Cedefop & University College Copenhagen (UCC), 2023[2]).
The Social and Health Care Assistant programme (often abbreviated SOSU-assistent in Danish) trains students to provide professional caregiving and basic nursing. Social and Health Care Assistants work in settings such as nursing homes, home care services, hospitals, and institutions for people with disabilities. Their role includes observing and improving patients’ or clients’ health status, providing personal care and rehabilitation, administering medication, and guiding eldercare or social service aides (such as social- og sundhedshjælpere) (UddannelsesGuiden, n.d.[21]). It is a cornerstone programme in the care sector of Danish VET, addressing the needs of an aging population and the health services workforce. The SOSU Assistant programme’s duration is about 3 years 10 months for most students, including the basic course (UddannelsesGuiden, n.d.[21]). It can be extended up to 4 years 7 months if the optional academic track (EUX) is pursued (UddannelsesGuiden, n.d.[21]).
Annex Table 3.A.2 shows the detailed course and credit structure for the Programme, drawing on the national curriculum decree, trade-committee programme order and public guidance sites and college handbooks.
The Social and Health Care Assistant programme concludes with a comprehensive final exam that tests both practical and theoretical competencies required for safe professional practice (SEVU, 2019[23]). The final assessment typically occurs during the last school period. Students must complete a project assignment – often a case-based project drawing on one of their practicum experiences or a simulated patient scenario. The exam itself usually consists of an oral examination (mundtlig prøve) based on the project (SEVU, 2019[23]) and there may also be a practical demonstration element. The final exam panel includes external examiners appointed by the trade committee alongside the college teacher (SEVU, 2019[23]). Upon passing the final exam, the student is issued a Social- og Sundhedsassistent certificate, which qualifies them to work as a licensed Social & Health Care Assistant. Graduates also obtain the right to use the protected title and may pursue further education in nursing, if they wish (the assistant certificate gives conditional access to nursing programmes, often after some experience or additional courses).
The Carpenter programme in Denmark is offered as a specialisation within “Træfagenes byggeuddannelse” – the umbrella Woodcraft Construction programme. This broad VET programme covers three specialisations (trades): Tømrer (Carpenter), Gulvlægger (Floor layer), and Tækkemand (Thatcher) (UddannelsesGuiden (The Education Guide), n.d.[8]). The Carpenter track trains students in constructing and renovating wooden structures, such as building timber-framed houses, installing roofs and flooring, fitting windows and doors, constructing wooden staircases, and performing interior finishing carpentry. Many carpenters are employed by small contracting firms or eventually become self-employed craftsmen (UddannelsesGuiden (The Education Guide), n.d.[8]). The duration of the Træfagenes programme for a carpenter is between 4 years and 4 years 6 months (including the basic course) for the standard route (Retsinformation, 2019[24]). Students who start right after Grade 9 typically do the full 4½ years (because they attend both GF1 and GF2).
Annex Table 3.A.3 shows the detailed course and credit structure for the Programme, drawing on the national curriculum decree, trade-committee programme order and public guidance sites and college handbooks.
The culmination of the carpenter programme is the Journeyman’s Test (Svendeprøve) in the final school block, overseen by the carpentry trade committee (fagligt udvalg) with local exam co‑ordinators. The journeyman’s test for carpenters is a substantial practical project that must be completed individually under exam conditions, typically over about 10 working days (around 37 hours) in the school’s workshops (Gymnasieuddannelser, 2024[27]). Key aspects include performing a project task prepared by the trade committee, produce detailed construction drawings for the project, and then builds the piece in the workshop within the allotted time. Upon completion, the finished project and the drawings are evaluated by a panel of external examiners, typically master carpenters from industry appointed by the trade committee, along with a teacher observer (Cedefop & University College Copenhagen (UCC), 2023[2]). They assess the work against set criteria and may question the apprentice. Each aspect (drawings, the constructed piece, oral defence) is considered in the overall mark, with marks given according to the 7‑point scale. Apprentices who pass the journeyman’s test receive the Carpenter Journeyman Certificate, formalising them as a qualified træfagenes tømrer. This opens employment as a skilled carpenter.