This chapter introduces the Research and Innovation Careers Observatory (ReICO), a joint OECD-EU initiative designed to strengthen international evidence on research and innovation talent, careers, mobility and working conditions.
Research and Innovation Careers Observatory 2026
Key Indicators on Talent, Mobility and Working Conditions
Abstract
A joint OECD-EU initiative to close persistent gaps in evidence on research and innovation careers
Talent is central to research and innovation (R&I) systems, yet policy responsibility for the R&I workforce is fragmented across ministries responsible for science, education, employment and migration — and so is the evidence base. National data on R&I careers are often siloed, disconnected from policy initiatives, and spread across multiple sources, leaving policymakers to make high-stakes decisions on STI investment and reform with only a partial picture of the workforce these choices affect.
The Research and Innovation Careers Observatory (ReICO), launched jointly by the OECD and the European Union in 2024, addresses this gap. It brings together existing national and international data sources, identifies evidence gaps, and sets an agenda for the future measurement of R&I personnel and their careers. The Observatory already covers more than 50 countries across three core themes - talent development, labour market perspectives and talent circulation - and includes a statistical dashboard of internationally comparable indicators, country-level dashboards, detailed databases for each theme, alongside new surveys, microdata pilots and outputs containing thematic analysis.
Measuring the R&I workforce, however, remains inherently difficult. Traditional approaches — counting R&D personnel under the Frascati Manual, or mapping qualifications and occupations under the Canberra Manual — struggle to capture innovation-related roles, emerging technology fields, and the wider pool of qualified individuals who could contribute to R&I but currently do not. Closing these measurement gaps, particularly for fast-evolving fields where standard classifications fall short, will be essential for giving governments and other stakeholders a fuller, more comparable picture of the R&I talent they depend on.
The growing need for evidence
Science, technology and innovation (STI) is a key driver of economic opportunity and human progress. At the heart of STI systems are the people who generate new knowledge, develop technologies and translate ideas into innovation. The research and innovation (R&I) workforce is vital to achieving national objectives on science, technology and innovation. Developing, attracting and retaining talent is thus a strategic priority for governments, and strengthening the talent base available for R&I activities is central to national reform agendas in many countries.
Governments are working to address talent needs in several ways: developing or updating STI human resources strategies, aligning research training more closely with labour market requirements, renewing efforts to attract talent from abroad and seeking to make R&I careers more stable and rewarding (EC-OECD, 2026[1]). These reforms take place in an increasingly dynamic global labour market. Competition is especially intense in emerging and critical technology domains, where demand for specialised expertise outstrips supply and workforce capacity is increasingly viewed through a lens of economic security. Beyond specialised knowledge, effective innovation systems depend on a broader set of advanced digital, interdisciplinary, entrepreneurial and collaborative competencies which enable organisations and researchers to adapt to rapid technological and societal change.
At the same time, mounting pressures and imbalances may be eroding the capacity of many countries to nurture, retain and attract the R&I talent they need. Public R&D budgets in the OECD area declined overall in 2024 and show signs of rebalancing across socioeconomic objectives, particularly towards defence (OECD, 2026[2]). International mobility, long a defining feature of research careers, is being reshaped by policy reorientations, geopolitical tensions and research security concerns. In some systems, the supply of qualified early-career researchers has outgrown absorptive capacity within academia, while their knowledge, skillsets and career expectations do not always align with opportunities available in other sectors. AI is also transforming R&I careers in several ways, changing the nature of many R&I-related tasks while increasing pressure on the peer review, publication and assessment systems used to recognise the career contributions of many researchers (OECD, 2026[3]). The R&I workforce is itself also transforming to include new roles that may not be adequately recognised in traditional national and international classifications used to measure the R&I workforce, including the Frascati family of manuals (OECD/Eurostat, 2018[4]; OECD/Eurostat, 1995[5]; OECD, 2015[6]).
While each of these trends warrants - and receives - policy attention in many countries, no central function typically owns policy responsibility for all facets of R&I careers. Instead, policy instruments are developed across ministries responsible for science, education, employment, migration, and industrial policy. This fragmentation splits not only the policy space but also the evidence space. Where they exist, national data, statistics, and indicators on R&I careers are often disconnected from policy initiatives, siloed, and spread across multiple sources. Moreover, cohesive evidence agendas and associated measurement strategies within countries and international organisations are limited or non-existent. In practice, this means that national policymakers need to make high-stakes decisions about science, technology, and innovation reform and investment with only a fragmented and partial understanding of the R&I workforce who will be impacted by and tasked with implementing these policies.
To effectively address the challenges arising from this evolving policy context, countries need comprehensive and up-to-date data and evidence about their R&I workforce: its composition, capabilities to tackle current and future challenges, conditions in place to nurture and attract the most skilled and talented people, and career trajectories and outcomes.
A coordinated response through the Research and Innovation Careers Observatory
The human resources related challenges outlined above are shared, to varying degrees, across R&I systems worldwide, offering scope for comparison of conditions and mutual learning among countries on R&I workforce issues.
The Research and Innovation Careers Observatory (ReICO) is a joint initiative of the OECD and the European Union that addresses the challenges and systematic gaps in evidence on R&I careers. (OECD, 2026[7]). Commenced in 2024, ReICO is working to gather, connect enrich and expand data on R&I talent across OECD and EU countries, partner countries and other major global economies, aiming to bring together existing national and international data sources, identify evidence gaps, and set an agenda for the future measurement of research and innovation personnel and their careers. The Observatory currently provides data and evidence for more than 50 countries, organised around three core themes: talent development, labour market perspectives and talent circulation.
ReICO contributes to the international evidence base on research and innovation careers through the development of a diverse set of resources:
Common language and conceptual framework on R&I talent and careers, establishing key concepts, definitions and classifications, which are further elaborated below and throughout this report.
ReICO hub (OECD, 2026[8]), a user-friendly digital platform accessible via the OECD website and the EU's ERA Talent Platform, comprising the core ReICO statistical dashboard (over 200 internationally comparable indicators across the three ReICO themes), the ReICO themes portal, and ReICO country pages and country dashboard (OECD, 2026[9]) for country-level exploration and comparison.
New data collections and surveys, including the newly launched 2026 OECD-EU Research and Development Careers Survey, gathering evidence directly from individuals on their careers, working conditions and mobility, and dedicated indicators monitoring the careers and working conditions of participants in Horizon Europe, benchmarked against the wider researcher population.
Microdata analysis and measurement pilots, exploiting administrative, commercial and other novel data sources (e.g. funding-agency records, job postings, bibliometric and researcher-identifier data) and piloting new internationally co-ordinated data collections.
Policy evidence and analysis, including a repository of policy initiatives on R&I talent and careers drawing on the EC-OECD STIP Compass database, analytical reports and an annual ReICO publication presenting the latest indicators and highlights.
An evaluation of measurement capacity and a forward-looking measurement agenda, taking stock of data availability across countries and driving consensus on priorities for closing evidence gaps. recommendations for improving international guidelines on collecting, reporting and interpreting data on R&I careers.
Facilitating such comparison and mutual learning calls for bringing together fragmented data and system-level information across countries to support governments in comparing and improving their policies. ReICO can help identify national best practices for understanding the current state of R&I workforce and its future potential. Comparable international data and information on R&I careers also serves R&I workers themselves, a highly mobile group whose career decisions are often made at an international rather than national level, along with many other stakeholders (Box 1.1).
Information and data on R&I workforce and careers are valued and used by a wide range of stakeholders for many purposes, including policy design, organisation management, career development and scientific research. Different users require different levels of granularity, timeliness, and coverage, reflecting their specific objectives.
Governments and policymakers
National governments, ministries, and public agencies are among the primary intended users of data on R&I careers. They require such information to monitor the size, composition, and evolution of the R&I workforce; assess the effectiveness of investments; identify skills shortages; and evaluate policies related to talent attraction, retention, mobility, and diversity. Given the fragmented policy responsibility for R&I workforce issues, high-quality, timely, and relevant data on R&I careers is especially crucial to support STI ministries proposing workforce-related policies that fall under the purview of other government ministries, such as those with responsibility for spending, tax, employment legislation, migration, or pensions.
Internationally comparable data is also particularly important for governments and policymakers. It serves the purpose of supporting international benchmarking of framework conditions for and relative attractiveness of R&I careers. It can also help inform cross-country policy coordination and collaboration.
R&I funding and economic development organisations
Public and private funders, alongside innovation and economic development agencies, need workforce data to assess the outcomes and longer-term impacts of funding programmes. Tracking the career trajectories of grant recipients, for example, can reveal whether funding supports career progression, interdisciplinary collaboration, international mobility, or contributions to innovation-oriented activities. Information on talent mobility between universities, firms, start-ups, and government laboratories can provide further insights into knowledge diffusion, entrepreneurship, and regional innovation capacity.
Higher education institutions and public research organisations
Higher education institutions and public research organisations require data on the profiles and outcomes of R&D personnel at all career stages to understand recruitment patterns, retention rates, and the subsequent careers of graduates and researchers. Such information serves a range of purposes: strategic planning, workforce management, staff mentoring and performance assessment, as well as demonstrating the societal value of research training.
Individual R&I personnel
Individual researchers and other R&I personnel, as well as those considering an R&I career, can use career data to benchmark their own trajectories against those of peers, identify opportunities, explore mobility patterns, and understand the skills and experiences associated with different career paths. Professional associations and research support offices can draw on the same information to provide career guidance and professional development services.
Employers, in both private and public sectors
R&I career information can be very valuable to businesses, especially those operating in knowledge-intensive sectors, helping them understand the supply of highly skilled talent, identify emerging competencies important for their R&I work, and analyse labour market conditions. It can also help firms identify where relevant expertise sits across universities, public labs and other companies, and how readily people move between them.
Civil society and the general public
Civil society organisations, journalists and the public can use aggregated career data to scrutinise the returns to public investment in research and higher education - whether it produces the right mix of skills and competencies, whether opportunities are open across society, and what working conditions and prospects it promotes. Such evidence informs public debate on precarity, diversity and inclusion, opportunities for early-career researchers, and the wider contributions of R&I systems to the good of society.
ReICO, as a joint endeavour between the OECD and the European Union, also supports policy development and monitoring of policy initiatives relating to human capital for R&I ecosystems - a core pillar of the European Research Area (ERA), the EU's single market for research, innovation and technology. The ERA Policy Agenda 2025-2027 addresses research careers through a dedicated structural policy aimed at making them more attractive and sustainable and at supporting mobility of researchers, building on the 2023 Council Recommendation on a European framework to attract and retain research, innovation and entrepreneurial talents in Europe. ReICO complements several EU-level initiatives supporting implementation of this framework (European Commission, n.d.[10]; Council of the European Union, 2023[11]), including information-oriented and awareness raising initiatives such as the ERA Talent Platform a one-stop-shop for researchers and innovators in Europe and beyond (European Commission, n.d.[12]), and EURAXESS, a portal providing information and job opportunities for researchers and research-performing organisations (EURAXESS, n.d.[13]).
When developing, implementing and evaluating policies, countries are interested in understanding both the actual and potential human resources available to R&I ecosystems. This requires assessing not only those already working in R&I, but also those who could do so, given their qualifications, experience and skills. ReICO adopts this broad perspective, combining information on current R&I workers and the wider pool of potential talent to monitor workforce dynamics. Moreover, interest lies not only in understanding the broad talent pool but specific groups within it, such as those with ability or potential to work on specialised technologies and sectors. Depending on the policy objective, the level of granularity required and the available data sources, different approaches to identifying human capital for R&I can be applied (Figure 1.1).
Note: Text in italics indicates the source of information most used for each category. Bullet points show example sub-categories.
Source: Authors’ elaboration.
Identifying those currently working in research and innovation
ReICO draws on two longstanding traditions used within national and international statistical infrastructures to identify and collate data on those working in research, development and other scientific, technological or innovation activities. A first delineates human resources devoted to research and development (R&D) and innovation. A complementary approach identifies and groups occupations from standard classifications to approximate personnel working on science, technology and innovation.
Research, development and innovation personnel
The OECD’s Frascati Manual, most recently updated in 2015, provides the set of definitions and guidance that informs international data collection on research and experimental development (R&D) activities. The Frascati Manual defines R&D as:
“creative and systematic work undertaken to increase the stock of knowledge – including knowledge of humankind, culture and society – and to devise new applications of available knowledge”.
To be classified as R&D, an activity must jointly satisfy five core criteria: it must be novel, creative, uncertain, systematic, and transferable and/or reproducible (OECD, 2015[6]).
The Frascati Manual also defines the personnel who carry out these activities: R&D personnel comprise all persons engaged directly in R&D, as well as those providing direct services to R&D activities, and are classified by function into researchers – not just scientific researchers but also research professionals like engineers engaged in the conception or creation of new knowledge – technicians and equivalent staff, and other supporting staff (OECD, 2015[6]). This classification is implemented in surveys of organisations (such as business, universities, government institutes), where respondents provide information on their R&D workforce for the entire organisation. With few exceptions, R&D surveys rarely collect personal data. As a result, it is difficult for countries to compile and report multidimensional profiles of R&D personnel combining characteristics like R&D function, sex, age and educational attainment, highlighting the need for initiatives such as ReICO to strengthen person-level evidence on R&I careers (see Chapter 5).
While measures of the R&D workforce are key for indicating capacity to add to frontier knowledge and its applications, across all sectors they are insufficient for monitoring innovation. The Oslo Manual (OECD/Eurostat, 2018[4]) defines innovation activities to “include all developmental, financial and commercial activities undertaken by a firm that are intended to result in an innovation for the firm”. In contrast to R&D personnel, the measurement of human resources devoted to innovation activities remains significantly less developed and is largely missing from international comparisons1. Addressing this gap will require further efforts to develop concepts, data sources and statistical approaches capable of capturing the skills, occupations and career pathways that contribute to innovation beyond formal R&D activities.
R&I-related employment identified through occupational classifications
The OECD/Eurostat Canberra Manual (OECD/Eurostat, 1995[5]) developed a framework combining educational qualification level with occupational category to identify the stock of workers who work, or who are qualified to work, in science and technology, based on standard international classifications. The education criterion applies to those with qualifications achieved at tertiary level - International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) levels 5 (short-cycle tertiary education) to 8 (doctoral or equivalent education) while the employment criterion applies to those working in occupations classified in the International Standard Classification of Occupations (ISCO) major groups 2 (professionals) and 3 (technicians and associate professionals). Within this framework, ReICO delineates the subgroup of science and engineering, health and ICT professionals, to identify those working most directly in highly skilled science, engineering and technology roles (see Chapter 3).
While ReICO builds primarily on the Canberra Manual framework, it also reviews and takes into account other national and international approaches to identifying R&I occupations, drawing on their insights while recognising the limitations of standard occupational classifications for accurately identifying R&I personnel. For example, while ISCO refers to research in the titles and definitions of many occupations, it cannot systematically identify R&D-performing occupations. Occupations are primarily classified by field and level of expertise rather than by activity, so individuals conducting research are classed within discipline-based professional categories alongside others performing non-research work in the same fields. Compounding this, the Frascati R&D personnel categories do not align clearly with occupational levels in standard classifications, complicating linkages between labour force and employment data.
These limitations become even more acute when it comes to identifying personnel working in frontier research and technology areas, where the range of relevant roles is considerably narrower and the required skill profiles more specialised. For example, quantum technologies is recognised as a field that is strongly science-driven and requires a highly qualified workforce mainly comprising technical and research roles, with recent OECD analysis indicating that, as of now, there is relatively little requirement for the broader set of roles associated with application and commercialisation of more advanced technologies (EPO/OECD, 2025[14]). In such fields, the workforce of interest may constitute only a small fraction of any standard occupational category, and in the case of the newest roles, may not be included in classifications at all, calling for other methods and data sources that might allow for identification at a much finer grain than standard classifications.
Recognising these limitations, ReICO provides a platform for collaboration among international organisations, national authorities and experts to address these measurement challenges and develop and test improved concepts, methods and data sources for identifying and monitoring R&I talent, particularly in emerging fields and roles not yet captured by existing statistical frameworks.
Identifying the wider R&I talent pool
ReICO defines the wider research and innovation workforce as all those with the mix of knowledge, skills and attributes needed to contribute to R&I. Competencies for R&I may be cultivated separately or in tandem through different talent development processes (as discussed in Chapter 2). Ideal combinations of technical and disciplinary knowledge and "soft" competencies will vary across R&I contexts, roles and organisations. For this reason, the potential R&I workforce is broad and indistinct, unable to be captured fully through credentials or occupational classifications. Such a wide and open-ended definition complicates measurement, but efforts to measure the R&I workforce are essential for policy purposes, as evidence on the wider talent pool indicates the extent to which existing populations could potentially be engaged in R&I activities. ReICO aims to approximate this workforce through novel aggregations of available data on individuals or designing new data with the potential to improve existing approaches to delineating R&I talent.
Individuals with qualifications to work in R&I
Although formal qualifications are not required to engage in R&I activities, employers place emphasis on educational attainment as an important indicator of the knowledge and disciplinary skills needed to engage in R&I activities at any level. Some form of tertiary degree is often required, or at least valued as a credential, when accessing a career in R&I.
Doctorate holders occupy a specific position among those recognised as qualified to engage in research and innovation. They have attained the highest level of formal education (ISCED level 8) and, unlike most other qualifications, the formal requirements for an award of a doctorate include a substantial output of original research, which contributes new knowledge to a particular field of study. Doctoral training is therefore the most direct formal preparation for conducting original research and generating new scientific knowledge, and the population with doctoral education attainment is a key focal group to monitor within ReICO. Available data indicates that doctorate holders comprise a large share of R&D personnel, particularly in the higher education sector (see Chapter 3).
Master's graduates, at ISCED level 7, are also important potential and actual contributors to R&I. Master’s programmes provide participants with advanced academic and/or professional knowledge, skills and competencies and often contain a direct research component, while curricular content tends to be informed by state-of-the-art research and or cutting-edge professional practice (OECD/Eurostat/UNESCO Institute for Statistics, 2015[15]). Graduates with master's degrees considerably outnumber doctorate holders and so constitute a more substantial share of human resources available for science, technology and innovation. Moreover, a master's-level qualification is the standard entry requirement for doctoral education in most OECD countries, although a minority of systems – including Australia, the United Kingdom and the United States – allow direct access to doctoral programmes on the basis of bachelor's-level qualifications (UNESCO Institute for Statistics, 2025[16]).
Together, master’s and doctoral graduates are key populations of analytical interest for ReICO, as groups with the formal qualification levels closely associated with supplying advanced knowledge and skills for R&I work.
Skills to work in R&I
Beyond formal qualifications, the capacity to contribute to R&I also rests on a broader set of technical, discipline-specific and transversal competencies needed to conduct research and develop and/or implement innovations. Such competencies can be developed within formal study programmes or outside them, through professional experience or employer-provided training. Indeed, in some industries, relevant experience and demonstrable skills are valued as highly as formal credentials. In the creative industries, software development and skilled trades, for instance, a strong portfolio, a proven track record or sought-after technical competencies can carry as much weight as a formal degree, or more (European Commission, n.d.[17]).
Several competency frameworks have been developed to identify and describe the skills most important for research and innovation, for example, the European Competence Framework for Researchers (ResearchComp) (European Commission, n.d.[17]). As another example, the United States' National Postdoctoral Association maintains a set of six core competencies for postdoctoral scholars: discipline-specific conceptual knowledge; research skills; communication skills; professionalism; leadership and management skills; and responsible conduct of research. These core competencies are used by scholars, mentors and institutions to structure training and professional development (National Postdoctoral Association, n.d.[18]).
Measuring skills prevalence and level among current and potential R&I personnel and quantifying their relative importance across different R&I jobs, remains inherently difficult. Nevertheless, the ability to develop, update and signal competencies beyond formal qualifications is now widely recognised as fundamental in a rapidly changing labour market. Efforts to measure the demand for and supply of skills are therefore likely to become an increasingly important complement to qualification-based measures of the R&I talent pool and constitute a key area of future focus for ReICO (see Chapter 5).
Attitudes and disposition to engage in R&I
Finally, knowledge, skills and qualifications are necessary but not sufficient conditions for contributing to R&I. Research and innovation are ultimately sustained by an intrinsic drive to explore and create, and by a positive disposition towards a career devoted to these pursuits – it has long been recognised that the capacities relevant to innovation extend beyond technical proficiency to encompass attributes and dispositions (OECD, 2011[19]). Individuals who possess all the requisite competencies but are not inclined to apply them to R&I, preferring careers in fields such as, for example, finance, law or management, remain outside the effective talent pool, however qualified they may be in terms of knowledge and skills. Measuring such attitudes among current and potential R&I personnel is challenging given that such dispositions are self-reported, context-dependent and liable to change over a career. Improving abilities to capture attitudes and disposition to engage in R&I therefore also forms part of the future agenda for ReICO.
The remainder of the report sets out key findings from the ReICO project to date. Each of the next three chapters of the report is devoted to one of the focal themes of ReICO. Chapter 2 presents evidence on how countries are building their talent pipelines for R&I systems. Chapter 3 examines the R&I workforce, including employment trends and outcomes. Chapter 4 assesses the role of international mobility of R&I talent across countries. Each chapter addresses key questions related to the theme, drawing on the indicators contained in the ReICO evidence base and, in some cases, complementary data sources, providing in-depth analysis of issues of policy relevance. The final chapter shares some reflections on the current state of efforts to measure R&I personnel and their careers, drawing on the experience of ReICO's first two years of operation. It highlights the most significant data gaps and sets out options and priorities for improving measurement through internationally coordinated action, informed by emerging and existing practices across countries contributing to ReICO.
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← 1. The Oslo Manual's 2018 edition nonetheless recommends that business surveys collect data on the human resources devoted to innovation activities in terms of person-months, particularly for activities where financial amounts are difficult to report, and draws attention to the potential of household and individual surveys as sources of information on innovation across all sectors, including the contributions of employees and the self-employed