Research and Innovation Careers Observatory 2026

Reader's Guide

Country coverage

This report presents, where available, indicators from the ReICO evidence base for 51 countries, comprising:

• OECD and EU member countries (Australia, Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Canada, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Croatia, Cyprus, Czechia, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Japan, Korea, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Mexico, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovak Republic, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Türkiye, United Kingdom, United States).

• OECD accession candidate countries that are not EU members and OECD key partner countries (Argentina, Brazil, China, India, Indonesia, Peru, South Africa and Thailand).

Across these countries and ReICO indicators, data reliability and availability vary. To ensure methodological consistency and clarity of interpretation, restrictions were applied in the selection of countries included in each figure of this report, compared to what is available in the ReICO database. Figures in this report do not include countries with indicator values labelled “unreliable” (due to, for example, high sampling error or low response numbers) or those with values requiring caution in interpretation. Furthermore, figures presenting more than one indicator do not generally include countries with only partial data available.

Consequently, the set of countries included in figures, tables and charts across the publication differs depending on the indicator presented. Comparisons should be interpreted in the context of the countries included for each measure.

International classifications

Educational attainment categories are based on the International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED 2011). The analysis focuses on advanced qualifications, namely master’s or equivalent level (ISCED level 7) and doctoral or equivalent level (ISCED level 8) and refers where relevant to short-cycle tertiary (level 5) and bachelor’s or equivalent (level 6).

Fields of study discussed in the report are based on the ISCED Fields of Education and Training classification (ISCED-F 2013). The “STEM” grouping discussed in this report refers to ISCED-F fields 05 (natural sciences, mathematics and statistics), 06 (information and communication technologies), 07 (engineering, manufacturing and construction) and 08 (agriculture, forestry, fisheries and veterinary). This STEM grouping can differ from national definitions (see Box 2.1).

Occupations follow the International Standard Classification of Occupations (ISCO-08). The population qualified to work in science and technology is delineated in part using ISCO major groups 2 and 3, following the OECD-Eurostat Canberra Manual, while the science, engineering and technology workforce analysed in Chapter 3 comprises science and engineering professionals (ISCO 21) and information and communication technology professionals (ISCO 25). The functional categories of R&D personnel are based on the OECD Frascati Manual. Further detail is provided in Box 3.1.

Economic activities are classified according to the International Standard Industrial Classification (ISIC Rev.4) or its European equivalent (NACE).

Calculation of international means and totals

OECD and EU27 averages

Where possible to do so OECD and EU27 averages are calculated and displayed alongside national values for indicators presented in this report. OECD and EU averages are included only where at least 60% of countries in the relevant group have data available, that is, 23 countries for the OECD average and 17 countries for the EU27 average.

Averages are computed as either an unweighted (arithmetic) average or a weighted average of the countries in each group. The type of average depends on the usage and the original data source. Unweighted averages assume that each country contributes equally to the average. The OECD average therefore refers to an average of data values at the country level and can be used to answer the question of how an indicator value for a given country compares with the value for a typical or average country. It does not take into account the absolute size of each country or any other weighting factors. OECD averages presented in this report refer to the unweighted average, unless specifically stated otherwise. The EU-27 average refers throughout the report to the unweighted average.

OECD and EU27 totals

OECD and EU27 totals are calculated by summing up all the components as if these countries are one theoretical country. These aggregates are used only for the indicators on international mobility of academic authors presented in Chapter 4.

Data sources, metadata and further information on the ReICO databases

The full set of national and international data sources underlying the content of this report are presented in Annex A. Metadata relating to the data sources, data series and indicators included in the ReICO databases can be found in the OECD data explorer (OECD, 2026[1]). The 2026 ReICO methodology document also provides comprehensive information on the data sources, data validation processes, methodologies and important quality considerations to take into account relating to the ReICO evidence base (OECD, 2026[2]).

References

[2] OECD (2026), Methodology document on ReICO Data, https://raw.githubusercontent.com/STIScoreboard/STIREICO/main/ReICO%20database%20notes%20and%20methodology%20for%20data%20users.pdf.

[1] OECD (2026), ReICO database - full dataset, https://data-explorer.oecd.org/vis?lc=en&df[ds]=DisseminateFinalDMZ&df[id]=DSD_REICO_FULL%40DF_ALL&df[ag]=OECD.STI.STP&df[vs]=1.0&dq=...&lom=LASTNPERIODS&lo=5&to[TIME_PERIOD]=false.