This chapter introduces upper secondary education in Wales, highlighting the key transition learners undertake at age 16 and the curriculum and qualifications that guide their learning. It presents an overview of the current context of education reform in Wales and the changing landscape of qualifications, accountability mechanisms and post-16 education policy leadership. Finally, it introduces the overall report by providing a comparative overview of upper secondary education across the OECD, with a specific focus on eight comparison systems featured in this report – British Columbia (Canada), Estonia, Ireland, New Zealand, Netherlands, Portugal, Singapore and Sweden.
What Shapes Pathways and Transitions?
A Comparative Perspective on Learners’ Trajectories through Upper Secondary Education in Wales
Abstract
As periods of change, transitions are opportunities for new beginnings. Whether transitioning to a new programme, a new level of education, or to a new setting, transitions through and out of upper secondary education are exciting milestones in learners’ journeys to adulthood. In Wales (United Kingdom), the path learners chart through upper secondary education involves a broad programme of education at ages 14‑16, leading to a series of mostly subject-specific qualifications followed by a major decision point around age 16. At age 16, learners can continue their education in a range of different settings and they narrow their focus, typically working towards either a small selection of general subjects or a programme of study aligned to a specific vocational area.
The Welsh education system is going through a period of change and transition. At the time of writing, the new Curriculum for Wales is being implemented progressively in secondary schools for learners aged 13-16 (Welsh Government, 2021[1]). From September 2026, all 3-16 learners will be following the Curriculum for Wales. The aspiration of the Curriculum for Wales is for all learners to reach the end of compulsory education at 16 with the knowledge, skills and understanding they need as they move to the next stage of education, training or employment and to thrive as lifelong learners. To accompany the curriculum roll-out, a new set of qualifications, Made-for-Wales General Certificates of Secondary Education (GCSEs), are being implemented from 2025 for learners aged 14-16. From 2027, 14-16-year-olds will also be able to work towards other new qualifications, including foundation and initial vocational qualifications (Qualifications Wales, 2024[2]).
Age 16 is a major transition point in Wales as learners may continue studying in a school sixth form, transition to a further education college (which typically cater to larger numbers of learners and provide both general and vocational education) or begin work-based training. While 14-16 education and post-16 education are seen as distinct, both phases are necessary for learners to complete a full cycle of upper secondary education.
In this context, Wales requested this report from the OECD to consider how the country can best support learners to move to post-16 education and beyond confidently, in line with the aims and aspirations of the Curriculum for Wales. The report was produced by the OECD Above and Beyond: Transitions in Upper Secondary Education project (see Box 1.1 for further information about the project). This report draws on internationally comparative evidence, including examples from select countries and OECD-wide data, to understand:
How do countries across the OECD organise their curricula in upper secondary education?
Chapter 2 focuses on the role and function of the curriculum in Wales, offering comparative analysis of curricula frameworks. The chapter also looks at key features of these frameworks and interactions between qualifications and curricula.
How do other countries align their curricula with programmes and qualifications?
Chapter 3 focuses on the upper secondary programmes within the comparison countries. It examines how programmes and qualifications shape learner pathways and transitions by exploring how choice, depth and specialisation are provided and how learners spend their time.
How do other countries support learning experiences and pathways across and within diverse institutions?
Chapter 4 focuses on the various settings in which learning takes place for learners aged 14-19 and the range of experiences learners have within the comparison systems. It also discusses how setting a goal for all young people to complete upper secondary education can help strengthen equity in the system.
How do other countries support learners to transition through and out of upper secondary education?
Chapter 5 focuses on transitions in the comparison countries, both during and after upper secondary education. It includes data analysis related to when and where transitions occur, how countries set expectations and priorities, policies and practices for supporting transitions and methods for measuring transition success.
The Transitions in Upper Secondary Education project analyses how upper secondary education can be designed to meet diverse learner needs and promote equitable outcomes by developing comparative analysis on pathways and assessment and certification. Countries can engage with the project through a range of flexible options to support national policy making and reforms, including by requesting peer learning discussions, comparative research focused on national policy questions and tailored policy advice.
Source: OECD’s Transitions in Upper Secondary: Above and Beyond Project
Wales has drawn on the insights that have emerged from the engagement with the OECD as they progress with their wide programme of reform (see Box 1.2).
In early 2023, the OECD Above and Beyond: Transitions in Upper Secondary team began working with the Welsh Government. The OECD was tasked with providing comparative insights on how the curriculum and qualifications can support pathways and transitions, to support the Welsh Government as they implement the new Curriculum for Wales in upper secondary education.
By undertaking a comparative review of international practices and situating Wales within it, the OECD was able to identify the Welsh system’s relative strengths and weaknesses, and offer policy advice based on best international practices.
This project has involved:
an initial two-day workshop for Welsh government officials and other stakeholders to explore how curricula and qualifications support pathways in the different comparison systems and to discuss what this looks like in a Welsh context;
Peer Learning Discussions, which are moderated conversations focused on a specific policy issue, with British Columbia (Canada), Saskatchewan (Canada), Estonia, the Netherlands and New Zealand;
the publication of a Policy Perspective summarising key insights from the engagement
publication of this in-depth, comparative OECD Report.
Regular communication between the OECD and Wales throughout this project enabled the writers of this report to take into account the latest policy developments in Wales, and for Wales to consider the insights of the OECD’s review as they emerged. This means that many of the changes that Wales introduced in the 2023-24 phase were inspired/reflect advice provided by the OECD and which emerged through the Peer Learning Discussions. This includes, for example, Wales’ consultation on 14 to 16 Learning Guidance, which was developed with insights from the Peer Learning Discussion, particularly discussions with the Netherlands on how learners’ programmes and pathways are developed.
Source: Welsh Government (2024[3]), 14 to 16 statutory learner guidance, https://www.gov.wales/sites/default/files/consultations/2024-02/14-to-16-statutory-learner-guidance.pdf (accessed 29 January 2025); Qualifications Wales (2023[4]), Made-for-Wales GCSEs: Main Consultation Report, https://qualifications.wales/media/dkcisr1u/made-for-wales-gcses-main-consultation-report-january-2024-update.pdf (accessed 29 January 2025); Qualifications Wales (2024[5]), The Full 14-16 Qualifications Offer Decisions Report, https://qualifications.wales/media/3xfbmd0o/the-full-14-16-qualifications-offer-decisions-report.pdf (accessed 29 January 2025); OECD (2024[6]), What shapes upper secondary pathways and transitions?: Insights for Wales, http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/7139d7f1-en.
Defining upper secondary education
Upper secondary education refers to ISCED 3, in the International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED). Some of the defining features of upper secondary are the increasing range of options and differentiation in content learners can engage with, and the preparation it provides for individuals to either enter work or tertiary education (Box 1.3) (UNESCO Institute for Statistics, 2012[7]).
Pathways through upper secondary education are shaped as much by the design and structure of curricula, programmes and qualifications as by the choices learners make as they navigate the different possible options. The different institutions where learners may study and the extent to which they can choose where they will study also shapes the kind of education learners experience.
Pathways: learners’ trajectories through education
A unique characteristic of upper secondary education is the greater levels of variety, specialisation, and choice on offer compared with the levels of education that precede it (UNESCO Institute for Statistics, 2012[7]). In upper secondary, learners typically participate in different programmes of study, they may select specialisations and choose different subject combinations i.e. pathways (Stronati, 2023[8]). This report, and the w Above and Beyond project, view pathways as the trajectories that learners take as they transition through upper secondary education (Stronati, 2023[8]).
Transitions: across curricula, programmes, qualifications and settings
As learners navigate pathways through upper secondary education and into the world beyond, they experience transitions. Transitions, as points of change, create new opportunities and challenges for learners. The pathways learners take through upper secondary shape when and how these transitions occur – just as the outcomes of transitions shape learners’ future pathways. Transitions into upper secondary education – when learners typically choose or are placed in general or vocational upper secondary programmes and also make subject choices – and transitions out of upper secondary education to tertiary education or work - are instrumental in shaping students’ futures.
The International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) was developed to provide an international system for classifying countries’ education systems, in order to understand and interpret the inputs, processes and outcomes of education systems from a global perspective and ensure comparable data. According to ISCED 2011, the principal characteristics of upper secondary education are:
Programmes at ISCED level 3, or upper secondary education, are typically designed to complete secondary education in preparation for tertiary education or provide skills relevant to employment, or both.
Programmes at this level offer learners more varied, specialised and in-depth instruction than programmes at ISCED level 2. They are more differentiated, with an increased range of options and streams available. Teachers are often highly qualified in the subjects or fields of specialisation they teach, particularly in the higher grades.
Programmes classified at ISCED level 3 may be referred to in many ways, for example: secondary school (stage two/upper grades), senior secondary school, or (senior) high school.
Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics (2012[7]), International Standard Classification of Education: ISCED 2011, http://uis.unesco.org/en/topic/international-standard-classification-education-isced (accessed December 4 2023).
Upper secondary education across OECD countries
Despite the common definitional characteristics of upper secondary education, the structures and design of this level of education differ significantly across OECD countries (Figure 1.2):
Duration of upper secondary education: Upper secondary education typically lasts three years, but among OECD countries the duration ranges from two years (as in Ireland and Lithuania) to four years in Wales and five years in Italy.
Starting age: The typical starting age is 15, but in some countries, learners start earlier, at age 14 (as in Italy and Wales), while in other learners start far later, at 17 (as in Lithuania).
Age of completion: The typical age for young people upon completion of upper secondary is 17, but it ranges between 17 (as in Switzerland) and 20 (as in Iceland).
Compulsory education: Across the OECD, a full cycle of upper secondary education is compulsory in only eight education systems. However, participation in upper secondary education is partially compulsory (i.e. compulsory for the first years) in 19 OECD countries.
Selection into upper secondary programmes: Depending on the education system, learners are selected into different programmes at different ages. On average across OECD countries, the age of first selection is 15, and selection most frequently occurs at the beginning of upper secondary education. In a few countries with comprehensive systems (Canada, New Zealand and the United States), there is no selection of learners into different education options until after the end of compulsory schooling, when learners transition into tertiary education, further education or employment (Stronati, 2023[8]).
Note: It is assumed that age references refer to age on 1 January of the reference year. Ending age of compulsory education might refer to the age that each individual learner reaches depending on the birth date, meaning that learners can leave school during the school year whenever they have attained that age, or it can refer to the age of learners during the school year, meaning that learners must complete the school year during which they reached the compulsory ending age. Compulsory ending age refers to education and not training. For example. in France the ending age of compulsory education is 16 but training is compulsory up to age 18. Selection in New Zealand occurs after upper secondary education, as only one programme is provided at this level. However, from age 16, learners are allowed to leave the initial schooling system and enrol in an ISCED 3 or ISCED 4 vocational programme in a post-school institution. In the United States, the ending age of compulsory education varies between 16 and 18 depending on the state. Greece provided the correct ending age of compulsory education (15 instead of 14). Lithuania provided the correct age of selection (15 instead of 14) and of ending age of compulsory education (18 instead of 16). New Zealand provided the correct age of selection (18 instead of 15). The Slovak Republic provided the correct age of selection (15 instead of 11). Slovenia provided the correct starting age of upper secondary education (15 instead of 14). Countries are ranked in alphabetical order.
Sources: OECD (2022[9]), Education at a Glance 2022, https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/education-at-a-glance-2022_3197152b-en.html; OECD (2019[10]), PISA 2018 Online Education Database, https://www.oecd.org/en/about/programmes/pisa/pisa-data.html; Stronati (2023[8]), The design of upper secondary education across OECD countries: Managing choice, coherence and specialisation, https://doi.org/10.1787/158101f0-en.
Upper secondary education in Wales from a comparative perspective
Many of the aspects of upper secondary education in Wales which stand out as unique impact the overall shape of learners’ pathways and when and how learners experience transitions. Table 1.2 shows the different types of qualifications offered in 14-19 education, where they are offered and at what ages learners access them.
Note: There is some scope for 14-16 learners to engage with learning through an FE college via junior apprenticeships, but this is an option taken by a minority of learners (205 learners in 2022/2023) (Welsh Government, 2024[11]).
Source: Qualifications Wales (2024[2]), The Full 14-16 Qualifications Offer Decisions Report, https://qualifications.wales/media/3xfbmd0o/the-full-14-16-qualifications-offer-decisions-report.pdf (accessed 29 January 2025); WJEC (n.d.[12]), Level 3 Advanced Skills Baccalaureate Wales, https://www.wjec.co.uk/qualifications/level-3-advanced-skills-baccalaureate-wales/#tab_keydocuments (accessed 2 November 2023).
The Curriculum for Wales creates a shared set of expectations for compulsory education
The Curriculum for Wales sets out a high-level vision and set of expectations for learners aged 3-16. Learners aged 14-16, who are in upper secondary education and who, by 2026, will experience learning guided by the Curriculum for Wales, are expected to engage with each of the broad thematic areas of study (referred to as Areas of Learning and Experience and discussed further in Chapter 2), as well as cross-curricular skills of literacy, numeracy and digital competence and cross-cutting themes, like Careers and Work-Related Experiences (Welsh Government, 2021[1]). The Curriculum for Wales only spans the first half of upper secondary education – applying until the end of compulsory education (16).
During 14-16 education, learners also work towards qualifications, typically GCSEs. To achieve GCSEs, learners sit high-stakes national examinations, and sometimes complete coursework depending on the subject. Learners’ GCSE results inform the qualifications they take in further study programmes post-16. Wales, along with England, Northern Ireland and Scotland, are somewhat unique in having learners sit high-stakes exams at this age, part-way through upper secondary; typically education systems reserve high-stakes examinations like this until the end of upper secondary (OECD, 2023[13]). Wales is currently developing new Made-for-Wales GCSEs to ensure alignment between 14-16 qualifications and the Curriculum for Wales.
A high-stakes transition mid-way through upper secondary education
By 16, learners in Wales have come to the end of compulsory education and can choose to leave school if they wish (SI 1972/944) (UK Government, 1972[14]). At this juncture, learners may embark on general upper secondary qualifications (AS/A Levels) and/or vocational qualifications – including alongside the Advanced Skills Baccalaureate Wales; or they may stop with formal education. Some learners may also continue to study GCSE qualifications in post-16 education. Depending on where they live, what school they attended up to age 16 and what they are interested in, learners who remain in education may also change to a new setting. They may move into the sixth form part of a school (school sixth forms mainly offer general qualifications but also some vocational qualifications for people between the ages of 16-19), go to a further education (FE) college (which offer mainly vocational qualifications but also general qualifications for people aged 16+), or they may do work-based learning, including apprenticeships, where they are trained on the job, in colleges and/or at a training centre once a week or in blocks of a few days or weeks (Careers Wales, 2023[15]) (Careers Wales, n.d.[16]). Educational content aside, these changes may also mean that learners encounter new school or workplace cultures.
For learners in Wales, this may add up to be a lot of change to contend with all at once – and at a comparatively young age compared to their counterparts in other OECD countries. While Wales is not alone in having compulsory education end at age 16 – upper secondary education is only partially compulsory in 19 OECD countries – what makes Wales unique is that this transition point combines:
The end of compulsory education
The end of education which is guided by the national curriculum
The completion of one set of high-stakes qualifications and the beginning of a different set of high-stakes qualifications
High-stakes choice and decision-making as the range of subjects learners take narrows considerably post-16
A potential transition to different education settings, including with an expectation that learners of this age will be increasingly independent and will need to manage themselves and their schedules independently.
There is no national upper secondary certificate for completion of upper secondary education in Wales
Most OECD countries have a school-leaving certificate or multiple school-leaving certificates at the end of upper secondary to certify completion of this level of education. Wales – like other systems across the United Kingdom – does not have a national examination or certificate for this purpose. Instead, learners at the end of upper secondary education take a range of different certificates or qualifications which are typically used to enter the labour market or to progress to post-secondary education.
In some ways, the Welsh Baccalaureate (Welsh Bacc), which was introduced in 2003, bears the characteristics of a national school-leaving certificate. It exists at Foundation/Nation level alongside GCSEs. An advanced version of the Welsh Bacc, which sat alongside AS/A levels and vocational qualifications at level 3 on the Welsh Qualifications framework is currently being phased out and was awarded for the final time in summer 2024. Like the majority of national school-leaving certificates, the Welsh Bacc sets minimum standards for Maths/Numeracy and English/Welsh and requires learners take traditional subject-based qualifications, as well as encouraging more transversal skill development (in the form of the Skills Challenge Certificate). However, the Welsh Bacc differs from national school-leaving certificates in that it is neither compulsory and nor the only certificate that learners achieve. If learners do not achieve or do not attempt the Welsh Baccalaureate, they can still achieve subject-based qualifications and the Skills Challenge Certificate, which are all stand-alone qualifications. Compared with other systems' school-leaving certificates, which are the only or predominant qualification learners achieve, schools and colleges in Wales may have less incentive to ensure learners achieve the Welsh Bacc. However, the perception and understanding of the Welsh Bacc was mixed (National Assembly for Wales, 2019[17]) and while it was the Welsh Government’s policy position that they expected the Welsh Bacc to be offered for all learners, the Advanced Welsh Baccalaureate was only taken up by about two thirds of learners who continued in full time education post-16 (Welsh Government, 2023[18]) (Careers Wales, 2022[19]) (National Assembly for Wales, 2019[17]). The Advanced Welsh Baccalaureate, including the Advanced Skills Challenge Certificate, was recently phased out and first teaching for the replacement Advanced Skills Baccalaureate Wales began in September 2023 (WJEC, n.d.[12]). For 14-16 education, the Welsh Baccalaureate is also being phased out, with the Skills Challenge Certificate being replaced by a new Skills Suite of qualifications from 2027 (Qualifications Wales, 2024[2]).
Recovering from COVID-19 disruption and returning to a positive trajectory
Between 2018 and 2022, in the OECD’s Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) which assesses the skills of 15-year-old students, Wales followed the same trajectory as the OECD average and many other countries, with a decline in average scores across mathematics, reading and science (from 487 to 466 for mathematics, from 483 to 466 for reading and from 488 to 473 for science) – see Figure 1.3 (OECD, 2023[20]). For a number of OECD countries, the general decline in scores in 2022 was linked to more than disruptions related to COVID-19. Canada, the Netherlands and New Zealand, for example, had witnessed drops pre-COVID‑19. In contrast, Wales had been on an upward trajectory in mathematics before Covid-19: Average scores rose from 468 in 2012 to 487 in 2018. Over the same period, average scores in reading and science, have remained broadly constant (OECD, 2023[20]).
Note: OECD average uses the “OECD average-35”, which includes only the 35 OECD Member countries that have non-missing values across all the assessments for which this average itself is non-missing.
Source: Welsh Government (2023[21]), PISA 2022: National Report for Wales, https://www.gov.wales/sites/default/files/statistics-and-research/2023-12/pisa-2022-national-report-wales-059.pdf (accessed 29 January 2025); OECD (2023[20]), PISA 2022 Results (Volume I): The State of Learning and Equity in Education, http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/53f23881-en.
Reforms in the Welsh education system impacting upper secondary education
The first phase of Wales’ education reform that began in 2014 is now complete, with the Curriculum for Wales replacing the previous national basic curriculum that had been in place since the 1980s for learners up to Year 9 (age 13-14) (albeit with adaptations since Wales’ devolution) (Senedd Cymru Welsh Parliament, 2021[22]). Implementation of the Curriculum for Wales, which applies to learners aged 3 to 16, began in all primary schools in autumn 2022, with a rolling programme of implementation until 2026/27, when it will be fully implemented up to Year 11 (age 16) (Senedd Cymru Welsh Parliament, 2022[23]). The new Curriculum for Wales is also prompting and influencing reform in a range of other areas, including qualifications, school performance and improvement. An updated qualifications offer for 14-16 education
Qualifications Wales, the regulatory body, recently reviewed the full qualifications offer for 14-16 year‑olds for alignment with the Curriculum for Wales. This review helped to shape new Made-for-Wales GCSEs which will be taught from September 2025 to support alignment with the Curriculum for Wales (Qualifications Wales, 2024[2]). The Curriculum for Wales gives schools greater autonomy in how they deliver teaching and learning and it was seen as important that qualifications in 14-16 education support the intent of the new curriculum (Qualifications Wales, 2023[4]).
In addition to GCSEs, the full 14-16 qualifications offer is being updated to include – from 2027 – new Vocational Certificates of Secondary Education (VCSEs), foundation qualifications and a new Skills Suite of qualifications (Qualifications Wales, 2024[2]). Foundation qualifications will be pitched at entry level/level 1 on the Welsh Credit and Qualifications Framework (CQFW) – a step below GCSE and VCSEs – and the new Skills suite will fill the space left by the Welsh Bacc National/Foundation Skills Challenge Certificate (Qualifications Wales, 2024[2]). New VCSEs and Foundation qualifications simplify and rationalise the range of available qualifications schools can choose from as they will be the predominant qualifications, alongside GCSEs and the Skills Suite, which schools can offer to their learners, and many other qualifications currently offered in schools will cease to be publicly funded (Qualifications Wales, 2024[2]). While the GCSEs, VCSEs, Foundation and Skills Suite qualification are still a wide range of diverse qualifications, enabling schools to flexibly adapt their offer to meet learner needs, this is still a more complex qualifications landscape than many of the comparison systems.
Guiding schools’ offer through accountability mechanisms and policy expectations
Alongside these changes, the Welsh Government is developing a new school information ecosystem. As part of this, the government is deciding what information should be used for school self-evaluation and improvement purposes (Welsh Government, 2024[24]). At present, school performance is measured and monitored over time using the qualification outcomes from learners, however this is very much framed as an ‘interim’ measure and drawbacks of this approach – mainly that it incentives qualification attainment over meaningful engagement with the curriculum and adapting to learners’ individual needs – are duly noted by the Welsh Government (Welsh Government, 2019[25]). This process involves aggregating learner results from GCSE or equivalent qualifications. This acts as an incentive for schools to ensure learners take at least nine qualifications and that they achieve certain key qualifications, particularly Welsh or English qualifications, mathematics or mathematics – numeracy qualifications and science qualifications (Welsh Government, 2019[25]). Without an overarching upper secondary certificate and with the phasing out of the Welsh Bacc, these school performance measures are an important mechanism for ensuring consistency across learners’ programmes of assessment.
The latest key development in Wales’ educational reforms and the implementation of the Curriculum for Wales in 14-16 education is the introduction of a ‘14 to 16 Learning Entitlement’(see Chapter 2 for further information on the new 14 to 16 Learner Entitlement) (Welsh Government, 2024[26]).
Supporting coherence across post-16 education
From August 2024, Medr (Commission for Tertiary Education and Research), a new arm’s length body, took on responsibility for funding and overseeing post-16 education and research. CTER’s establishment represents the first time funding, planning and regulation of post-16 education and research, including further education colleges and school sixth forms, will be managed and coordinated by a single body (Welsh Government, 2023[27]). While the Curriculum for Wales does not formally apply to post-16 education, CTER will be required to form a “local curriculum offer and be involved in the planning and monitoring of post 16 provision across further education and training” (Welsh Government, 2024[28]). This is intended to build on the broader principles of the Curriculum for Wales and support seamless transitions for learners from 14-16 education to post-16 education and training (Welsh Government, 2024[28]).
While this report draws on data and information from across all OECD countries, it focuses on the curricula, qualifications, programmes and approaches to supporting pathways and transitions in eight education systems specifically, as well as Wales (United Kingdom) (Table 1.3). These systems were selected in discussion with Wales to provide breadth of insights and experiences across a range of different types of upper secondary systems, including aspects that are similar to Wales and those which contrast.
Note: M represents missing values as the data is not collected by the OECD or not available.
¹For the Netherlands, pupils aged 5 to 16 are required to attend school. Young people between the ages of 16 and 18 who have not yet obtained a basic qualification are required to qualify. A basic qualification is (at least) a HAVO, VWO or MBO diploma (level 2 or higher).
²For the proportion attaining upper secondary education this is calculated by the referred age-group population minus those with below upper secondary education as their highest attainment.
³This data refers to Canada.
⁴The calculation for Wales for % 15-19 Enrolled in USE VET is based on 2021 data supplied to the OECD for Education at a Glance. However, this is based on the institution that learners are enrolled in (i.e. schools or further education colleges) rather than the qualifications they are studying towards. See Chapter 3 for a discussion of this and an alternative estimate of Wales’ proportion of learners enrolled in VET.
⁵For the % of 18-24-year-olds NEET, data from Wales comes from indicator ‘Youth exclusion from education – Regions’ whereas data for other countries comes from indicator ‘Distribution of young adults' education and work status, for a given level of educational attainment, age group and gender’.
Source: OECD (2024[29])Education at a Glance 2024: OECD Indicators, https://doi.org/10.1787/c00cad36-en.
Overview of upper secondary education in comparison countries
British Columbia (Canada)
In British Columbia (Canada), upper secondary learners work towards the British Columbia Certificate of Graduation, also known as the “Dogwood Diploma”, and the Diplôme de fin d’études secondaires en Colombie Britannique (for Francophone and French Immersion learners) (British Columbia Government, 2022[30]). While there is only one official general programme according to ISCED mapping, learners can choose study options within this programme, some of which are vocational options. In 2020/2021, 90% of all British Columbia learners completed upper secondary in 2020-21 with a Dogwood or Adult Dogwood diploma within six years of enrolling in Grade 8 (age 13) (British Columbia Government, 2022[31]). The British Columbia Curriculum shares some similarities with the Curriculum for Wales, particularly regarding its focus on the development of transversal skills and competencies and the flexibility that is provided to schools and teachers.
Estonia
In Estonia, learners can study either a general or a vocational upper secondary programme. The general programme takes three years and vocational programmes typically take three to four years. General secondary education is based on the national curriculum for upper secondary schools and takes place predominantly in gymnasiums (Estonia Government Ministry of Education and Research, 2022[32]). Vocational secondary education takes place in 24 national vocational education institutions and two municipal schools across Estonia (Estonia Government Ministry of Education and Research, 2023[33]). There are 21 national curricula, including 52 specialties, for vocational secondary education. Learners in Estonia enter upper secondary and make a choice between general or vocational education around age 16.
Ireland
In Ireland, there are three general upper secondary programmes: Leaving Certificate (Established), Leaving Certificate Vocational Programme, Leaving Certificate Applied (National Council for Curriculum and Assessment, n.d.[34]). “Post-primary” education in Ireland refers to the Junior Cycle (typically ages 12-15 ) and the Senior Cycle (typically ages 16-18), which is when learners work towards a Leaving Certificate. Learners may also do a Transition Year in between the two cycles. The vast majority of learners are enrolled in the Leaving Certificate (Established) and Vocational Programme, with only 6% of learners in 2023 enrolled in the Leaving Certificate Applied (State Examinations Commission, 2024[35]). Learners in Ireland have a high-degree of choice over the subjects they take, as do learners in Wales doing AS/A Levels.
The Netherlands
In the Netherlands, at age 12 learners are selected into lower secondary (ISCED 2) programmes. Depending on advice from their school, learners enter either pre-vocational secondary education (VMBO) – a four-year programme from which they can progress to ISCED 3 vocational education (MBO), or to general secondary education (Netherlands Government, n.d.[36]) (Netherlands Government, n.d.[37]). The general secondary education programmes, HAVO and VWO, are five and six years respectively and span both lower and upper secondary education (Stichting Leerplanontwikkeling [Curriculum Development Foundation], n.d.[38]). Another option is ISCED 2 practical training, which lasts approximately five years and grants access to the most basic level of ISCED 3 MBO vocational education. Of learners completing VWO, HAVO, and VMBO programmes in 2021, just over half (51.8%) were enrolled in VMBO, 27.0% in HAVO, and 21.3% in VWO (Netherlands Government Central Statistics Bureau, 2024[39]). Learners in the Netherlands taking the VMBO programme face a potential transition to new settings around age 16, when they transition from a VMBO programme in schools to an MBO programme in MBO-institutions or through work-based training.
New Zealand
In New Zealand, upper secondary learners typically work towards the National Certificate of Educational Achievement (NCEA) qualifications. NCEA is sequential, and learners typically do NCEA Level 1 in Year 11 (age 16), NCEA Level 2 in Year 12 (age 17), and NCEA Level 3 in Year 13 (age 18) (New Zealand Qualifications Authority, 2024[40]). However, the flexible design of NCEA means that learners are not required to progress linearly. Learners can complete vocational options while working towards NCEA, including through Trades Academies or Secondary-Tertiary Programmes (New Zealand Government Ministry of Education, n.d.[41]). In 2023, 73.2% of Year 12 learners achieved NCEA Level 2 and 67.7% of Year 13 learners achieved NCEA Level 3 (New Zealand Qualifications Authority, 2024[42]). As in Wales, learners in New Zealand can achieve qualifications at multiple different levels and there is flexibility to tailor programmes of learning to meet individual learners’ needs.
Portugal
In Portugal, there is one general upper secondary programme (which offers two specialties: the ‘Science-Humanities’ course or the ‘Specialised Artistic’ music course) (Portugal Government Directorate-General for Education, 2021[43]). Learners can also enrol in the vocational upper secondary programme either through the ‘Professional’ course or an apprenticeship. The Curriculum of Basic and Secondary Education applies to both general and vocational learners in the Science-Humanities and Technological courses, and these courses all lead to learners attaining a secondary school-leaving certificate. The completion rate of Grade 12 (age 17/18) has been steadily increasing – up from 66% in 2010/2011 to 87% in 2022/2023 (Portugal Government Directorate-General for Education and Science Statistics, 2024[44]).
Singapore
In Singapore, at the end of primary school at age 12, learners take the Primary School-Leaving Examination. Learners use the results from this examination to apply to the secondary school/s of their choice. Their results also inform which subjects they take at the start of Secondary 1, after which students may take subjects at different levels based on their overall strengths, interests and learning needs (Singapore Ministry of Education, 2023[45]). Over four years, learners complete lower secondary (ages 13-14) and upper secondary (ages 15-16). From 2027, learners completing upper secondary education (age 16) will sit the Singapore-Cambridge Secondary Education Certificate (SEC) examinations (Singapore Ministry of Education, 2023[46]). The SEC examinations will replace the General Certificates of Education (GCE) at Normal (Technical), Normal (Academic) and Ordinary Level, which are being phased out.
Following qualifications at age 16, learners transition to post-secondary education in a range of settings and to a range of programmes. Learners who progress to Junior Colleges/Millenia Institute sit GCE Advanced Level (A-Level) examinations after two to three years of post-secondary education. Other learners may progress to post-secondary education in a Polytechnic or the Institute of Technical Education (ITE). Learners may choose between these various post-secondary education pathways based on their strengths, interests and learning needs, and based on the subjects they took in upper secondary and their performance in the SEC examinations. Education is compulsory to age 15 but in 2023 the retention rate from the first year of primary school to the first year of post-secondary education was 97.2% (Singapore Ministry of Education, 2023[47]). Singapore’s system of having one set of qualifications around age 16, before a transition to a wide range of programmes – including A-Levels and vocational qualifications – bears similarities with the structure of qualifications in Wales.
Sweden
In Sweden, secondary programmes typically start when learners are in Grade 10 (age 16). There are 18 specialisations, so called ‘National Programmes’ – 12 of which are vocational and six general education for preparation for tertiary education (Skolverket [Swedish National Agency for Education], n.d.[48]). There are also four different ‘Introductory Programmes’ for learners who do not meet the grade threshold for the National Programmes (Skolverket [Swedish National Agency for Education], 2022[49]). The Introductory Programmes are considered to be at upper secondary level, although they do not provide completion of upper secondary education (Stronati, 2023[8]). Their role is to help to prepare students to later enter a National Programme. Only learners who complete a National Programme earn a high school diploma – either a vocational degree or a university preparatory degree which signifies completion of upper secondary. From 2023, all National Programmes grant direct access to tertiary education. As in Wales, learners experience a transition around age 16 – although in Sweden this is a transition from lower to upper secondary education (Skolverket [Swedish National Agency for Education], 2024[50]).
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