The role of subnational governments in adult skills systems: Korea

This country note provides an overview of the governance of the adult skills system in South Korea. It is part of an extensive review of all 38 OECD countries. The main findings across all countries are summarised in the OECD policy paper The Role of Subnational Governments in Adult Skills Systems.

Table 1. Overall governance and expenditure structure

Governance structure	Levels of governance	% of general government expenditure at the sub-national level
Unitary	National: State Regional: provinces/metropolitan cities/ selcgoverning regions (17) Local: Municipalities (+3 500)	45.8%
How is the adult skills system governed?
Centralised	Combined system	Decentralised ✓

Note: For more information on the definitions of the governance models, please see (OECD, 2025[1]).

Source: (OECD/UCLG, 2022[2])

How is the adult skills system governed?

The adult skills system in Korea is a relatively decentralised system where most of the implementation and funding allocation takes place at regional and local levels:

• The design and organisation of Active Labour Market policies (ALMPs) is overseen by the Ministry of Employment and Labour. Through its network of regional and local offices the Ministry oversee the activities of the Employment Centres/Employment and Welfare Plus Centres, which are Korea’s Public Employment Service (PES). In addition, the Ministry contracts with independent providers to deliver some types of ALMPs. In parallel, municipalities increasingly invest in ALMPs for disadvantaged groups.

• Vocational Education and Training (VET), Higher VET (HVET), Continued Education and Training (CET) and adult education (AE) policies are formulated and overseen by the Ministry of Education supported by various national agencies and research institutes. Delivery takes place at both regional level (mainly VET and HVET) and local level (mainly CET and AE).

• In 1991, the Local Education Autonomy Act was enacted, leading to the decentralisation of the Ministry of Education’s budget and major administrative decisions related to local education. This shift resulted in the etasblihsment of a decentralised local education autonomy system and the delegation of authorities to local and regional governments.

Table 2. Allocation of responsibilities across policy areas and levels of government

		Strategy	Intelligence	Implementation	Funding	Delivery
Policy area	National level
	VET, HVET	✓	✓	✓	✓-	✓
	CET	✓	✓	✓	✓-	✓
	AE	✓	✓	-	✓-	-
	ALMP	✓	✓	✓	✓	✓
	Regional level
	VET, HVET	✓	✓	✓	✓	-
	CET	✓	✓	✓	✓	-
	AE	✓	✓	✓	✓	-
	ALMP	-	-	-	-	-
	Local level
	VET, HVET	-	-	✓	✓	✓
	CET	-	-	✓	✓	✓
	AE	-	-	✓	✓	✓
	ALMP	-	-	✓	✓	✓

Legend: ✓ = Yes; - = No

Note: For more information on exact definitions of policy areas and responsibilities, please see (OECD, 2025[1]).

Infographic 1. Overview of the adult skills system

Note: Colour code: Dark blue → government/national/subnational agencies, Green → social partners, Lighter blue → private actors and education providers, Yellow → Expert councils/foundations/associations/research institutions. For more information, please see (OECD, 2025[1])

Source: OECD compilation based on available information.

Stakeholders and responsibilities at the national level

The national level sets the strategic framework for adult skills policies in Korea:

• The Ministry of Employment and Labour holds central competencies for the design and organisation of ALMPs. It has six regional offices and 42 local or branch offices, co-ordinating the Employment Centres/Employment Welfare Plus Centres (Korea’s Public Employment Service (PES)). The Ministry is supported by research and data from the Korea Employment Information Service and evidence-based advice from the Employment Policy Council and the Economic Social and Development Commission.

• The Ministry of Education is responsible for formulating education policies, including VET, HVET, CET and AE, which are implemented at the regional and local levels. The Human Resources Development Service Korea sets national competency standards and manages various qualifications frameworks. The Korea Research Institute for Vocational Education and Training and the National Institute for Lifelong Learning both provide research and evidence-driven recommendations on the future development of the adult skills system.

Table 3. Stakeholders and responsibilities at the national level

Name of institution	Responsibilities					Organisation type	Areas	Description
	Strategy	Intelligence	Implementation	Funding	Delivery
Ministry of Employment and Labour	✓	✓	✓	✓	-	Ministry	VET CET ALMP	The Ministry holds central competence for designing and organising employment policies. It is responsible for overall labour market policy, employment insurance, decent working conditions, vocational training and other labour market-related topics. Several offices in the Ministry are directly responsible for ALMPs, encompassing the design and co-ordination of their delivery. The Ministry has six regional offices and 42 local or branch offices, and it oversees the operations of the Employment Centres/Employment Welfare Plus Centres, Korea’s Public Employment Service (PES). It also promotes CET and AE as part of the country’s broader lifelong learning policies, which include CET programs designed for employed individuals and often delivered through partnerships with companies, private training institutions, and polytechnics.
Ministry of Education	✓	✓	✓	-	-	Ministry	VET HVET CET AE	The Ministry is responsible for formulating educational policies, including CET, AE, and general lifelong learning initiatives. It also oversees vocational high schools and Meister schools, which provide specialised technical and vocational training for high school students, and junior colleges and polytechnics, which provide HVET programmes.
Korea Employment Information Service	-	✓	✓	-	-	National Agency	VET ALMP	A government agency connected to the Ministry of Employment and Labour is responsible for collecting, analysing, and disseminating labour market-related information and statistics and developing and maintaining digital infrastructure for Employment Centers and the Ministry. It was established to support policy-making by providing accurate and up-to-date information about employment, job trends and other labour-related data. The agency operates online platforms like WorkNet (an online job portal) and provides data and analytical tools to Employment Centers, policymakers and training providers.
Human Resources Development Service of Korea	-	-	✓	✓	-	National Agency	VET HVET	Operating under the Ministry of Employment and Labour, this agency is responsible for developing national competency standards, managing vocational qualifications, and overseeing, coordinating, and supporting the delivery of training programmes by other providers. It acts as an intermediary between the government and the training institutions.
Korea Research Institute for Vocational Education and Training	-	✓	-	-	-	Research Institute	VET HVET CET AE ALMP	The institute researches vocational education and training policies, providing data-driven recommendations to the government. Established in 1997, the institute operates under the Prime Minister’s Office and supports effective VET and lifelong learning systems.
National Institute for Lifelong Learning	-	✓	✓	-	-	Research Institute	CET AE	The institute promotes lifelong learning and supports AE programmes, working to enhance educational opportunities for adults. It operates under the supervision of the Ministry of Education and plays a key role in implementing the country’s lifelong learning policies. It was established in 2008 to create an inclusive and accessible lifelong learning system for all citizens. It also supports the development of learning resources and platforms like the Korean Massive Open Online Courses.
Employment Policy Council	-	✓	-	-	-	Social partners	ALMP	This advisory body facilitates dialogue and collaboration among ministries, social partners, and other stakeholders. Its primary purpose is to ensure that employment policies are comprehensive, inclusive, and aligned with national economic and social objectives. It does so by reviewing and evaluating the effectiveness of existing policies and programmes and proposing new initiatives based on labour market research and data analysis.
Economic and Social Development Commission	-	✓	-	-	-	Social partners	ALMP	The Commission facilitates dialogue among government, trade unions, and employers’ organisations to build consensus on labour and employment policies.

Legend: ✓ = Yes; - = No

Source: OECD compilation based on (Ministry of Education, 2024[3]), (Ministry of Education, 2024[4]), (Ministry of Education, 2024[5]), (EPALE, 2020[6]), (NILE, 2024[7]), (About Krivet, 2024[8]), (OECD, 2020[9]), (HRD Korea, 2016[10]), (UNESCO, 2024[11]), (OECD, 2024[12]), (OECD, 2022[13]), (OECD, 2022[14])

Stakeholders and responsibilities at the regional level

Korea has 17 administrative divisions, including provinces, metropolitan cities, and a special self-governing province. The regional governments have strategic, co-ordination and funding responsibilities in the adult skills system and support co-ordination across multiple localities:

• Regional Governments help administer, co-ordinate, and promote lifelong learning policies at the regional and local levels. They provide financial support to vocational training programmes and adult education initiatives at the local level and work in cooperation with local businesses, authorities, and communication organisations to design programmes adjusted to regional needs.

• The Law on Local Education Autonomy established Local Education Authorities at regional (17) and local (176) levels. They are part of the regional government structure and are responsible for managing and overseeing all education affairs within a specific region, including schools, adult education programmes, and vocational education and training. They are funded by regional governments and led by an elected Governor of Education.

• Various education providers operate at either regional, local or combined levels. Among the providers that operate mainly at the regional level are the polytechnics, which are public institutions providing post-secondary VET and CET programmes; Open Universities, which are public or private institutions offering degree or non-degree programmes for adults; Universities of Applied Science, which offer HVET courses, and junior colleges which are post-secondary public or private institutions offering diploma programmes in vocational and technical fields.

Table 4. Responsibilities at the regional level

Name of institution	Responsibilities					Organisation type	Areas	Description
	Strategy	Intelligence	Implementation	Funding	Delivery
Regional Government/ Local Education Authorities	✓	✓	✓	✓	-	Subnational government	VET HVET CET AE	The regional governments develop region-wide policies and strategies for education, training, and employment based on the region’s economic and labour market needs. They oversee and coordinate activities among municipalities within their jurisdiction and allocate resources the central government provides to municipalities and regional institutions.
Local Education Authorities	-	-	✓	✓	-	Subnational government	VET HVET CET AE	The regional government oversees education through the Local Education Authorities in their respective jurisdictions. This includes direct supervision of vocational high schools, Meister schools, polytechnics and public training centres that serve the entire region. According to the Local Education Autonomy Act, the Local Education Authorities are independent elected entities.
Polytechnics	-	-	-	-	✓	Education provider	VET HVET CET	Public institutions provide post-secondary VET programmes focused on industrial skills. They target young adults and workers seeking vocational training or retraining. Courses are short- to medium-term and tailored to the needs of local industries. They are overseen by the Human Resources Development Service of Korea under the Ministry of Employment and Labour. Polytechnics also offer CET through short-term re- and upskilling programmes tailored to regional labour market needs.
Universities of Applied Science and Korea University of Technology and Education	-	-	-	-	✓	Education provider	HVET	Institutions offering HVET with a focus on applied research and practical skills. Korea University of Technology and Education is a leading institution offering specialised HVET programmes with a strong emphasis on engineering and HR development. The Universities of Applied Sciences are overseen by the Ministry of Education and implemented through regional industry partnerships. In contrast, the Korea University of Technology and Education is overseen by the Ministry of Employment and Labour.
Junior colleges	-	-	-	-	✓	Education provider	VET HVET	Two- or three-year post-secondary public or private institutions offering diploma programmes in vocational and technical fields. The target group is high school graduates seeking specialised vocational education. The Ministry of Education regulates standards, curriculum, and qualifications. The colleges operate regionally and locally.
Open Universities	-	-	-	-	✓	Education provider	AE	Public and private universities regulated by or operated independently under the Ministry of Education offer degree and non-degree programmes for adults through distance and part-time learning.

Legend: ✓ = Yes; - = No

Source: OECD compilation based on (Ministry of Education, 2024[3]), (Ministry of Education, 2024[4]), (Ministry of Education, 2024[5]), (EPALE, 2020[6]), (NILE, 2024[7]), (About Krivet, 2024[8]), (OECD, 2020[9]), (HRD Korea, 2016[10]), (UNESCO, 2024[11]), (OECD, 2024[12]), (OECD, 2022[13]), (OECD, 2022[14])

Stakeholders and responsibilities at the local/regional level

Local governments focus on community-level implementation and direct service delivery – often in collaboration with regional and national levels:

• The municipalities have multiple responsibilities in the adult skills system. They increasingly deliver ALMPs targeted at disadvantaged groups in co-operation with private providers and employment centres. They are also responsible for operating community learning centres, public libraries, and smaller VET schools that cater to local populations. To do so, they rely on funding passed down from regional government or generated locally. Some municipalities participate in the Lifelong Learning City Initiative supported by the National Institute for Lifelong Education. Cities create comprehensive learning ecosystems through these initiatives, integrating education, culture, and employment opportunities.

• The Employment Centres/Employment Welfare Plus Centres are Korea’s PES. They operate locally to provide ALMPs that are in line with national strategies. They are centrally managed and supervised by the Ministry of Employment and Labour. The Employment Welfare Plus Centres are a development of the Employment Centres structure and operate as one-stop shops offering employment services, social services, and microfinance support. The centres operate in parallel with independent ALMP providers contracted by the Ministry of Employment and Labour.

• At the local level, VET courses are provided by Vocational High Schools (Secondary-level public and private schools that specialise in vocational education) and Meister High Schools (focus on producing highly skilled technicians in specific industries). Regional and local governments operate public schools. Private training providers also operate locally to offer specialised VET or CET programmes. AE courses are provided mainly by Community Learning Centres (managed by the municipalities) and NGOs/no-profit providers.

Table 5. Stakeholders and responsibilities at the local level

Name of institution	Responsibilities					Organisation type	Areas	Description
	Strategy	Intelligence	Implementation	Funding	Delivery
Municipalities	-	-	✓	✓	✓	Subnational Government	VET CET AE ALMP	Municipalities deliver some ALMPs in addition to those provided by Employment Centres, private providers, and other public providers. Municipalities invest increasingly in ALMPs for disadvantaged groups and contribute to implementing job creation programmes designed by the central government. The ALMPs implemented by local governments aim to take specific account of the local labour market context. To this end, local governments develop employment plans tailored to the characteristics of each region and industry. In many cases, municipality/local government staff offer their services in Employment Welfare Plus Centres. Municipalities also operate community learning centres, public libraries, and smaller VET schools that cater to local populations. They work closely with local businesses, NGOs, and civic groups to identify training and employment needs. They often rely on funding passed down from regional governments or generated locally. Many municipalities participate in the Lifelong Learning City Initiative, supported by the National Institute for Lifelong Education. These cities create comprehensive learning ecosystems and integrate education, culture, and employment opportunities.
Employment Centres/Employment Welfare Plus Centres	-	-	-	-	✓	National agency	ALMP	The centres are Korea’s PES. They are directly attached to the six regional offices and 42 local or branch offices of the Ministry of Employment and Labour. They deliver ALMPs in line with national strategies. They are centrally managed and supervised by the Ministry of Employment and Labour, meaning they have a relatively low degree of autonomy vis-à-vis the central government. The main ALMPs delivered include employment support, training and placement into subsidised employment. Since 2014, many centres have been extended to become Employment Welfare Plus Centres, one-stop shops offering employment, social, and microfinance support.
Independent providers	-	-	-	-	✓	Education provider	ALMP	The Ministry of Employment and Labour outsources the delivery of some ALMPs to private providers rather than implementing them via Employment Centres. Some programmes for specific groups of job seekers are outsourced to non-governmental organisations, non-profit organisations, business associations, and trade unions. The Ministry must designate and entrust these to carry out their work.
Vocational High Schools and Meister High Schools	-	-	-	-	✓	Education provider	VET	Secondary-level public and private schools that specialise in vocational education offer programmes in fields such as manufacturing, agriculture, technology, and business. There is a strong emphasis on internships and practical training. Meister High Schools are modelled after Germany’s Meister schools and focus on producing highly skilled technicians in specific industries. The Ministry of Education oversees the schools, while local or regional education offices manage day-to-day operations.
Private training institutions	-	-	-	-	✓	Education provider	VET CET	Private entities offer specialised VET programmes, often in niche areas, and CET programmes (e.g., short-term courses). The target group is individuals seeking industry-specific skills or those preparing for technical certifications. Training provision is accredited and monitored by the Ministry of Employment and Labour.
Community Learning Centres	-	-	-	-	✓	Education provider	AE	These are public centres run by municipal governments with support from the National Institute for Lifelong Learning. They offer basic education, literacy programmes, secondary education equivalence programmes and personal development courses.
NGOs and non-profits	-	-	-	-	✓	Education provider	AE	These private entities operate locally and are supported indirectly by local governments and the Ministry of Education through grants and partnerships. They provide programmes targeting vulnerable populations, such as literacy classes, basic education, and skills for personal growth.

Legend: ✓ = Yes; - = No

Source: OECD compilation based on (Ministry of Education, 2024[3]), (Ministry of Education, 2024[4]), (Ministry of Education, 2024[5]), (EPALE, 2020[6]), (NILE, 2024[7]), (About Krivet, 2024[8]), (OECD, 2020[9]), (HRD Korea, 2016[10]), (UNESCO, 2024[11]), (OECD, 2024[12]), (OECD, 2022[13]), (OECD, 2022[14])

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