Quality Early Childhood Education

Start strong or risk falling behind

Starting behind in the early years often means staying behind. The trajectory of a child’s development in the first few years is a powerful predictor of their future success in education, work and well-being. So, for a government seeking to attain a more equitable and inclusive society, the significance of early childhood education and care (ECEC) cannot be overlooked.

Countries that invest resources and efforts to develop strong ECEC tend to see better educational outcomes and greater social equity. Yet, on average, governments in OECD countries spent just 0.8% of their GDP on ECEC in 2021, with large variations across nations. Public expenditure on ECEC is higher than 1.0% of GDP in several countries including the Nordic ones – with total spending reaching as high as 1.8% in Iceland and 1.7% in Norway – but considerably lower in other places (OECD, 2024[1]).

Why aren’t countries doing more to ensure high-quality early childhood education when it yields substantial returns? Investment in ECEC is not just a financial commitment but a strategic one, aimed at levelling the playing field from the earliest stages of life. The transformative power of high-quality ECEC can shape the future of our youngest citizens and, by extension, our societies.

Children who attend high-quality early education programmes are more likely to succeed in school, attain higher levels of education and secure better jobs. This, in turn, contributes to a more skilled and productive workforce, driving economic growth and reducing social inequalities.

The critical early years

Failing to develop core foundational skills in the early years can lead to significant struggles in school. This can increase the likelihood of social and behavioural difficulties in adolescence and adulthood. On top of this, addressing a poor start at older ages is complex, challenging and costly, with limited success rates (OECD, 2020[2]). At a systemic level, the proportion of children with poor early development constrains the overall performance of an education system, limiting its ability to achieve success for all students.

In 2022, the enrolment of children in education at age 5 was almost universal in most OECD countries. Enrolment rates for children aged 3 to 5 in ECEC was also high in many OECD countries, exceeding 90% in some places. However, disparities persist, particularly for children under the age of three, with some significantly lower rates.

The impact of ECEC is profound. For example, a meta-analysis of 22 high-quality experiments of several United States ECEC programmes found that participation leads to reductions in special education placement and grade repetition, while increasing high school graduation rates. Other studies have shown that young children in the United States who participated in ECEC demonstrated higher emergent literacy skills and much higher emergent numeracy skills than children who never attended early care settings, regardless of their socio-economic background. The evidence demonstrates the importance of addressing gaps in ECEC for fostering inclusivity. All children, regardless of their background, should have access to the same opportunities.

In an impatient world looking for quick solutions, it is perhaps understandable why ECEC is not prioritised. However, the social benefits of high-quality early education are clear, fostering social cohesion and reducing the likelihood of future social problems. For policymakers wanting to make a real positive difference, it is an area worth focusing on.

Figure 1. Students who attended ECEC tend to score higher in maths at age 15

PISA 2022 score-point differences in mathematics for 15-year-old students who attended more than two years of ECEC and those who attended less or none

Note: Only OECD member and accession countries with available data are shown. Socio-economic background, measured by the PISA index of economic, social and cultural status, is controlled. OECD average: Arithmetic mean across all OECD member countries.

Source: OECD (n.d.), PISA 2022 databases, https://www.oecd.org/en/about/programmes/pisa/pisa-data.html.

Predicting adult outcomes from the early years

One argument against early years investment has been that early skills fade out in primary school. However, the benefit of positive early learning, even if it is not fully visible in primary schools, re-emerges later in schooling and persists into adulthood. According to an OECD study[3], children’s test scores at the age of five better predict adult outcomes than those in primary school.

This finding may sound surprising. However, strong early learning appears to act as a foundation that, once consolidated during early schooling, supports further skill development throughout education, adolescence and adulthood. In contrast, children who miss out on developing critical early skills, such as emergent literacy or self-regulation, face significant hurdles in achieving academic success and positive adult outcomes.

Early learning and well-being also influence a wide range of interrelated outcomes in later life. For example, higher educational achievement and attainment are often linked to better employment prospects, higher earnings, and improved mental and physical health. The impact of early learning on adult outcomes is substantial.

Early academic skills, such as emergent literacy and numeracy, are positively associated with later educational achievement. Self-regulation, visual-motor skills and agreeableness in early childhood also predict later educational attainment. These early skills are evident in the abilities students demonstrate at the end of primary and secondary school, including higher rates of school completion.

This is because strong early learning translates into higher skill levels at later ages, the “skills beget skills” process. Early progress allows children to capitalise on further learning opportunities, both inside and outside school. Children with strong early learning outcomes also attract additional learning opportunities from parents, teachers and their environment. This is because they are more likely to ask questions or engage in new activities.

There is also a socio-economic factor to consider. In line with many other studies, the OECD International Early Learning and Child Well-being Study (IELS) found that socio-economically disadvantaged 5-year-old children had both lower early cognitive skills and social and emotional skills than advantaged children.

This, again, points to the significant long-term benefits linked to investing in early childhood education and improving inclusion. By providing a strong foundation in the early years, we can ensure that all children can thrive in adulthood, not just the advantaged ones.[4]

Figure 2. Disadvantaged children face significant development gaps by age five

Development differences between disadvantaged and advantaged children, in months

Source: OECD (2020), Early Learning and Child Well-being: A Study of Five-year-Olds in England, Estonia, and the United States, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/3990407f-en. Figure 4.6. Social-emotional scores, by socio-economic status

Did you know?

There are substantial socio-economic gaps in ECEC participation in most countries, especially for children aged 0 to 2.

Bridging the socio-economic gap

A robust body of evidence documents inequalities in multiple areas of early development by children’s family backgrounds. By the age of five, disadvantaged children are already on average 12 months behind their more advantaged peers in terms of pro-social behaviour and literacy development, according to evidence from the OECD’s International Early Learning and Child Well-being Study (OECD, 2020[2]). This is a substantial gap for any five-year-old to close, and most will not be able to do so without intervention.

That is one of the reasons why ECEC programmes can make such a difference. They are instrumental to narrowing the disparities in academic performance across socio-economic classes, and between rural and urban populations. By providing a strong foundation for learning, these programmes help level the playing field, ensuring that all children, regardless of their background, have the chance to succeed academically. This, in turn, strengthens social cohesion among children, fostering a more inclusive and harmonious society.

However, despite significant strides in expanding ECEC participation, gaps based on socio- economic backgrounds persist. Internationally comparative data on ECEC participation by children’s socio-economic backgrounds are limited, but available evidence shows that these gaps remain a stubborn challenge.

Vulnerable children missing out

Vulnerable children are still more likely to miss out on quality ECEC, according to OECD data (OECD, 2025[3]). Cultural barriers and a lack of information limit enrolment, while some families simply cannot afford it. The data show that vulnerable children are most affected, with substantial socio-economic gaps in ECEC participation in most countries, especially for children aged 0 to 2. Alarmingly, in 8 out of 28 OECD countries, these gaps have widened for children aged 3 to 5.

This trend underscores the uneven progress in bridging socio-economic divides. Concerningly, disadvantaged children often receive lower-quality ECEC services. Evidence suggests that the overall quality of services is only improving in a handful of places. This is an issue as investing in high-quality ECEC is a cost-effective strategy to significantly enhance children’s cognitive, social and emotional growth. These positive effects are particularly pronounced for vulnerable children, who stand to gain the most from early educational interventions.

The benefits of high-quality ECEC

Children who attend high-quality early education are more likely to succeed in school, attain higher levels of education, and secure better jobs. This, in turn, contributes to a more skilled and productive workforce, driving economic growth and reducing social inequalities.

The social benefits are profound and extend beyond children. For example, one significant advantage is the increased engagement of parents, particularly women, in the labour market. By providing reliable and high-quality care for their children, ECEC programmes enable parents to pursue employment opportunities, contributing to economic growth and stability. This increased labour market participation benefits children as it lowers the risk of them falling into poverty. It also promotes gender equality by allowing more women to balance work and family responsibilities.

Figure 3. Socio-economic inequalities in early childhood education and care participation

Children aged 2 or younger, 2022

Notes: Data for Iceland and United Kingdom refer to 2018, for Norway to 2020 and for Switzerland to 2021. Data are OECD estimates based on information from EU SILC. Data refer to children using centre-based services, organised family day care, and care services provided by (paid) professional childminders. Disadvantaged and advantaged children are defined as the bottom third and top third on the equivalised disposable household income, respectively.

Source: OECD Family Database (2022), ”PF3.2 Enrolment in childcare and pre-school”, https://www.oecd.org/els/family/database.htm. For more information see Source section and Education at a Glance 2024 Sources, Methodologies and Technical Notes (https://doi. org/10.1787/e7d20315-en).

A roadmap to reducing inequalities by investing in ECEC

The OECD has responded to the pressing need for reducing inequalities from the early years by creating a comprehensive policy roadmap, outlined in the report Reducing Inequalities by Investing in Early Childhood Education and Care (OECD, 2025[3]). While there are numerous factors to consider, two stand out as particularly crucial.

First, it is important to combine universal and targeted policy approaches. This means creating policies that reach everyone but are specifically designed to support the most disadvantaged. Additional support is essential for children living in poverty, those with special needs, language barriers or other challenges. Policymakers should prioritise cost-effective measures such as evidence-based curriculums, high-quality staff training and targeted funding allocations. Vulnerable children should also benefit from specialised staff and subsidies for low-income families, ensuring they receive the support they need to thrive.

Second, a cross-sectoral approach is vital. Fragmented early years services can complicate access for families, making it harder for them to benefit from available resources. Governments need to integrate early education, health and social services with common goals to ensure that investments in ECEC have a lasting impact on vulnerable children. The role of parents is also critical; ECEC programmes must work in partnership with parents, providing them with information and resources to support their children’s learning at home.

Figure 4. Roadmap to reducing ECEC inequalities

Note: Differences between categories are all statistically significant (see PISA Results Volume II Annex A3).

Source: OECD (2023), PISA 2022 Database, Volume II Annex B1, Chapter 5 (Figure II.5.14).

The stakes are undeniably high. Currently, children are born with varying opportunities to develop and learn, leading to lifelong inequalities. By creating high-quality ECEC at scale, we can build a foundation for a more equitable and inclusive society, where every child has the opportunity to thrive. It is time for governments, educators, and communities to come together and take a more comprehensive approach to early years policies to better support children and families.

Box 1. Three key policies for a high-quality ECEC workforce

Three main policy areas are pivotal to attracting, maintaining and retaining a high- quality ECEC workforce:

Skills Development: Policies encompassing initial preparation programmes, in-service training and opportunities for informal learning are essential. These initiatives attract new entrants to the profession and provide ongoing opportunities for skill upgrading and career progression.

Working Conditions: Improving salaries, contract status and the organisation of work can sustain a positive workplace climate, reduce stress and increase job satisfaction. These measures are crucial for retaining highly skilled and motivated professionals.

Leadership and Management: Effective leadership in ECEC creates opportunities for staff development and improves working conditions. Leadership roles can also serve as an attractive career progression path for staff seeking more responsibilities.

Strengthening the ECEC workforce

Staff play a critical role in shaping equitable and high-quality early learning environments. That is why attracting, retaining and developing strong ECEC professionals is essential. This goal is particularly true if policymakers want to expand provision to a wider range of children and underserved areas.

At the moment, however, the ECEC workforce faces several critical challenges. High turnover rates are a significant issue, often driven by low wages and inadequate benefits, which fail to reflect the demanding nature of the work. This instability can be compounded by the lack of professional development opportunities and career advancement pathways, leading to burnout and job dissatisfaction. The sector also struggles with recruitment, as the perception of ECEC as a low-status profession deters potential candidates.

Addressing these issues requires comprehensive strategies, including better compensation, enhanced training programmes and policies that elevate the status of ECEC professionals. Strengthening the quality of the workforce will also help mitigate indirect barriers to ECEC participation, such as a lack of trust in services.

Policymakers should aim to achieve a better match of staff. This would help meet the diverse needs of children, such as those from disadvantaged backgrounds or with special education needs. A more diverse and well-trained ECEC workforce would also ensure that all children, regardless of their background, feel secure and supported.

Staff confidence levels

Self-efficacy, or the belief in one’s ability to perform tasks effectively, is a key factor in reducing stress and achieving better outcomes. The TALIS Starting Strong 2018 survey1 showed that, on average, ECEC staff have high levels of self-efficacy in supporting children’s development, learning and well-being. However, confidence levels dropped when it came to working with a diversity of children. For example, only 20% of staff, on average, felt highly confident in supporting the development of children from disadvantaged backgrounds.

Figure 5. Self-efficacy of early childhood education and care staff, pre-primary education

Percentage of staff who feel that that they can do the following “a lot” in their work with children

Note: Within each country, areas for which the largest percentages of staff report high levels of self-efficacy are indicated in dark blue and those for which the smallest percentages of staff report high levels of self-efficacy are indicated in white with intermediary colours used to indicate intermediate percentages.

Source: OECD (2019), TALIS Starting Strong 2018 Database, http://www.oecd.org/education/school/oecdtalisstartingstrongdata.htm, Table C.3.24.

Supporting teaching practices

To respond to this, informal learning through collaborative activities and knowledge sharing within teams can support staff self-efficacy, competencies and expertise. On average, between one-half and two-thirds of pre-primary staff across countries reported engaging in either daily or weekly discussions with colleagues about various topics, according to TALIS Starting Strong 2018. These discussions often revolved around approaches to children’s development, well-being and learning; the needs of specific children; planned activities; and methods for evaluating children.

Engaging in joint activities across different groups of children, exchanging pedagogical materials with peers, and providing feedback to colleagues about their practice were relatively less frequent but still significant. Four in ten staff across countries reported participating in these activities on a daily or weekly basis.

Data also point to the frequency with which ECEC leaders engage in tasks to support teaching practices development. Observing staff practices and interactions with children, providing feedback based on these observations, and collaborating with staff to improve how children play together were the three most frequent activities reported on a daily and weekly basis. ECEC leadership also needs to be developed. By creating opportunities for staff professional development and improving working conditions, ECEC leaders can help retain skilled staff in the sector.

The importance of engaging parents in ECEC

The role played by children’s home learning environments is critical. However, few countries have systemic approaches to supporting parents to give their children the best possible start in life.

Some might consider this strange, as the day-to-day activities that parents undertake are highly correlated with children’s learning and development. Regardless of socio-economic background, an OECD study (OECD, 2020[2]) found children did better when their parents:

• Read to them almost every day

• Ensured there were many children’s books in the home

• Had back-and-forth conversations with them

• Took them to special activities such as dance, swimming or scouts

• Were involved in the ECEC centre or school they attend.

At the same time, the study found that moderate engagement in most activities was more strongly associated with children’s learning than daily frequency. For example, children who attended special activities three or four times a week had higher scores than children who attended such activities every day.

An exception was reading, where the findings show that reading five to seven days a week with children was more strongly correlated with children’s emergent literacy and their social-emotional skills than reading to them less frequently. Nonetheless, reading to children three to four times a week was still associated with stronger skill development than reading to children once a week or not at all.

Socio-economic divides

Elsewhere, there is ample evidence that parents of low socio-economic status tend to spend less time on developmental activities with their children. According to research, in all countries, the percentage of children regularly exposed to early literacy and numeracy activities was higher if they had an advantaged socio-economic background.2

Previous research suggested that parents of lower socio-economic status had different beliefs about child development. However, recent studies show that child performance differences are due to children in disadvantaged environments often having more limited resources and higher exposure to stress.

This emphasises the importance of quality ECEC, together with other support for parents. For children without strong home learning environments, early care and schooling may be their only chance to develop the key skills they need to succeed at school and in later life.

Developing ECEC programmes that help parents support their children’s well-being and early learning can enhance children’s positive experiences in ECEC. Policies that reduce parents’ stress or fit easily into their routines seem promising. ECEC settings and staff play a crucial role in providing parents with information and support for home interactions with their children, coordinating with other professionals working with families, and engaging with schools to ease transitions, especially for vulnerable children.

Staff and leaders also need training in this area and support to work with other professionals, including time for tasks without children and salaries that reflect their roles. Not all ECEC staff need to take on extra tasks, but those who do should have their roles and status clearly recognised.

Figure 6. Socio-economic gap in home activities for early literacy and numeracy

Percentage of 10-year-old students whose parents reported doing early literacy and numeracy activities often

Note: Data are from TIMSS 2019 except for Brazil, French Community of Belgium, Israel, the Netherlands and Slovenia. For these countries and jurisdictions, data are from PIRLS 2021. OECD average refers to the average across available OECD countries, excluding subnational jurisdictions.

Source: International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (n.d.), TIMSS 2011 and 2019 databases, PIRLS 2011 and 2021 databases, https://timssandpirls.bc.edu/databases-landing.html (accessed on 13 June 2024).

Migration and other trends

One of the trends impacting ECEC is international migration. The rise in the number of migrants in many parts of the world is reshaping the demographic composition of child populations in ECEC. This trend, together with the expansion and greater accessibility of ECEC services, has led to increasing social and cultural diversity amongst the children participating in early education settings.

As language is a cornerstone of early development, the increase in multilingualism represents a distinctly meaningful dimension to diversity and creates challenges. While migration is not solely about language, it introduces a spectrum of cultural experiences that often diverge from mainstream norms in the host country. This diversity, though challenging, enriches the educational environment, fostering a more inclusive and dynamic learning space.

Despite the significance of multilingualism, robust comparative indicators for its impact on ECEC remain scarce. However, recent research analysis provide illuminating insights (OECD, 2025[3]). Between 2007 and 2015, the percentage of children who spoke two or more languages before starting primary school and who had attended ECEC programmes for at least two years increased in 14 out of 24 OECD member of accession countries with available data3. Notably, Austria, Canada, Ireland, Spain and New Zealand saw the share of multilingual children rise by four or more percentage points. By the mid-2010s, over one in five children in these systems were reported as multilingual.

This surge in multilingualism underscores the importance of supporting inclusion from the earliest years. Effective inclusive practices build on foundations that benefit all children, regardless of their background or development trajectory. Diversity should be valued and sustained across all settings within an ECEC system, and not only in settings serving large shares of disadvantaged or minority children.

It is important to build on the multilingual competencies of children, using multilingual materials, and working closely with parents to maintain their heritage languages. In highly diverse contexts where many languages are represented within ECEC settings, and where it is not reasonable to expect ECEC staff to speak these languages, this can also involve fostering language awareness and visibility, at least symbolically.

Continuous professional development is key to supporting ECEC staff and leaders in developing more inclusive practices. Transversal competencies and attitudes, such as addressing biases and valuing diversity are a foundation for more specific skills, such as supporting home languages.

In turn, system- and setting-level monitoring and assessment can help to better understand and identify children’s needs and strengths. Monitoring also aids assessing the quality of supports provided to children, as a complement to the monitoring of more general aspects of quality in ECEC. This will help ensure that all children, regardless of their linguistic or cultural background, have access to high- quality early education.

Figure 7. Linguistic diversity in ECEC settings on the rise

Percentage of 10-year-old children reported as being multilingual before primary school and having attended ECEC for more than two years

Note: Based on parental retrospective reports. OECD average refers to the average across available OECD countries, excluding subnational jurisdictions. Children were in 4th grade and 10 years old on average at the time of data collection.

Source: International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (n.d.), TIMSS 2011 and 2019 databases, PIRLS 2011 and 2021 databases, https://timssandpirls.bc.edu/databases-landing.html (accessed on 13 June 2024).

Did you know?

In 2022, the enrolment of children in education at age five was almost universal in most OECD countries.

The power of play

For young children, play is not just a source of joy but a crucial element of their development and well- being. Play provides a unique opportunity for children to build social connections, learn negotiation skills and develop language abilities. It allows them to use their imaginations and create their own scenarios and stories, fostering creativity and cognitive growth; as well as ensuring they do physical activity.

However, there is evidence that children’s playtime is decreasing. Factors like increased safety concerns, more screen time, and the rise in single parenthood are contributing to this trend. This trend is also more likely to impact children from disadvantaged socio-economic backgrounds.

This is obviously concerning; even children themselves consistently recognise that play is important to them. According to research, 4 out of 10 five-year-olds stated that being able to play was the best part of being at their ECEC centre or pre-primary school.4 This preference for play surpassed any other activity identified by children in the study.

Children valued the opportunity to play with their friends, engaging in games like hide-and-seek, pretend play and board games. They also enjoyed playing with toys available at their centres, such as dolls and toy animals. Some children preferred outdoor play or activities involving sand, while a small proportion enjoyed playing alone.

Creativity was another cherished aspect of their ECEC experience. Many children loved making or creating things, with arts and crafts being particularly popular. Drawing was the favourite art activity of those who enjoy arts and crafts, followed by colouring, making crafts, painting and using modelling clay.

Almost all children (over 99%) had positive things to say about their ECEC centre or school, with fewer than 1% preferring to be at home, according to the study. This overwhelmingly positive perspective can be maintained if learning environments continue to meet children’s needs and cater to their interests.

Interestingly, children’s views on their early learning environments did not significantly differ between girls and boys or between children from different socio-economic backgrounds. However, children who enjoyed learning and had choices over their activities tended to have higher cognitive and social- emotional skills.5

Children who favoured learning as their favourite part of their ECEC experience had significantly higher early learning scores, particularly in emergent literacy and numeracy. Children who enjoyed their early learning experiences were also more likely to have a positive view of later schooling. Conversely, once children decided they did not like school, it was challenging to re-engage them fully (Alexander, Entwisle and Kabbani, 2001[4]).

Children learn and develop in many ways through play. By listening to children, educators can better provide positive learning environments that foster early skill development and well-being, supporting children’s later engagement in school. ECEC curriculum frameworks should keep a well-rounded, play- based approach. At the same time, they should include chances for focused interactions that build specific skills suited to children’s development stages.

Figure 8. Children’s favourite types of play

Source: OECD (2022), Play, Create and Learn: What Matters Most for Five-Year-Olds, OECD Publishing, Paris.

References

[4] Alexander, K., D. Entwisle and N. Kabbani (2001), “The Dropout Process in Life Course Perspective: Early Risk Factors at Home and School”, Teachers College Record, Vol. 103/5, pp. 760-822, https://doi.org/10.1111/0161-4681.00134.

[3] OECD (2025), Reducing Inequalities by Investing in Early Childhood Education and Care, Starting Strong, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/b78f8b25-en.

[1] OECD (2024), Education at a Glance 2024: OECD Indicators, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/c00cad36-en.

[2] OECD (2020), Early Learning and Child Well-being: A Study of Five-year-Olds in England, Estonia, and the United States, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/3990407f-en.

Notes

← 1.  https://www.oecd.org/en/about/projects/starting-strong-talis.html

← 2.  https://timssandpirls.bc.edu/databases-landing.html

← 3.  https://www.oecd.org/en/about/programmes/early-childhood-education-and-care-ecec.html

← 4.  https://www.oecd.org/en/about/projects/international-early-learning-and-child-well-being-study.html

← 5.  https://www.oecd.org/en/about/projects/international-early-learning-and-child-well-being-study.html