OECD Youth Policy Toolkit

Report

26 November 2024

Available in:

English
français

1. Pillar II – Skills and competencies

Copy link to 1. Pillar II – Skills and competencies

The OECD Council recommends Members and non-Members having adhered to the Recommendation on Creation Better Opportunities for Young People (OECD, 2022[1]) ensure that young people of all backgrounds and in all circumstances acquire relevant knowledge and develop appropriate skills and competencies.

Recommendation II.1

Copy link to Recommendation II.1

Take measures so that all young people are prepared to successfully engage in and positively contribute to green and sustainable societies and economies.

Relevance

The daily choices that young people make play a direct role in creating green and sustainable societies. Cumulatively, our choices as individuals can help to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 70% (OECD, 2023[2]). Education systems are central to ensuring that young people have the skills and awareness to promote greener, more sustainable economies immediately, and over their adult lives. Beyond supporting individual action, education systems are essential spaces to facilitate reflection on collective and system changes, empowering learners to understand, demand and shape the wider (social, economic, political and technological) transformations that are most effective or most promising in addressing climate change and other environmental risks (Nusche, Fuster Rabella and Lauterbach, 2024[3]).

Across the OECD, school systems report good coverage of content aimed to raise young people’s awareness of the environment – in 2018, about nine in ten school principals reported that climate change and global warming were covered in their school’s curriculum (OECD, 2019[4]). Yet only one‑third of 15‑year‑old students across the OECD report taking purposeful actions to support green, sustainable economies. Even in countries where the level of climate risk to young people is comparatively high, the share of environmentally active students rarely reaches 50%.

Making informed decisions and undertaking activities that support green and sustainable societies requires underpinning skills and knowledge. A future workforce with strong competencies in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) fields will be essential to the green transition. However, scientific understanding is not distributed equally across young people. For instance, in PISA 2015, socio‑economically disadvantaged 15‑year‑old students across OECD countries were almost three times more likely than more advantaged students not to attain the baseline level of proficiency in science (OECD, 2016[5]). Many OECD countries are also facing persistent challenges about a lack of diversity among young people going in STEM education and careers, which risks exacerbating inequities in who benefits from the green transition.

Educational institutions have a central role in supporting equitable access to learning and skills. Yet, in many countries, inequities begin at a young age in terms of access to early childhood education and care (ECEC) and accumulate as children move into school and post-secondary education (OECD, 2022[6]). Young people from advantaged backgrounds and those from non-immigrant backgrounds are more likely to complete bachelor’s programmes in tertiary education (OECD, 2019[7]). Policy actions to support equitable access and learning outcomes focus on a holistic policy framework that is flexible and responsive to student needs and includes equity and inclusion as key principles of resource allocation and targeted funding (OECD, 2023[8]). There are multiple dimensions of diversity that need to be considered when seeking to understand how access to learning is equitable, including: migration experiences; ethnic groups, national minorities and Indigenous peoples; gender; gender identify and sexual orientation; special education needs; giftedness; as well as geographic location (OECD, 2023[8]).

Box 1.1. Young People’s Voices

Copy link to Box 1.1. Young People’s Voices

“Soft skills are key, not just for future careers but also during school.”

Young people see a gap between what they are taught in school and what employers actually want. This mismatch can lead to fewer job opportunities, lower wages, and less motivation to make a positive impact in society.

Consultations with young people and youth organisations

Policies and Practices

1. Providing equitable access to quality formal, non-formal and informal learning to equip young people with key competencies for life‑long learning and active participation in society, including basic skills (literacy, numeracy and problem-solving) and social, civic, emotional, entrepreneurial, financial, communication, creativity and language skills;

2. Promoting well-being in education and training institutions, including by equipping young people with socio‑emotional skills and coping strategies to protect against stress and the impacts of adversity on well-being;

3. Addressing any barriers, systemic discrimination, stereotypes and biases, and their intersections, so that all young people can benefit from the same opportunities and aspirations, regardless of their background; and

4. Designing flexible and modular learning pathways to equip young people and future generations with the competencies required to pursue personal goals and navigate transitions in education and in a changing world of work.

Youth specific OECD indicators

Low performers in maths, reading and science (percentage of students scoring below Level 2) in the Programme of International Student Assessment (PISA) (OECD, 2023[9])
Mean literacy and numeracy score, 16-24 year-olds in the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC) (OECD, 2019[10])
Student performance in science and in environmental/non-environmental science items, PISA 2006, PISA 2015 (OECD, 2018[11])
Students’ environmental awareness, PISA 2018 (OECD, 2018[11])
Student involvement in environmental actions, PISA 2018 (OECD, 2018[11])

Eco-School Programme – Czechia

Context

Societies have become increasingly aware that education can play a greater role in the (OECD, 2019[10]) green transition. In many countries, schools have made significant efforts in promoting a sustainability mindset. One example is the international environmental school programme, the Eco-school programme, run by the Foundation for Environmental Education in 74 countries. In Czechia, the Eco-school programme (Ekoškola) is co‑ordinated by the Tereza Educational Centre, a non-profit organisation.

Description

The Eco-school programme was introduced in 2005 in Czechia and currently involves over 400 schools, from pre‑primary to upper secondary education, including around 2000 teachers and 60 000 students. Schools that decide to participate in the programme become part of a network and are supported by a mentor or regional co‑ordinator. Eco-schools aim to prioritise sustainability and a responsible approach to the environment, both by teaching them and practicing them during everyday school activities. The programme focuses on guiding children and teachers towards a more sustainable way of life and enabling them to actively and independently improve their environment. Students and teachers are committed to improve how the school manages waste, energy, water, transport, food, and reduce the impact on biodiversity and climate change. The programme also intends for good practices developed in the classroom to be brought into the students’ homes and the local community. The Eco-School programme is not just about reducing waste or saving energy. The goal is to create a generation of environmentally conscious citizens who are committed to make a positive impact on the world around them.

Seven steps guide the programme. First, students build and work as a team, an Eco-team. Second, students choose a relevant topic and collect information and data on related school practices. Third, students learn how to analyse the current state, by surveying the school to identify areas of improvement, and then plan changes and implement them, evaluate the implementation of changes (fourth step), and learn from mistakes (fifth step). The sixth step requires informing others about what they have learnt and possibly influencing parents, friends, and the local community. During the final step, schools encourage students to agree on common values and to engage with the programme in ways that change their behaviours and personal lives. While the activities of the Eco-programme are additional to the national curriculum, Eco-schools are encouraged to embed the core values of the programme into everyday teaching. Teachers are supported by the Eco-programme staff in the development and delivery of the programme in the classroom.

Outcomes

Several studies were conducted throughout the years to evaluate the effectiveness of the Eco-school programme. In Czechia, the programme has been found to positively influence schools in terms of their prestige and environmental management. Students who attended Eco-schools showed an enhanced environmental knowledge and a higher level of pro‑environmental behaviour. A study analysing the effect of the programme in early childhood education, found that children’s pro‑environmental attitudes were higher among those attending participating kindergartens.

Latvian School Bag Programme – Latvia

Context

The Latvian School Bag Programme is an initiative operating since 2018 to ensure that every school-age child in Latvia, from the beginning of primary to the end of secondary education, can “regularly experience high-quality Latvian culture and arts events as a part of the formal learning process.” It provides state funding for arts and culture events, making such events a mandatory part of formal school, and providing a wide range of age‑appropriate arts programming to all Latvian public schools.

Description

In 2016, the Latvian Academy of Culture found that one fifth of all students had not visited any extracurricular cultural event during the school year. From 2015‑16, the National Cultural Centre conducted research into the specific barriers to students’ engagement with the cultural sector. A survey of about 170 schools showed that cultural offerings in education were viewed as uncoordinated, dependent largely on the competence and resources available to individual teachers. The research identified key barriers to accessing cultural programming, most notably ticket fees (81%), transport costs and access (66%), distance to venues (64%), financial means of parents (63%), lack of time or too many other educational obligations (41%), and limited offers for the age and interests of students (24%).

The Latvian School Bag programme was initially conceptualised to promote Latvian culture in education as part of the country’s Centenary in 2018, during which 40% of the Centenary state budget was allocated to it. In 2016, the programme was piloted in three regions, serving a group of about 600 students. Per the National Cultural Centre, the rationale for the programme noted that cultural and arts programming promotes motivation to learn, positively affects students’ emotional well-being and mental health, promotes co‑operation with families, and modernises the learning process.

The programme began operations in 2018, and since 2022 has been administered by the Latvian National Cultural Centre. As of 2023, it entails providing a fixed funding sum per student allocated to each school specifically to cover costs associated with cultural programming events (e.g. transport, tickets), a stipulation that such programming should be integrated formally into the curriculum, and special cultural programming created for students in tandem with cultural institutions.

In practice, there are three formats possible in the programming offered under the School Bag, with a goal of at least 24 different events taking place across the 10 cultural areas. These are: student visits to cultural institutions, cultural institutions or their representatives visiting schools, and digital events. A key element of the programme is its centralised resource site for schools, teachers, and cultural sector professionals, which serves as a way to co‑ordinate and share programming. The website features:

Comprehensive information about the criteria for inclusion (Latvias Skolas Soma, 2024[16]) of a cultural event as programme‑eligible, which include registering on the website and creating appropriate descriptions.
A national schedule (Latvias Skolas Soma, 2024[17]) of eligible events and special programming. There is a roster of about 650 in-person events constantly available, as well as 300 digitally available events, and ephemeral events. For example, the Latvian Centre for Contemporary Art designed an eligible master class (The Latvian Centre for Contemporary Art (LCCA), 2024[18]), featuring encounters with artists and workshops which can be hosted on-site at schools.
Pedagogical guidance (Latvias Skolas Soma, 2024[19]) for teachers, for example, lesson plans, resources, and recommendations on teaching topics and connections to content within the ten foundational areas.

Outcomes

As of 2022, the programme has reached coverage for 96% of students from 1^st through 12^th grade. More than 230 000 Latvian children and young people have been reached, and more than 10 000 cultural and artistic events take place each school year.

BREAK!, Estonia – Iceland and Lithuania

Context

Across the OECD, labour markets continue to be heavily segmented by gender. In the absence of strong practical considerations, many areas of employment are dominated by one gender, causing gender-related economic inequalities and skills shortages, notably in professions related to Information Technology, STEM, teaching and nursing. Perceptions of what is acceptable in terms of employment also constrain opportunities available to young people in their search for fulfilling employment. The gendered segmentation of the labour market relates in part to the attitudes and aspirations of young people themselves. From as young as five, OECD research (OECD, 2021[24]) shows that girls and especially boys express narrow career interests that are strongly linked to their gender. Such gendered career thinking continues through adolescence (OECD, 2023[25]), influencing the educational choices and career ambitions of young people. Initiatives have been undertaken across OECD countries to challenge gender stereotypical thinking, notably with regard to encouraging and enabling the greater participation of girls and young women in STEM subjects and occupations.

Description

Project BREAK! is a joint initiative of Estonia, Iceland and Lithuania, developed from 2017‑19 and supported by EU funding. It was designed to challenge gender stereotypical career thinking through a multi-layered programme of activities undertaken both within and outside of schooling. At the heart of BREAK! is an eight-episode television show (‘Why not?’) which follows the personal stories of characters considering atypical career routes. A radio show and videos exploring questions of labour market segmentation and gender stereotyping were also produced alongside an interactive game “Kahoot!” (MsHaleKCIS, 2024[26]). Guidelines help career advisors within schools to draw on these resources to encourage students to take a critical perspective in considering gender-related attitudes and assumptions (for both genders) which might seem self-evident but reflect socially structured norms and perspectives. Students are sensitively helped to critically investigate the role that gender plays in shaping career outcomes in light of their own interests and ambitions.

Outcomes

An evaluation of BREAK! undertaken by the University of Tallinn drew on surveys, interviews and student diaries to understand how young people and adults responded to the initiative. The evaluation concluded that watching the TV series, of which 40% of Estonians were aware, in particular helped young people to feel more confident and better placed to pursue their own goals and support others. The initiative was also seen to support more professional approaches by teachers and career counsellors in addressing the topic, being better equipped with appropriate learning materials to engage with students and challenge their own assumptions which may not have previously been critically considered. Other adults, including parents, were also seen to reflect on previously held assumptions.

Recommendation II.2

Copy link to Recommendation II.2

Enable all young people to participate in an increasingly digitalised world.

Relevance

Data and digital technologies are among the most powerful drivers of innovation in education, offering a broad range of opportunities – from personalised learning and predicting drop-out risks to enabling inclusive education. Yet, they also create new challenges, such as privacy concerns, wrongful use of algorithms, and the digital divide. These issues were vividly demonstrated during the COVID‑19 pandemic, and countries now face new challenges to reap the benefits of digitalisation while minimising its risks (OECD, 2023[29]).

The COVID‑19 pandemic showed the potential and need to be ready for digital education. One of legacies is the increased use of and attention given to digital technology in education. Most school systems made use of remote online teaching and learning at some point during the health crisis, and teachers, learners and families have realised the potential of digital technology for teaching and learning, as well as its limitations. The massive shift to digital learning has also exposed persistent inequalities in access to technology and connectivity as well as the crucial role of schools as social in-person places contributing to learning but also the well-being of students (Thorn and Vincent-Lancrin, 2021[30]).

The irruption of digital technology continued in 2022‑23 with the sudden visibility of generative AI applications (for example based on large language models such as ChatGPT or SAGE). These advances have made the power of AI visible to the public, raising fundamental questions about tasks and skills where the activity of humans and machines complement and/or substitute for each other. How does AI enhance human capacity? Does it lead to cognitive off-loading where AI performs or even outperforms existing human skill levels? Does it lead to human skill attrition when this off-loading occurs and these skills get less exercised? For educators, AI challenges a number of educational activities such as traditional models of homework assignments and assessment. This general-purpose technology has the potential to lead to another “industrial revolution” and will not leave education models untouched (OECD, 2021[31]).

Digital transformation can exacerbate existing inequity if access to the Internet and thus learning tools and resources are unevenly distributed among learners. This is particularly important to prepare for another crisis, whatever its nature, which could lead to the return of remote education – or for evolving the current schooling model. Expanding access to digital devices, technologies and infrastructure is key to support all young people in their learning and participation to an increasingly digitalised world.

While digital technology has the potential to improve teaching and learning, for example by diversifying learning scenarios for students or by making education more aligned with contemporary society, the excessive usage of digital technology and expanded possibilities of diffusion of unethical content present risks for the well-being of learners and teachers. Equipping them with the knowledge, equipment and skills is of the upmost importance to ensure they can thrive in a digital world of education and work.

The pandemic has also highlighted the fact that education is a relational activity. Indeed, studies show that a large majority of students and teachers prefer in-person teaching and learning and appreciate the social and emotional interactions offered by in-presence schooling. And recent data seem to show that, beyond a certain point, the use of digital devices correlates with lower learning outcomes (OECD, 2023[32]). Calibrating the right approach and technology use to the right learners will be key.

Finally, the use of AI-enabled technology raises new concerns about data protection and privacy. But privacy and data protection must be balanced against other important educational objectives such as equity or effectiveness, which may require the collection of personal data, including sensitive data. Algorithmic bias is one of the new risks related to the emergence of AI in education, as some groups may be discriminated against based on past data, the training model of the algorithm or just work better for some groups than others: countries should ensure that new digital tools are tested to avoid possible biases. Making visible the benefits of such technologies while communicating on their risks and limitations (vis-à-vis non-digital alternatives) will help empower young people to engage safely, healthily, and responsibly in the digital environment.

Box 1.2. Young People’s Voices

Copy link to Box 1.2. Young People’s Voices

Young people insist that it is important to address the barriers to education and skills to allow them to succeed in a digital world. Problems like bad transportation, limited technological access, and financial gaps among households are major issues. According to young people, improving educational facilities outside big cities and expanding online classes and access to technology could make a big difference. Such supports would help students from less advantaged backgrounds get the education they need and become ready for a digital future.

Consultations with young people and youth organisations

Policies and Practices

1. Expanding access to digital devices, technologies and infrastructure to support learning and improve access to public services and the labour market;

2. Equipping young people with digital skills and problem-solving skills for the digital environment;

3. Empowering young people to engage safely, healthily, and responsibly in the digital environment, including through providing an understanding of both the risks and benefits of technologies in day-to-day life at both the individual and society level; and

4. Equipping education and training institutions and their staff with the knowledge, equipment and skills to facilitate young people’s learning in and for a digitalised world.

Other related indicators

Provision or use of digital tools and resources with interactive or AI-based features (OECD, 2023[33])
Public provision of open and closed access teaching and learning resources (OECD, 2023[34])

Computers for Education – Colombia

Context

Using Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) as part of the learning process has been proven to benefit learning outcomes, as long as they are used strategically, thoughtfully, and accompanied by adequately trained teachers. Integrating computers and other ICT tools in the classroom can make learning more engaging and interactive, improve effective collaboration among students both inside and outside the classroom, and increase motivation to learn and participate in class activities. Students can also develop essential digital skills and be better prepared for a more technology-driven world. The successful integration of ICT into the learning environment depends on the ability of teachers to structure learning in new ways, merging technology appropriately with pedagogy, and developing a socially active classroom.

Description

Computers for Education is a consortium of public entities in Colombia (including the Ministry of Information and Communication Technology, the National Ministry of Education, and the National Learning Service, SENA). Its primary objective is to promote the effective use of ICT tools and the adoption of technology in primary and secondary education, ensuring more equitable access to ICT tools. Since 2000, the programme has primarily aimed to distribute computers or tablets to public schools in both urban and rural areas in Colombia. Starting in 2004, Computers for Education incorporated training courses for teachers and school directors on how to use computers more effectively as part of the learning process. Since 2001 more than 2 million computers and tablets have been provided to public schools in urban and rural areas. In 2019, 83 345 computers were delivered to 750 schools across the country benefiting more than 79 000 students and 4 000 teachers in low and upper secondary schools.

The programme is divided into two phases. The first phase involves access, where schools receive one computer for every 20 students. Over a 12‑month period, the programme adapts and installs the equipment in the beneficiary schools. The second phase involves teacher training, provided by programme delegates (typically university students) who travel to the beneficiary municipalities to provide support. Teachers receive training to develop ICT skills, focusing on operational, cultural, and critical aspects of digital literacy. They also take part in theoretical and practical reflection sessions to encourage the integration and adoption of ICTs at the institutional and classroom levels.

Outcomes

An evaluation conducted by Universidad Nacional in 2018 estimates the effect of programme on the use and appropriation of technology, as well as on several education outcomes. The analysis employs a range of primary (surveys) and secondary (school administrative) data, as well as structured interviews with stakeholders. The study identifies short-term effects: students benefiting from the programme demonstrate improved proficiency in using ICT tools and stronger digital skills. In terms of the long-term effect, the evaluation reveals that schools participating in the programme exhibited lower repetition and dropout rates, higher completion rates and increased enrolment in higher education, which is particularly more evident in those schools that received teacher training. The positive impacts become more pronounced the longer schools have participated in the programme. The evaluation also highlights that solely providing computers appears to have no effect on students’ learning outcomes, and that teacher training is key.

SparkDigiGirls – Greece, Lithuania, Portugal, Slovenia

Context

While primary school-aged girls are almost equally likely as their male peers to want to work in a science‑related field, as girls grow up, they become less likely to pursue careers in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) and ICT. According to the 2022 data of Eurostat, girls and women continue to be under-represented, being only 19.1% of all ICT students in the EU. Due to a lack of encouragement, support and role models, girls might feel less interested and confident in entering certain professional fields that are usually male dominated. Since gender stereotypes are persistent, teachers and educators can play an important role in changing this perspective by giving girls guidance and access to experiences that can change the current scenario.

Description

Empower Girls Creativity Through Use of Digital Technologies (SparkDigiGirls) project aims to encourage girls to explore digital technologies such as AR (Augmented Reality), VR (Virtual Reality), AI (Artificial Intelligence), IoT (Internet of things) and to contribute to the STEM industry by providing new and creative ideas. SparkDigiGirls is a two‑year project funded by the Erasmus+ strategic partnership in the youth field and was implemented in Greece, Lithuania, Portugal and Slovenia.

The project aims at tackling stereotypes and societal beliefs on gender and technology by strengthening girls’ digital literacy skills and creativity to provide them with new opportunities to pursue IT and STEM studies in the future. To meet this goal the project developed an online training tailored to the girls’ needs, launched a campaign of success stories of women in technology to increase the attractiveness of the digital sector and invited girls and youth workers to join the project activities.

Outcomes

The project overall managed to involve 200 girls aged between 15 and 18, who wish to develop their creativity by using digital technologies (including girls living in remote areas, migrant girls, girls from families at risk) and 30 youth workers from formal and non-formal education institutions (schools, youth NGOs, libraries, training centres, etc.). One of the main outputs so far include a report that presents the key findings from round table discussions and case studies focusing on technologies that may impact 13 to 18 years old girls’ creativity. The project also produced a set of online training materials focusing on innovative learning and a curriculum for improving girls’ creativity using innovative applications and digital tools. The curriculum is expected to attract more girls to attend the online course and will serve as a support document to navigate independently online training materials. Finally, the digital Female Role Model Campaign that was launched produced 12 inspirational videos and collected testimonials from different women professionals about IT sector.

My Career Path, France

Context

In France, more than one in seven young people under the age of 30 were unemployed in 2023. The French public employment service has specific “local missions” where young people can seek assistance with their job search. However, in the Île‑de‑France region, nearly 20% of young people fail to show up for a second appointment. To address this issue, the French Interministerial Directorate for Public Transformation decided in 2019 to launch an application called “Mon Parcours Pro” (My Career Path). Mon Parcours Pro is meant to increase the ease with which young people can get help for their job search, aiming to reduce youth unemployment.

Description

The development of Mon Parcours Pro began in 2019 with a team conducting an on-site assessment to identify the behavioural reasons why job seekers do not return to the local missions after the first visit. The initial findings revealed that a lack of knowledge about the job market often demotivates the young job seekers. The project subsequently identified methods to improve young people’s commitment, such as simplifying the visualisation of job search pathways and providing access to support remotely. In 2020, the smart phone application Mon Parcours Pro was created, and subsequently tested with 75 young people and by advisers from various Paris local missions. The platform itself was then launched in 2022.

Mon Parcours Pro is an application that is designed for daily use, allowing young people to visualise and plan their job search using a tree structure with steps, objectives, and activities. It allows them break down their job search or training objectives into distinct sub-tasks and the app sends them messages of encouragement and progress visualisations. Employees of the public employment services can use Mon Parcours Pro to track their beneficiaries’ progress and offer them support online with a chat function.

Outcomes

A report on the pilot phase in 2022 showed that the app can help young people organise their job search more effectively, gain self-confidence, and become more independent. It also enables advisers to better manage their client portfolio, identify their needs more quickly between appointments, and monitor and support their progress remotely. The app relied on smart phone interfaces familiar to both young people and advisers to increase ease of use. The most active users logged in up to 15 times over the pilot duration, averaging almost twice a week, which suggests routine use.

However, 10‑15% of young people did not use the app after creating their accounts. To enhance engagement, both young job seekers and their advisors suggested that a reminder system could help. Specifically, they proposed introducing a button that would triggering notifications, to reduce forgetfulness. Additionally, for advisers, the report suggested that training on how to use the tool would be beneficial, potentially including training one person to become a specialist, or setting up a forum for advisors to ask each other questions.

Recommendation II.3

Copy link to Recommendation II.3

Address and mitigate early leaving from education and training, provide early leavers with opportunities to return to school or training, and support young people in transitions between different levels of education.

Relevance

Early departure from education and missed transitions between different levels of education can damage their long-term prospects. The OECD has found that failing to complete upper secondary education significantly increases the chance of a young person to enter NEET (not in employment, education or training) status (OECD, 2021[44]), which, as well as undermining their financial security, also raises their risk of becoming socially excluded.

Although it has decreased across many OECD countries, early departure from education remains an ongoing challenge. In 2022, an average of 9.6% of people aged between 18 and 24 years old in the EU‑27 were early leavers from education and training (Eurostat, 2023[45]). In some OECD countries, this challenge is more acute. In Spain, for example, the early school leaving rate stood at in 13.9% in 2022 (OECD, 2023[46]). Rates also vary considerably within OECD countries. In Spain, for example, rates varied by over 6 percentage points, ranging from 16.6% of early leavers in Andalusia, to 10.1% in Aragon and Navarra, excluding Ceuta and Melilla.

Different factors can cause a young people to interrupt his or her schooling early or miss the next level of education. A mismatch between a young person’s preferences or abilities and the available education offer can is a primary issue. In the EU, nearly half of students who drop out of upper secondary school do so because they find their studies too difficult or do not meet their needs or interests (OECD, 2021[44]).

Social factors also shape a young person’s decisions and path through schooling and into higher education. Gender, migratory background and socio‑economic status in particular influence young people’s expectations towards education and their professional future (Musset and Mytna Kurekova, 2018[47]). In France, for example, survey evidence from secondary school students reveals that young peoples’ aspirations to continue into higher education are shaped by social class through the interactions they have with family and select groups of friends (Marbach and van Zanten, 2023[48]). In most OECD countries, PISA results show that students from lower socio‑economic classes are more likely to expect to work in technical occupations.

A host of policies can support successful transitions through and completion of education. Career readiness initiatives can reduce the misalignment between educational tracks and job opportunities and stimulate career aspirations among students. Social protection interventions can help support young people to tackle the social issues that drive some to drop-out of school, such as means-tested support for families in need or support for young people to access affordable or student housing. In-school coaching and mentorship can support school attachment. G20 countries are increasingly supporting vocational tracks for young people, while investments in the quality of job opportunities for young people may be lower (OECD/ILO, 2023[49]).

Box 1.3. Young People’s Voices

Copy link to Box 1.3. Young People’s Voices

Young people suggest a revamping and rebranding vocational schools to match today’s skill sets and interests and reduce early school leaving. Making these schools more modern and appealing can help keep students engaged and motivated to stay in education.

Consultations with young people and youth organisations

Policies and Practices

1. Developing early warning systems to identify students at risk of early leaving from education and training;

2. Implementing preventive measures and targeted interventions through enhanced educational follow-up, accessible mentoring, and health and social support for young people and their families, including mental health support and teenage pregnancy prevention measures;

3. Promoting accessibility of second chance and alternative education and training institutions and providing mechanisms to recognise prior learning of knowledge and skills to help early leavers re‑enter education or training; and

4. Making flexible pathways accessible to effectively retain young people in education or training, including through culturally responsive practices and adapted pathways for young people with special educational needs.

Youth specific OECD indicators

NEET rates among young adults one to three years after completion of selected education levels, by programme orientation and gender (2022) (OECD, 2023[50])
Employment rates of recent graduates, by educational attainment, programme orientation and years since graduation (2022) (OECD, 2023[51])
Early leavers from education by region (TL2) (OECD, 2024[52])

Other related indicators

Upper secondary completion rate, by timeframe and programme orientation on entry; by gender and programme orientation. (OECD, 2023[53])
Status of upper secondary graduates in the year after their graduation, by gender and programme orientation (2020) (OECD, 2023[54])
Distribution of entrants to upper secondary education, by programme orientation and outcomes after the theoretical duration plus two years (2021) (OECD, 2023[55])

Tackling Early School Leaving project – Latvia

Context

Personal or family problems, disengagement with learning, or unstable household socio‑economic situations are among the many reasons for young people to drop out of education and training early. In this context, EU countries committed in 2011 to reducing the share of early school-leavers in their countries to less than 10% by 2020. In Latvia, the Tackling Early School Leaving project (PuMPuRS) was introduced in 2017 and involves collaboration between education institutions, municipalities, and youth-sector organisations to identify young people at risk of drop-out and to provide them with personalised support.

Description

The PuMPuRS targets students from primary education to upper secondary education (Grades 5‑12), as well as those in vocational upper and post-secondary education who are identified as at risk of early school leaving. Teachers are responsible for the development of individualised support for at-risk students. Further support includes consultations with municipal specialists to address risk factors, as well as financial support to meet the students’ needs. Support for teachers and educational institutions includes seminars and workshops, supervision, and methodological tools on how to better support at-risk students. The project also provides funding at the municipal-level to youth-sector organisations aimed at supporting the motivation of at-risk students to attend school. A joint database across state, municipal, and institutional levels supports the regular exchange of information on preventative measures and their impact.

During school closures in 2020, amid the COVID‑19 pandemic, the PuMPuRS remained operational, offering remote counselling and financial support for at-risk students. Since then, the project has increased its support for teachers and professionals working with students whose families suffered the most during the pandemic. Such measures include workshops for teams within municipalities and seminars in educational institutions. Between 2017 and 2021, over 63 000 students identified as being at risk of early school leaving have received individual support.

Outcomes

An evaluation from 2019 found positive impacts of the project on learners at-risk of early school leaving. The support activities resulted in improvements on multiple dimensions, such as learners’ achievements, well-being, relationships with teachers and attitudes towards learning, with the impact assessment highlighting the individual support approach as a key success factor. Moreover, group discussions, interviews and surveys conducted also provide evidence of strengthening the capacity of staff to support students, as well as the co‑operation between different stakeholders. Training opportunities helped staff engage with the joint database for exchanging information about effective strategies for reducing early school leaving and supported effective co‑operation between local stakeholders.

The evaluation also pointed out some relevant challenges, namely in identifying, monitoring, and addressing non-academic risk factors of early school leaving such as scarcity of human resources (teachers and support staff), as well as difficulties in reaching learners with low motivation. By 2022, the share of early leavers from education and training (18‑to‑24 -year-olds) was 6.7% in Latvia, down from 12.9% in 2010 and well below the EU average of 9.6%.

Vocational Training Guarantee – Austria (Vienna)

Context

Some young people struggle to continue education and training after the end of compulsory schooling or make a successful entry in the labour market. In 2021, an average of 13.8% of young people between 15 and 29 in OECD countries were not in employment, education or training (NEET). To help young people in Vienna, Austria, make successful transitions, national and municipal actors launched the Vienna Training Guarantee (Wiener Ausbildungsgarantie) in 2010.

Description

The Vienna Training Guarantee provides coaching and orientation to all young people aged 14/15 to 21 in the city of Vienna, with a possibility to extend services up to age 24 for those who have a disability. The Guarantee operates as a partnership between different institutions, including the Austrian Public Employment Service, the Federal Office of Social Affairs, the Vienna Social Fund, the Vienna Employment Promotion Fund, the Vienna School board, relevant municipal departments and social partners.

The Vocational Training Guarantee brings together multiple programmes financed by the partner organisations. For example, the guarantee involves Youth Coaching (Jugendcoaching), financed by the Federal Office of Social Affairs. The programme provides free‑of-charge individual counselling on vocational tracks such as dual learning, work-based learning that alternates with part-time classroom education, as well as assistance with social difficulties young people that prevent them from engaging in training, such as high levels of debt or precarious housing. The Vocational Training Guarantee also facilitates access to “Supra-Company Training” (Überbetriebliche Berufsausbildung), financed by the Austrian Public Employment Service and the Vienna Employment Promotion Fund, for young people to enter apprenticeships when placements with employers are not available. Other programmes available include pre‑apprenticeship schools (AusbildungsFit) operated by the Federal Office of Social Affairs.

Strong co‑ordination mechanisms are key to the success of the initiative. A steering group composed of representatives from the involved institutions meets every two months to plan activities, set priorities and agree on process. A co‑ordination unit implements activities, working directly with school counsellors and other youth actors across public administrations to co‑ordinate activities, relay information, identify gaps and develop joint services. Broader co‑ordination, particularly with the education system, occurs through meetings and working groups. The Vienna Training Guarantee is also embedded in Vienna’s 2030 Qualification Plan, which aims to raise skill levels of those with low levels of education.

Outcomes

Data suggests that the Vienna Training Guarantee has helped reduce early departure from education or training, primarily in younger age groups. The share of early school leavers, defined as individuals 15 to 17 years old not in schooling or apprenticeships who have completed at most compulsory education, has decreased from 13.1% in 2010 to 10.7% in 2020 in Vienna. A 2021 evaluation of the national Youth Coaching programme, showed that 47.7% of participants left the status of early drop-out, compared to 16.7% in the control group. The Vocational Training Guarantee has also yielded new collaborations across institutions in the forms of projects and more integrated pathways between programmes for young people.

PUM-O – Slovenia

Context

Early school leavers often face challenges in engaging with learning and work opportunities. Holistic programmes that combine non-formal specific training, career guidance and support, and socio‑emotional skills development can enable young people to discover their interests and talents, motivate them to return to school, and equip them to be more competitive in the labour market. Since 1999, the Slovenian Institute for Adult Education (SIAE) has been implementing the Project Learning for Young Adults (Projektno učenje mlajših odraslih, PUM-O), and its upgraded version was developed in 2016. This programme targets mainly individuals aged 15‑26 without employment or education.

Description

PUM-O is a non-formal educational programme free of charge designed to engage young adults who have dropped out of school or are at risk of doing so. The programme provides participants with educational opportunities, vocational training, and personal development through project-based learning. The project methodology consists of a highly flexible learning curriculum, which takes into account the social and psychosocial context and/or situations of the learners. It offers a range of support measures, including help with completing education, job search, skills development, (including entrepreneurial skills), and community engagement. The programme also includes discussions on various current issues based on the interests of the participants, as well as creative activities, cooking, socialising, and sports. The programme relies on an individualised approach to provide help and support in all the necessary aspects for young people. Mentors and participants together create an individual plan of work for the participant, giving them an active role in making decisions about the programme’s implementation and ownership of their process. All individuals’ life situations are entirely taken into account in the design of each young person’s plan.

Outcomes

The PUM-O programme, aimed at empowering vulnerable young adults aged 15‑26 for successful integration into education and the workforce, has demonstrated significant success. It has a long-standing tradition of over 15 years, with 1 376 individuals participating in 2016. In the last ten years, participation in the programme has increased, especially among younger people. More than half of the participants come are aged 18‑24, but the share of those under the age of 18 has doubled. The programme has been particularly effective in reintegration, with more than 25% of participants finding employment post-programme, and over half maintaining contact with mentors and peers. It is praised for its profound impact on participants’ self-esteem and self-image, enhancing their employment capabilities and social inclusion. Despite its effectiveness, recommendations for improvements include adjusting the duration, mentor training, and better integration into the local community to further increase its success.

Recommendation II.4

Copy link to Recommendation II.4

Strengthen work-based learning and apprenticeships to facilitate smooth and equitable school-to-work transitions and foster skills development that responds to the learning needs of young people.

Relevance

Young individuals frequently face challenges when transitioning into employment opportunities, primarily due to a lack of practical skills, hands-on experience, and the technical skills required in the workplace. This gap between practical educational preparation and the labour market’s demands can result in difficulties in securing meaningful employment that resonates with young people’s skills and aspirations. Integrating work-based learning in educational programmes, especially vocational ones, allows learners to develop practice‑oriented skills while in education, get a first taste of working life, and build connections with employers. As such, the absence of work-based learning opportunities can impact young individuals’ immediate job prospects, as well as their long-term career paths and overall economic well-being, which underscores the risk of being neither employed nor engaged in education or training.

Workplace learning is a crucial component of Vocational Education and Training (VET), offering advantages to both students and employers. The benefits depend on both the length and quality of work placements, and together, these factors define how effective work-based learning (WBL) is in developing the skills required in target jobs and in transitioning people, particularly young people, into the labour market (OECD, 2023[67]).

Apprenticeships and other forms of WBL opportunities bridge the gap between theoretical knowledge provided in classroom-based educational settings and the practical skills required by employers. Integrating work-based learning into the learning process ensures that young people gain relevant, real-world experience alongside theoretical knowledge, leading to better employment outcomes. The evidence suggests that including practical experience and hands-on training increases learners’ employability and earnings, especially among inexperienced young adults (OECD, 2020[68]; J-PAL, 2023[69]). Overall, countries with a high share of youth in apprenticeships have lower rates of disconnected youth and youth experiencing a difficult transition to employment (Quintini and Manfredi, 2009[70]).

Countries have launched initiatives to connect education with WBL and reintegrate NEETs (those not in education, employment, or training) through education and apprenticeships. These programmes often blend general skills like literacy and numeracy with vocational training for specific sectors, facilitating career exploration and matching participants with suitable jobs. Additionally, they focus on enhancing employability skills, including teamwork, resilience, and punctuality (OECD, 2023[67]).

Providing WBL opportunities also contributes to the inclusiveness of education and training opportunities. Traditional educational paths often do not cater to the diverse needs and circumstances of all students, leaving many behind. However, work-based learning and apprenticeships offer a more inclusive alternative by providing equitable access to a wider variety of practice‑oriented training and real-world experiences (Ross et al., 2020[71]). This approach recognises the varied learning styles and life situations of students, offering flexible and practical pathways to skill development and employment (Kis, 2016[72]).

Particularly for young individuals facing disadvantaged conditions, WBL opportunities can serve as a viable option to develop such skills and financially support their learning process. Apprenticeship programmes typically guarantee a salary, which not only alleviates the financial burdens that learners face but also enhances their commitment and engagement in the learning process, fostering a more inclusive and accessible educational landscape (Holzer and Lerman, 2014[73]).

Box 1.4. Young People’s Voices

Copy link to Box 1.4. Young People’s Voices

“All skills and competences are worth pursuing, not just academic ones.”

Young people emphasise that they need to be encouraged to find and follow their passions. They feel that vocational education, with its practical and job-specific focus, can make the transition from school to work smoother. Many believe that improving the prestige of vocational education could make it a more appealing and valuable path for those looking to enter the workforce.

Consultations with young people and youth organisations

Policies and practices

1. Balancing technical and job-specific skills with strong foundation competencies to enhance the employability of young people throughout their lives, working closely with employers and social partners to identify existing and emerging skills requirements;

2. Providing access to opportunities for work-based learning through the involvement of employers, and supporting students who are unable to secure work placements, including through additional training as needed;

3. Expanding opportunities for work-based learning for under-represented groups and beyond traditional fields, including through financial incentives for employers; and

4. Developing smooth transition pathways between upper secondary vocational programmes and post-secondary programmes, including at the sub-national level, to strengthen future labour market outcomes.

Youth specific OECD indicators

Age distribution of new entrants to short-cycle tertiary programmes 2021 (OECD, 2023[74])
Share of 18-24 year-olds in education who are employed, (OECD, 2023[75])

Other related indicators

Share of upper secondary vocational students enrolled in combined school- and work-based programmes (2015 and 2021) (OECD, 2023[76])
Distribution of students enrolled in upper secondary vocational programmes, by type of work-based learning (OECD, 2023[77])
Share of 25-34 year-olds whose highest level of education has a vocational orientation, by level of educational attainment (OECD, 2023[78])

Training Candidate Scheme – Norway

Context

Vocational education and training (VET) typically provides learning opportunities to young people with diverse abilities, needs, interests and aspirations – including learners who lack academic interest or face academic challenges. However, not all VET programmes are suited for learners with learning challenges, and tailored programmes and/or support measures may be needed to ensure these learners do not leave the education system without relevant vocational skills. Norway introduced the Training Candidate Scheme (lærekandidatordningen) in 2001 for learners who do not meet the requirements for participation in the standard apprenticeship programme that leads to a vocational or journeyman’s certificate (i.e. the qualification following the regular apprenticeship pathway).

Description

Norway’s Training Candidate Scheme runs parallel to the regular apprentice scheme, the difference being that one does not aim to achieve all curriculum objectives, but a reduced curriculum focused on developing skills needed in working life. The starting point is the main model in vocational training, the 2+2 apprenticeship model in which learners spend two years at school and two years in the company. However, it is also possible to set up flexible solutions, such as full in-company training. An adapted training plan is created based on the candidate’s background and aspirations, with a duration of one to four years. The plan can be changed along the way in consultation with the company, apprentice candidate and the county council. The curriculum is adapted for each individual based on each candidates’ abilities and needs, with the degree of adaptation varying substantially between different candidates.

At the end of the training, apprentice candidates sit a competency test to assess them in the training objectives set out in the adapted training plan. When they pass the competence test, they obtain basic competence and receive a certificate of competence. With the new Education Act from August 2024 candidates with completed certificate of competence, will continue to have the right to education until they have completed upper secondary education with a trade or journeyman’s certificate.

Companies can receive a grant for participation in the programme, the same grant as those engaged in the provision of regular apprenticeships. The company can, on behalf of the apprentice candidate, apply for extra grants for apprentices with special needs.

Outcomes

An evaluation of the programme was carried out by the Nordic Institute for Studies of Innovation, Research and Education (NIFU) in 2018, using register data and data collected through a survey to all counties in Norway and to school counsellors in lower and upper secondary schools, and through interviews with firms with training candidates and with social partner representatives. The evaluation shows that the programme facilitates skills development among students with poor academic performance: apprentice candidates with low grades from lower secondary achieved a higher competence in upper secondary education than students that received special needs education and comparable students in ordinary vocational tracks. By contrast, apprentice candidates with higher grades from lower secondary did not benefit from the scheme. The evaluation also highlighted some challenges, including diversity in the use of the scheme across counties, unclear targeting, and low progress of the programme completers to a VET programme at upper secondary level. Based on this evaluation, the Norwegian Parliament asked the government in 2023 to expand and strengthen the scheme.

EBA apprenticeships – Switzerland

Context

Early school leaving remains a challenge in many countries. Traditional education pathways are not always attractive or feasible for all learners, and tailored support for those who struggle is often not available. In 2005, Switzerland introduced two‑year EBA apprenticeships, offering basic training with a federal vocational certificate (Grundbildung mit Eidgenössischem Berufsattest), designed for young people aged 15 and above who have completed lower secondary education and are at risk of dropping out from education and training or struggle to find a three or four‑year apprenticeship.

Description

EBA apprenticeships are offered in around 60 occupations, such as retail sales assistant, healthcare assistant and hairdresser. Their structure is similar to longer apprenticeships, with apprentices typically spending four days per week in the company and one day at school. Half of the weekly school day is dedicated to occupational subject matters, the other half to general education.

Professional organisations in Switzerland are responsible for developing the nationally standardised vocational education and training (VET) programmes. Trade associations, industry organisations, social partners, other responsible organisations, and VET providers determine the duration and requirement level of the programmes in their occupational field and define the occupation-specific learning outcomes. They also decide whether a two‑year EBA apprenticeship should be developed and ensure its acceptance in the labour market. These apprenticeships train skilled workers for simple occupations not requiring complex decisions, leading to a federal vocational certificate at Level 3 in the European Qualifications Framework. Those who complete may progress to three or four‑year apprenticeships, typically joining the second year of the programme in a related occupation.

EBA apprentices benefit from support measures, such as individual tutoring and coaching, remedial courses, and support from in-company supervisors. These measures mostly serve to tackle weak language skills, learning difficulties or psychological problems. Most coaches are former teachers, learning therapists or social workers, and receive targeted training in preparation for their job (e.g. 300‑hour training in Zurich).

Outcomes

Enrolment in the EBA apprenticeship programme grew steadily since its introduction in 2015, and by 2022, there were 13 000 apprenticeships in the 2‑year programmes – out of a total of 209 000 apprenticeships. Federal vocational certificates awarded to EBA apprentices accounted for almost 10% of all VET qualifications awarded in 2022. The programme proved successful in both helping young people find a job upon completion and allowing for progression to more advanced qualifications. Moreover, companies that offered work placements under the EBA programme were able to break even financially by the end of the programme. Two-thirds of EBA graduates immediately enter the labour market and do not continue to the regular apprenticeship scheme. Within 42 months of graduating, 24% of EBA completers obtain a federal VET diploma through a three or four‑year apprenticeship. Among those who obtained their federal VET certificate through EBA apprenticeship programme in 2017, 40% were employed after 6 months and 37% in training. These shares evolve to 69% and 14% at 42 months after graduation.

Workshop Schools, Tools for Peace Programme – Colombia

Context

In Colombia, young people from low-income, ethnic minority or rural backgrounds can face major obstacles to enter formal employment. Limited paths are available to the quality jobs than enable social mobility. Nearly one in four young people in Colombia were NEET (not in employment, education, or training) in Colombia in 2022, the second-highest rate in the OECD. Training in cultural trades helps young people develop their cultural identity and skills as well as offering a path to economic opportunities through entrepreneurship and formal employment.

Description

The Colombian National Workshop School: Tools for Peace Programme (Programa Nacional Escuelas Taller de Colombia: Herramientas de Paz) pairs together two general objectives: 1) to improve the skills of vulnerable people, with a focus on youth, in traditional cultural crafts and trades (oficios) and 2) to preserve cultural heritage. The programme supports the peace process in Colombia through the socio‑economic inclusion of people directly or indirectly affected by the armed conflict.

In 2023, 13 Workshop Schools operated across Colombia. Each Workshop School focuses on the cultural trades of the territory in which it operates and the policy priorities of subnational government. Workshop Schools function as local vocational schools where learners receive one to two years of training from expert artisans in the traditional crafts and trades. Cultural trades can include cuisine, metal working, carpentry, building of indigenous musical instruments and building maintenance. Expert artisans are recruited locally as teachers. Through the process of learning, the programme encourages the transmission of cultural knowledge through generations. Training is supported by the National Training Service (SENA), Colombia’s national public agency for adult vocational learning.

The Colombian Ministry of Culture and SENA manage the programme jointly with the support of local governments. The Spanish Agency for International Development Co‑operation (AECID) introduced the Workshop School programme in Colombia in 1992 based on cultural training policies started in Spain in the 1980s. AECID supports similar Workshop School programmes across Latin America.

Outcomes

Between 1992 and 2014, Workshop Schools in Colombia trained over 27 800 young people and secured employment for 86% of graduates (CAF, 2016). In 2015, the Workshop School Foundation of Bogotá (Fundación Escuela Taller de Bogotá) contracted a qualitative evaluation based on twenty‑seven interviews with administrators and managers of Workshop Schools throughout the country, nine workshops with learners and frontline staff and three periods of direct observation. Some of the positive effects on learners observed by workshop and interview participants include greater access to the labour market, better standard of living, greater labour market opportunities for vulnerable people, improved self-employment opportunities, greater self-confidence, greater positivity about the future and heightened labour market empowerment of women learners.

Recommendation II.5

Copy link to Recommendation II.5

Provide learner orientation and career guidance, including by engaging with employers through workplace visits, career talks and job shadowing, and providing information on skills in demand in the world of work and the relationship between education and employment.

Relevance

Over the last generation there has been a remarkable growth in the educational success of young people across the globe. In unprecedented numbers they are completing secondary education and progressing to post-secondary education and training. However, on average young people are no more successful now than in 2000 in the competition for work: the ratio of youth to adult employment has remained flat across OECD countries. Societies turn to orientation and career guidance systems to help young people develop agency as they accumulate, and then seek to activate, their human capital in the labour market. Unfortunately, the historic effectiveness of guidance approaches has been constrained by lack of data on how guidance provision can be best be understood to support the progression of students and to compare practice between countries (Hughes, 2016[89]). In recent years however this knowledge gap has closed substantially, supporting the more strategic development and delivery of provision which can be most confidently expected to help young people find desirable employment and to facilitate the more efficient signalling of employers towards their future recruits.

Analysis of longitudinal datasets in multiple countries highlights important ways in which career development can be linked with better employment outcomes for youth (such as lower NEET rates, higher wages and greater job satisfaction) helping to prevent poor transitions (OECD, 2021[90]). Typically drawing on the experiences of students at age 15 and following them through to age 25, longitudinal studies demonstrate strong relationships between better employment outcomes and the ways in which students explore their potential futures in work, gain first-hand experience of the labour market and think about their career plans (Covacevich et al., 2021[91]). Many of these predictors of greater employment success relate to first-hand encounters with people in work. Activities such as workplace visits, career talks and job shadowing provide students with the opportunity to gain new information about the world of work and how it can relate to their developing understanding of their own interests and abilities (OECD, 2023[92]; OECD, 2022[93]). Young people are especially likely to trust the learning they gain from such encounters, compared to other forms of career exploration. Employers and people in work are well placed to provide relevant and compelling information and advice about the nature of different forms of work and progression into them. In this way, students become better placed to make informed investment decisions about the education and training they pursue (OECD, 2021[94]). Employers can also provide work-based experiences that both deepen the human capital which young people can draw upon as they enter the labour market while increasing the social and cultural capital that enables its activation (OECD, 2021[95]). Consequently, effective guidance systems will from a young age help nurture student curiosity and active investigation of the world of work and its relationship with education. They will moreover address the growing complexity of transitions and changes in the nature of employment, as automation, digitalisation and the response to climate change impact on demand for skills.

PISA 2022 provides countries with the best international dataset ever available on the comparative career development of students. It finds much variation between countries in the extent to which they had taken part in key activities by age of 15. In many countries, fewer than half of students have visited a workplace, undertaken job shadowing or attended a job fair. Such career development activities serve to enhance teenage career thinking, clarifying occupational expectations and educational plans (Covacevich et al., 2021[91]). The data also highlights significant equity concerns. Girls for example are much less likely than boys to engage in guidance activities which bring them into first hand contact with employers, and students from low socio‑economic backgrounds are much more likely to demonstrate confusion about how the labour market operates, aspiring to work in a profession requiring tertiary education, but expressing no intention to pursue post-secondary studies. Of all groups, students who achieve poorly on the PISA assessments demonstrate the lowest levels of preparation for the working world. What’s more, PISA shows a very poor alignment between the occupational expectations of young people and actual patterns of employer demand. Career expectations at age 15 are highly concentrated: more than half of students across the OECD now expect to work as professionals such as doctors, lawyers or engineers (major category 2 in the International Standardised Classification of Occupations).

Effective guidance strategies will ensure that schools work within a clear, evidence‑based framework for provision, enabled by appropriately trained professionals. They will ensure that infrastructure is in place to make it easy for schools to engage with employers and people in work early, often and integrated within school life. While including risks which must be managed, rapid changes in the availably of digital technologies are providing considerable opportunity to improve the effectiveness, efficiency and equity with which guidance is delivered. Online tools enable engagement with employers and can help students to reflect on their own aptitudes and preferences in light of actual patterns of employer demand. Effective systems will moreover address the additional barriers that definable groups of students face in accessing desired employment. By assessing teenage career development and the provision by which it is enabled, it becomes easier to identify priorities for investment and help ensure that all young people are well prepared for the transitions they aspire to make into productive employment.

Box 1.5. Young People’s Voices

Copy link to Box 1.5. Young People’s Voices

“Talk to schools, talk to teachers, and bring in role models.”

Young people indicate being unsure about their future and really benefiting from having role models or seeing success stories on social media. Some feel that their education does not prepare them well for the transition into the labour market. They often feel pressured to earn qualifications but ended up finishing school without a clear idea of what to do next or where they are headed career-wise.

Consultations with young people and youth organisations

Policies and practices

1. Ensuring that students are given opportunity to explore potential futures in work from a young age, gaining first-hand experience of workplaces while developing a clear and informed career plan;

2. Enriching guidance activities through the engagement of employers and people in work;

3. Overseeing guidance provision by well-trained professionals.

Youth-specific OECD indicators

Percentage of students who have spoken to a Career Advisor (OECD, forthcoming[96])
Percentage of students who have visited a job fair (OECD, forthcoming[97])
Percentage of students who have attended job shadowing or a work-site visit (OECD, forthcoming[98])

Gatsby Benchmarks – United Kingdom

Context

In recognition of the importance of career guidance, countries have from the 1990s sought to articulate their expectations of students in terms of their career development. Initially, such framework documents expressed student experiences and outcomes in fine detail on the basis of very limited empirical evidence. More recently, frameworks such as that of New Brunswick (Canada) developed with the OECD, have drawn more heavily on longitudinal evidence while retaining a focus on student expectations. The Gatsby Benchmarks provide a new approach to shaping the provision of career guidance by taking a more strongly institutional approach, setting out the expectations that parents and students can have of their schools.

Description

The Gatsby Benchmarks were developed by the UK Gatsby Foundation in 2013 in light of available international evidence and practice. The eight benchmarks were adopted by the Department for Education (England) in 2017 as the centrepiece of a new careers’ strategy. They articulate eight benchmarks against which secondary education providers are evaluated. These include a stable, public career guidance programme; student access to good-quality labour market information; personalised student provision; the integration of career guidance within the curriculum; multiple opportunities for students to engage with employers in their career development; student workplace experiences; regular student encounters with post-secondary education providers; and the provision of personal guidance to students. Overseen by the state‑funded Careers and Enterprise Company, schools are provided with advice and support to meet the benchmarks and evaluated on their success in doing so. Additional guidance is available for schools working with students with special educational needs and disabilities. The benchmarks are currently under review by the Gatsby Foundation.

As of 2022, 84% of all state‑funded secondary providers in England had reported on their progress towards implementing the benchmarks: on average, schools and colleges in England had fully achieved 4.9 of the benchmarks. Outside of England, the benchmarks have been drawn on by schools in a growing range of education systems including Hong Kong, Spain and Wales.

Outcomes

Using a national dataset of post-secondary outcomes linked to students attending 2 400 secondary schools, analysis by the Careers and Enterprise Company established a significant relationship between the extent to which benchmarks had been met and positive outcomes for students. Specifically, with controls in place for student achievement and characteristics, school type and patterns of local labour market demand, a hypothetical school completing all eight benchmarks would typically have a 9.7% decline in the proportion of students who do not go into Education, Employment or Training post‑16 compared to an otherwise similar school that did not achieve any of the benchmarks. Put another way, for each benchmark completed, the likelihood of students securing positive post-secondary outcomes increased by 1.5%. Effects were found to be greatest for students from low-income backgrounds.

Employer engagement in career guidance – New Zealand

Context

Longitudinal studies show that employer engagement is an essential ingredient within effective career guidance for students. Over recent years, the New Zealand Government has introduced a range of programmes that encourage and enable schools to work more closely with employers and people in work. New initiatives have therefore been designed to help students: i) understand themselves and their own interests better by broadening their understanding of labour market opportunities; ii) explore specific industries and jobs to confirm their interests; and iii) connect with workplaces to gain work experience or on-the‑job training.

Description

Forms of employer engagement in career guidance being actively promoted in New Zealand. Schools are provided with an extensive toolkit to support greater interaction with local employers and people in work to support engagement across a range of activities including school visits and career talks with guest speakers, workplace visits, work experience placements, mentoring sessions and careers fairs, delivered both in person and online. In addition, specific programmes have been designed to enable engagement:

Inspiring the Future Aotearoa is a national programme connecting workplace volunteers with primary and secondary schools to broaden young people’s horizons, raise their aspirations and increase their motivation to learn. The programme makes it quick and easy for school staff to identify volunteers willing to speak (in-person or online) with students about the jobs they do.

More tailored career pathway initiatives, such as the Passport to Employment programme in Manurewa High School, allow students to gain work experience and work-related certificates while still in full-time secondary education. The programme enhances career readiness through the combination of part-time work, mandatory 20‑hour community volunteering, employment-related qualifications, and learning activities that develop self-awareness and confidence.

SpeedMeet is an initiative developed by the Industry Training Federation and several Industry Training Organisations in 2015 as part of an ITO-led promotional campaign to promote “earn and learn” training and apprenticeships. During a SpeedMeet event, final year students meet with ten potential employers over 60 minutes, allowing them to develop their career thinking, gain interview practice, and potentially secure an apprenticeship or job.

Guidance is also made available to employers stressing the benefits of engaging with schools and providing advice on how they can most effectively engage in education.

Outcomes

Between 2018 and 2022, PISA shows that students in New Zealand increased their participation rates in job shadowing/workplace visits, job fairs and work placements (internships). Inspiring the Future Aotearoa: Launched in 2021 in New Zealand, some 10 000 students have since engaged with people in work through the programme. Passport to Employment: At the end of 2020, four out of five participants in the Manurewa High School successfully completed the programme and were offered full-time employment. A year later, 81% were still in full-time employment with the same companies, while others proceeded to university. SpeedMeet: By the end of May 2021, close to 45 000 students and nearly 3 000 employers had attended a SpeedMeet event. Results have shown that participants are substantially more likely to consider a vocational pathway and that 95% of students who attended an event felt “more prepared with the skills necessary to be successful in their further education and employment”.

Rock your Life! – Germany

Context

Reviews of longitudinal datasets show that clear and informed teenage career thinking is strongly associated with better employment prospects in adulthood. Young people do better when they understand the educational requirements likely to be needed to achieve their career goals. OECD PISA studies show however that many students struggle to plan a pathway through their education into employment: across the OECD one in five students plans on working as a professional (e.g. lawyer, doctor or school teacher), but does not expect to secure the tertiary education which is usually a requirement for entry into the profession. Such confusion in career thinking is particularly common for students from low SES backgrounds and for lower academic achievers. One way that young people can be helped to better understand how education and training enable occupational outcomes is to connect students with people in desired employment or post-secondary education who can provide trusted advice and guidance.

Description

Rock Your Life! is a mentoring programme that began in Germany. It connects university students with school students in the last two years of lower secondary education. Pairs are expected to meet every two weeks for one to two years. Mentors are expected to support students in dealing with stressful situations at school and at home and to offer them guidance regarding their future careers. Rock Your Life! has become available in growing numbers of countries including the Netherlands, Spain and Switzerland.

Outcomes

Empirical studies of mentoring relationships tend not to show strong long-term positive results in terms of career-focused mentoring relationship undertaken within secondary education. However, a randomised control trial which followed 308 students from ten German cities between 2015 and 2018 has found exciting results. With the programme oversubscribed, interested and comparable students were chosen by lottery to enter a mentoring relationship or join a control group. Both groups were split into two further groups based on their level of social disadvantage. The study found that mentored students benefited substantially from their mentoring relationship, improving attainment in mathematics, improving non-cognitive social skills and developing clearer occupational plans. Across the participants, the most substantial improvements were among the most disadvantaged students, many of whom came from migrant families. These students also became much more likely to transition successfully into apprenticeships leading to well-paying skilled employment. Through engagement with university students, it appears that mentored school students gained access to new sources of trusted information that encouraged them to think more pragmatically about their options for post-secondary education and training and so future employment. In keeping with results from studies in the Canada and the United Kingdom, students with the weakest access to informed sources of advice at home can be seen to benefit greatest from the guidance initiative.

Recommendation II.6

Copy link to Recommendation II.6

Enable equitable access to pursue and continue post-secondary education and training by tackling financial and non-financial constraints, especially for young people from under-represented groups, including through reviewing existing financial aid systems for students and, where relevant, tuition fees and student loan forgiveness arrangements.

Relevance

When leaving secondary school, young people have to decide between starting work or continuing their studies. Their decision may be influenced by a range of factors, including their own academic abilities, professional aspirations, and parental expectations. In order to make a good choice young people will require accurate knowledge about post-secondary education and training opportunities, and the career and likely financial outcomes associated with different options.

Financial costs associated with post-secondary education and training – which can be substantial – and the ability to cover them will factor into young peoples’ decision. In higher education systems where tuition fees exist, they can be the main out-of-pocket cost experienced by students, along with any additional charges, such as laboratory fees, and costs of required books and supplies (OECD, 2020[105]).

Students or their families also pay for living costs, which may be high for students who live away from their parents. It may be difficult to ensure an optimal matching of students and location of study if such costs need to be covered out of pocket, not least because students from lower-income families may be constrained to study locally. Similarly, it has been shown that housing prices play a significant role for students choosing to study abroad, as policy evaluations of the Erasmus+ programme in European Union countries have reported (Beine, Noël and Ragot, 2014[106]).

These costs involve more risk for young people who cannot easily access information about the potential reward from investing in post-secondary education. Limited access to information is a particular risk for young people whose parents and broader social network have not participated in post-secondary learning. Even when the post-secondary career path is well-known and likely career and earnings prospects understood, these outcomes are uncertain and depend on factors like the ability to successfully complete studies and find an appropriate job (Blanden, Doepke and Stuhler, 2023[107]).

Where the investment is considered worthwhile, young people and their families may still face liquidity constraints. Tuition fees and living costs often involve a high upfront cost. Unless families have a substantial amount of savings free to allocate to educational costs, they may not have enough liquidity to meet the cost of sending their children to higher education.

Student support schemes constitute a key element in ensuring equitable opportunities for students in higher education systems, broadening access and supporting completion (Dynarski, 2003[108]). Yet, countries vary significantly in the share of the cost of higher education that is covered by households, and the extent to which private contributions and living cost expenses can be covered through grants or subsidised loans. For instance, the proportion of students who received public grant or loan support ranged from 70‑100% in most Nordic and Anglophone systems, to fewer than 30% in Austria, Switzerland and Portugal (OECD, 2020[105]).

Post secondary Vocational Education and Training (VET) presents an important option for young people, especially for those who are attracted by practice‑oriented learning experiences and direct preparation for the labour market. These vocational programmes often have lower tuition fees than traditional university degrees and may even include paid apprenticeships, where students can earn while they learn. Vocational programmes exist at various levels, and while they are typically designed to allow for a smooth transition into the labour market, they can often also serve as a stepping stone into higher levels of education or more academically oriented programmes.

Box 1.6. Young People’s Voices

Copy link to Box 1.6. Young People’s Voices

“Governments need to focus on equitable access to education, having an inclusive approach to education is a priority.”

Young people insist that all young people get a good education. They find that a young person’s socio‑economic background can affect their chances, with private schools often leading to top universities and well-paid jobs, which keeps the cycle of inequality going. But it is not just about tuition fees –governments need to think about the cost of everything else that comes with getting an education too.

Consultations with young people and youth organisations

Youth-specific OECD indicators

Educational attainment – Population with tertiary education, by age group (OECD, 2024[109])

Other related indicators

Profile of first-time tertiary graduates by level of education (OECD/UIS/Eurostat, 2023[110])

Early College Credit Programme – United States

Context

Recognising the importance of postsecondary education for career success, state governments in the United States are actively focusing on college and career readiness as a major goal for upper secondary education. While strides have been made, there is an opportunity to further expand access to comprehensive high school education for all, particularly for low-income students and those from ethnic minority backgrounds. Ensuring equitable preparation in high school can empower graduates with a wider range of options for pursuing postsecondary education, ultimately narrowing existing enrolment and completion gaps.

Description

The Early College Credit Programme (ECCP) in the United States is an educational initiative that allows academically inclined high school students to enrol in college courses and earn both high school and college credit simultaneously. Since 2002, more than 280 ECCPs have opened nationwide, serving more than 80 000 students in 31 states and the District of Columbia. This programme is designed to provide motivated high school students with the opportunity to experience college‑level coursework and challenge themselves academically while still in school. ECCP is committed to serving students underrepresented in higher education. Eligibility criteria may encompass factors such as grade point average, standardised test scores, and teachers’ and counsellors’ recommendations. Once deemed eligible, students can immerse themselves in a diverse array of first-year college courses, which often span disciplines ranging from mathematics and science to humanities and arts. While enrolled in ECCP courses, students continue to attend their regular high school classes (and participate in extracurricular activities). The transferability of the college credits varies depending on the institution the student plans to attend after high school.

While participating in the ECCP, students receive guidance and support from both their high school counsellors and college instructors. High school counsellors help students navigate the programme, select courses, and ensure they are meeting graduation requirements. College instructors provide academic guidance and mentorship as student engage with college‑level material.

Outcomes

A recent study conducted in 2021 by the American Institute of Research assesses the long-term impacts of ECCP on students’ postsecondary outcomes. Using an experimental approach, the study finds that students who randomly participated in ECCP admission were significantly more likely to enrol in college, enrol in 2‑year college programmes, complete a college degree, complete associate degree or certificates, and complete bachelor’s degree within 6 years after expected high school graduation than their peers that did not participated in the programme. Moreover, it found that ECCP students completed postsecondary degrees earlier and faster than their peers who were not admitted to the ECCP. Consistent with ECCP’s focus on college exposure during high school, the ECCP impacts on college enrolment and the completion of associate degrees while finishing high school. In a study conducted in 2014 that assess heterogeneous effects of the programme finds that the impact of ECCP did not differ significantly based on gender, race/ethnicity, family income, first-generation college‑going status, or pre‑high school achievement, However, the impact on earning a college degree was stronger for female, minority, and lower income students than their counterparts.

Canada Student Financial Assistance Program – Canada

Context

In Canada, post-secondary education is a key driver of inclusive economic growth and well-being. It contributes to, among others, higher individual earnings, better health outcomes, stronger social cohesion, positive intergenerational effects, and lower unemployment rates. However, low-income families and other distinct population groups are more likely to face financial and non-financial barriers to accessing post-secondary education. Tuition costs and other costs relating to post-secondary education can be a major barrier to continuing education after completing secondary school. Most students rely on sources of funding such as student grants and loans, money from parents and scholarships, and money from savings and part-time work. Student grants and loans can be particularly critical for students from low- and middle‑income families who experience financial constraints that would otherwise prevent them from accessing post-secondary education and getting the skills and training they need to succeed in the labour market.

Description

The Canada Student Financial Assistance Program (first operating in 1964 as the Canada Student Loan Program) provides non-repayable Canada Student Grants and interest-free Canada Student Loans to help students access and afford post-secondary education. The Program works in partnership with participating provinces and territories to deliver student financial assistance to eligible students. Alternative payments are made to Quebec, the Northwest Territories and Nunavut, that do not participate, to administer their own programmes. Additional funding is available for students with dependents and students with disabilities. To qualify for student financial assistance, a student must demonstrate financial need and meet residency and other eligibility criteria. Applicants are assessed for federal and provincial grants and loans through a single application process.

On average, for full-time students in participating jurisdictions, approximately 60% of their grants and loans are provided by the Government of Canada, while their province or territory covers the remaining 40%. In the 2021 to 2022 academic year, over 763 000 post-secondary students received financial assistance from the Canada Student Financial Assistance Program. Approximately 544 000 students benefited from USD 3.3 billion in non‑repayable Canada Student Grants, and 558 000 students accessed USD 2.9 billion in interest-free Canada Student Loans.

Outcomes

An evaluation of the Canada Student Financial Assistance Program was published in 2021. Several data sources were used for the evaluation, including focus groups with new recipients of grants and loans, a survey of new recipients of grants and loans, and a post-study survey of former recipients of grants and loans. 91% of new student loan applicants indicated that before they applied for post-secondary education, they were concerned about having enough money to cover their education and living expenses during their studies. 13% of borrowers indicated that they would not have pursued post-secondary studies without the federal portion of their student grants and loans. Almost 40% of borrowers indicated they were unlikely to have enrolled in the same programme without the federal portion of their student grants and loans. Focus group participants indicated that they might have chosen a (typically shorter and cheaper) college programme instead of a university programme, a less expensive programme or institution, or a less intensive or shorter programme. Among borrowers who completed their post-secondary programme, over a third (36%) indicated they would likely not have completed their programme without the federal portion of their student grants and loans. Single parents, students with a disability, Indigenous students and adult learners were among the groups most likely to indicate they would not have completed their post-secondary studies without the federal portion of their student grants and loans.

Financial support for tertiary students – Netherlands

Context

What type of financial support is offered to tertiary students – whether in the form of loans, grants or scholarships – is a key question faced by countries. Governments must consider how the different types of support can impact students’ ability to enter and complete tertiary education successfully, and to transition smoothly into the job market. The Netherlands has experimented with different funding models, and currently has a multi-pronged funding approach to help students cover their living and education costs. The variety of funding instruments on offer allows the government to cater to the needs of different student groups.

Description

In 1986, the Netherlands introduced a basic grant as well as a means-tested grant for students in tertiary education programmes, including students in universities of applied sciences and universities. From 1996, the basic grant was made dependent on a student’s performance: students who graduated within ten years had their grants converted into a gift. Those who did not, were expected to pay back the grant. In 2015, the country replaced the performance‑based grant with a public loan system requiring students to pay back the government starting two years after graduating. This change reflected the belief that individuals should bear more responsibility for funding their tertiary education considering how much it benefits them later in life. However, due to public concerns about the fairness of the loan system, the Dutch Government brought back the basic grant in 2023. Moreover, the government promised to compensate students who took out loans under the previous system. Under the current system, students can access a performance‑based grant that offers students living at home EUR 120/month, and EUR 302/month to those who do not live with their parents. Grants are converted into gifts if students graduate in ten years. If not, students will need to reimburse the government. In addition, a means-tested supplementary grant is accessible to students whose parents earn up to EUR 70k/year. Students can obtain up to EUR 458/month, and the grant is also converted into a gift if students graduate within ten years. Finally, students can also obtain loans to help cover living and tuition costs, but which they must pay back with interest after graduating.

Outcomes

There is no evidence on the effectiveness of the current approach because it was only implemented in 2023. The previous system, on the other hand, was thoroughly evaluated, and studies showed that the loan system did not impact the flow of students into tertiary education, nor did it increase disparities in participation across socio‑economic groups. Still, the loan system was considered unfair: lower-income students were more likely to take on loans during this period and, as a result, become indebted. In addition, because of inadequate information, one‑fourth of students who were entitled to means-tested grants did not apply for this additional help. This highlights the challenges of developing a fair and effective funding loan system. The Dutch example also shows the value of combining different funding tools.

Recommendation II.7

Copy link to Recommendation II.7

Encourage employers and business associations to ensure access to lifelong learning and training opportunities for all young people in employment.

Relevance

Encouraging a culture of lifelong learning is crucial to ensuring that young people actively engage in learning opportunities, especially after leaving the compulsory education system. In turn, participation in different forms of learning positively impacts individuals, firms and society.

For individuals, participation in formal adult education and training can lead to better employment prospects, higher wages and upward social and/or occupational mobility (Fialho, Quintini and Vandeweyer, 2019[122]) Participation in lifelong learning opportunities can yield significant social benefits: individuals with higher skills typically report better health, feel more included in political processes, and trust others more than those with lower skills. Engaging in continuous learning opportunities can help young people achieve these higher levels of skills at a later stage, thereby facilitating engagement with adult education (OECD, 2016[123]).

Early career development opportunities not only shape young people’s future employment prospects but also their ability to innovate and contribute to the broader economy. By gaining access to training, mentorship, and education early in their careers, young individuals are better positioned to develop the skills and knowledge necessary to succeed (Jyoti and Sharma, 2015[124]; Shukla, 2021[125]). Equipping young professionals with essential skills and knowledge significantly enhances their capacity to innovate and make positive contributions to both their workplaces. Given their natural openness to new ideas and technologies, young individuals have the potential to drive substantial innovation with the proper skills and opportunities.

Investing in the continuous learning of young employees yields significant economic benefits for employers, including enhanced productivity and competitiveness (Dearden, Reed and Van Reenen, 2006[126]; Konings and Vanormelingen, 2015[127]). Employers prioritising employee development are better positioned to adapt to changing market demands and technological shifts (WEF, 2023[128]). Moreover, such practices contribute to attracting and retaining talent, as young professionals increasingly value professional growth opportunities when choosing employers.

Encouraging employers and business associations to ensure access to lifelong learning aligns with broader objectives of sustainable economic development and social cohesion. It calls for collaborative efforts between governments, educational institutions, and the private sector to create a conducive environment for continuous learning. Policies that support flexible learning pathways (Ahmed et al., 2021[129]), recognise non-formal and informal learning (Blewitt, 2010[130]), and provide incentives for small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) to invest in employee training (Hamburg, 2020[131]) are essential to foster a skilled, adaptable, and innovative workforce. This approach underscores the importance of a broad spectrum of learning opportunities beyond traditional formal education, reflecting the diverse needs and circumstances of the workforce.

Evidence from various OECD countries underscores the effectiveness of public-private partnerships in expanding training opportunities. For instance, apprenticeship programmes that combine work and study have been successful in countries like Germany and Switzerland, offering young people valuable hands-on experience while they continue their education (CEDEFOP/OECD, 2021[132]). Similarly, UK reforms are streamlining education and training funding to better match employer needs, alongside the new Build Back Better Business Council, to enhance business-government collaboration and economic recovery. Part of the government’s Lifetime Skills Guarantee and Plan for Jobs, these efforts aim to align technical training with employer demands, improving job prospects and driving economic growth (Department for Education, 2021[133]).

Other related indicators

Participation in formal and/or non-formal education and training, by gender in 25-64 year-olds (OECD, 2021[134])
Percentage of the population wanting to participate in education and training but did not, by reason for not participating (2016) (OECD, 2021[135])
Share of enterprises providing continuing vocational training, by size of enterprise and type of training (OECD, 2020[136])
Share of adults participating in formal and/or non-formal education and training, by educational attainment (OECD, 2020[137])

Training alliances – Austria

Context

Work-based learning can be a powerful tool to support the school-to-work transition of young people. It gives them the opportunity to develop the technical and employability skills that employers are looking for in the workplace and to build a network. For companies it can be an important means to tackle skills shortages and overcome hiring difficulties. However, providing work-based learning can be burdensome for companies, especially SMEs that do not always have the capacity to deliver all the necessary training components and deal with the administrative requirements. To support companies in their work-based learning provision, Austria has set up a system of training alliances.

Description

Training alliances support companies that cannot provide the full range of skills to apprentices required for the specific occupation. Such alliances can involve an exchange of apprentices between two or more companies; sending apprentices to one or several other companies or to their training workshop (usually for payment); and attendance of courses or programmes at training institutions against a fee. However, the majority of the learning outcomes central to an apprenticeship occupation must be acquired in the “home” company. In the training contract, the training alliance, the alliance partner(s), as well as the learning outcomes acquired outside the “home” company must be agreed on. It is also possible to enter into training alliances on a voluntary basis if training companies aim to impart special competences to apprentices – possibly going beyond the competence profile.

Some Austrian provinces support training alliances by providing information and support to companies about possible partner enterprises and educational institutions, and co‑ordinating activities. Companies in a training alliance can receive a subsidy to cover costs that arise from the training alliance. Up to 75% of the course costs for voluntary training associations can be refunded, going up to 100% for mandatory measures. The maximum amount of funding is EUR 3 000 per apprenticeship.

Outcomes

Data on participation in training alliances are patchy. A 2008 estimate suggested that at least 5 000 training firms, or 15 000 apprentices, were organised in training alliances. Quantitative analysis suggests that the training alliances increase the number of apprenticeships available, especially among SMEs. Willingness to participate in training alliances voluntarily depends on companies’ attitude towards personnel development and knowledge transfer. Interviews with companies have suggested that training alliances help to improve the quality of apprenticeship provision.

In 2021, an extended version of the Training Alliance Programme was implemented in Vienna to support companies in the tourism and leisure industries severely affected by COVID‑19. The provincial government through its Apprenticeship Offices (Lehrlingsstellen) facilitates the training alliances and assists in finding partners for companies interested in stablishing new alliances, thus contributing to the overall availability of workplaces, especially for young people. Additionally, disseminating information about the benefits of the Training Alliance Programme serves to increase the motivation of both companies and apprentices to consider participating in the programme.

Apprenticeship Training Agencies – Norway

Context

Intermediaries like Apprenticeship Training Agencies (ATAs) are uniquely positioned to bridge the gap between employers, business associations, and the workforce, playing a crucial role in promoting lifelong learning and training opportunities. By facilitating partnerships and dialogue among these stakeholders, ATAs can advocate for and implement strategies that ensure young employees have access to continuous professional development. This includes identifying skills gaps in the labour market and developing targeted training programmes that align with current and future industry needs. ATAs can leverage their sector-specific knowledge and networks to encourage companies to invest in their employees’ growth, highlighting the mutual benefits of a skilled and adaptable workforce. Through such efforts, ATAs not only support individual career advancement but also contribute to the overall competitiveness and innovation within industries.

Description

Apprenticeship Training Agencies (opplæringskontor) are a co‑operation agency for approved training enterprises in Norway. They co‑ordinate, support, and assist training enterprises in the provision of an apprenticeship, as such supporting county authorities and enterprises – who share the main responsibilities for apprenticeship in Norway. County authorities have the overall responsibility of recruiting training enterprises, approving them and matching applicants with apprenticeship placements, while also having a key role when it comes to the regional strategies for competence development and lifelong learning. The training enterprises have the overall responsibility for the apprenticeship period.

ATAs are a key player to the vocational education system, serving as a nexus between students, companies, and educational institutions to facilitate practical training alongside theoretical education. These agencies, organised by industry sectors like construction, healthcare, or IT (and in some cases by geographical area), ensure that vocational training, such as apprenticeships, adheres to national standards through quality assurance, support, and guidance. They handle administrative tasks, including managing apprenticeship contracts and applications for governmental subsidies, thereby streamlining the process from application to certification and reducing the administrative burden for employers. Throughout the apprenticeship, ATAs monitor progress of students’ learning plans and co‑ordinate with schools to ensure a comprehensive educational experience. Funded through government grants, company contributions, and service fees, ATAs play an important role in ensuring the vocational training system remains has solid employer engagement.

Outcome

The impact of ATAs in Norway has been the subject of various studies, reflecting on their role in enhancing vocational education and training, as well as their broader implications for the labour market and social welfare systems. ATAs have played a key role in the governance of apprentice training, facilitating the successful integration of all relevant stakeholders into the national VET system. Additionally, ATAs have been instrumental in designing training that focuses on knowledge of protocols, process compliance, and safety, which are crucial for creating robust occupational safety and health management systems in firms across multiple sectors. This approach not only enhances the employability of apprentices by equipping them with industry-relevant skills but also contributes to the overall quality of the workforce. Furthermore, by fostering a collaborative environment among educational institutions, businesses, and government entities, ATAs help ensure that vocational training remains a dynamic component of VET system.

#LifelongLearning – Switzerland

Context

Awareness-raising campaigns like #LifelongLearning play a crucial role in catalysing change within businesses by showcasing the benefits of investing in the continuous development of young employees. Such campaigns serve as a powerful tool to inform employers and business associations about the evolving demands of the global economy, emphasising the need to equip young workers with a versatile skill set that can adapt to these changes. By highlighting success stories, providing evidence‑based research on the impact of lifelong learning on productivity and innovation, and demonstrating the competitive edge it offers businesses, these initiatives can motivate employers to create and expand access to training and development opportunities. This, in turn, fosters a culture that values and invests in the ongoing professional growth of its workforce, ensuring that young employees are not only prepared to meet the current demands of their roles but are also equipped to take on future challenges.

Description

In 2019, the Employers’ Confederation and the cross-industry initiative DigitalSwitzerland collaborated to launch an awareness-raising campaign titled #LifelongLearning. This initiative aimed to highlight the importance of continuous learning and adaptation in the rapidly evolving labour market, particularly in the context of the digital transformation. The campaign sought to encourage individuals across various sectors to engage in ongoing education and skills development to stay competitive and relevant.

The #LifelongLearning campaign utilised a variety of platforms and methods to reach its audience, including social media, digital advertisements, workshops, and seminars. It focuses on promoting continuous learning as essential for both employees and employers to navigate future opportunities. It supports various initiatives, including STEM promotion, digital upskilling through the Boost Programme, and networking for HR experts. These efforts aim to address skill shortages in ICT, promote digital literacy, and ensure a diverse and skilled workforce.

The campaign emphasises lifelong learning as vital for all career stages in the Swiss workforce. It aimed not only to raise awareness but also to provide tangible resources and guidance for individuals looking to enhance their skills and knowledge base. Employers and employees alike were targeted in this initiative, with a focus on fostering a culture of continuous learning within organisations. The campaign emphasised the mutual benefits of lifelong learning for both businesses and their workforce, underlining the role of education in driving innovation, productivity, and personal fulfilment in the digital age.

Outcome

In 2022, Digitalswitzerland spearheaded several initiatives to enhance digital innovation and education across Switzerland. Collaborating with organisations like ICT Berufsbildung Schweiz and Pro Juventute, it focused on lifelong learning and future skills, reaching over 200 000 interactions. The Boost Programme provided financial aid for over 300 individuals to pursue digital upskilling courses. Additionally, projects such as Planet MINT and Swiss Digital Days were launched to promote STEM education and digital awareness. Efforts to increase female participation in ICT through extracurricular activities targeting computer science skills also demonstrated positive impacts, particularly in engaging female students.

Recommendation II.8

Copy link to Recommendation II.8

Provide teachers and staff in education and training with relevant support, including through the provision of continuing professional development opportunities, to ensure they can facilitate the development and well-being of all learners.

Relevance

The educational needs of young people are rapidly evolving. Thriving in the 21^st century requires students to acquire new types of knowledge, skills, socio‑emotional competencies and global developments have placed subjects like environmental education and global citizenship highly on school systems’ agendas. At the same time, the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (UN SDGs) have reaffirmed a strong commitment to the inclusion of students with special education needs and supporting vulnerable children and those with migration backgrounds in schools (United Nations, 2015[148]). In light of these developments, the role of teachers increasingly extends beyond the transmission of knowledge and skills and to encompass the facilitation of students’ engagement in learning and the co‑ordination of parental involvement, providing socio‑emotional support and engaging in innovative instructional practices. Teachers and schools also play a central role in preparing children to thrive in an increasingly technology-rich environment and evidence suggests that teachers’ own digital competence and ability to work with new digital education technologies is instrumental for their students’ capacity to make the most of these trends (OECD, 2019[149]; OECD, 2023[150]).

Unless teachers are supported in renewing the skills they acquired during their initial teacher education and continue growing professionally throughout their careers, schools will struggle to keep up with the evolving education needs of young people. An effective continuing professional learning (CPL) system is therefore vital to support teachers in refreshing, developing and broadening their knowledge. Evidence suggests that professional learning is most effective where it is active, collaborative, reflective, pursued over an extended period of time and focuses on a concrete set of teaching skills (Opfer and Pedder, 2011[151]; Darling-Hammond, Hyler and Gardner, 2017[152]). In contrast to traditional forms of one‑off seminars and externally provided training, effective forms of professional learning also tend to be embedded in the ongoing work of schools, envisaging them as places of continuous learning for both children and adults (Kools and Stoll, 2016[153]). In many education systems, promoting these forms of effective professional learning for teachers requires a rethinking of professional learning policies and a reorientation of its provision towards more embedded and collaborative training formats (Boeskens, Nusche and Yurita, 2020[154]).

OECD data suggests that many teachers’ engagement in effective forms of professional learning is held back by a lack of incentives, limited access and other barriers, such as scheduling conflicts and a lack of time (OECD, 2019[155]). A supportive policy environment should not only ensure that teachers have shared time to pursue both formal and informal professional learning, but also encourage them to invest in their development. Recognising and valuing their efforts to meet their students’ evolving needs, e.g. by providing opportunities for career advancement, is an important step in this direction.

While it is critical to support teachers’ agency and encourage independent learning efforts, education systems need to find ways to align teachers’ CPL with system-wide priorities and the needs of young learners. Central guidance and links between professional learning and teacher appraisal or school improvement planning processes can help to ensure that CPL is responsive to needs emerging across the school system (OECD, 2013[156]; OECD, 2019[157]). By taking a holistic approach to professional learning that fosters teachers’ agency while focusing on the promotion of effective and relevant learning formats, policy makers can make an important contribution to ensure that teachers remain well-equipped to meet the evolving educational needs of young people and create learning environments that are conducive to the well-being and development of all learners.

Practices and policies

1. Working with stakeholders to identify the competencies and practices that teachers will need to continue serving young people’s evolving needs.

2. Promoting school-based, sustained and collaborative forms of continuing professional development (CPL) through structured support, pedagogical leadership and a school culture that encourages peer-learning and innovation.

3. Encouraging teachers’ investment in continuing improvement and recognising their efforts, for example by expanding opportunities for career advancement in schools.

4. Identifying and addressing barriers that limit teachers’ engagement in professional learning, such as scheduling conflicts, workload issues or a lack of guidance.

5. Aligning teachers’ CPL with system-wide priorities and the needs of young learners by linking it to teacher appraisal or school improvement planning processes.

Other related indicators

Teachers’ recent participation in professional development (OECD, 2018[158])
Types of professional development undertaken by teachers (OECD, 2018[158])
Characteristics of effective professional development (OECD, 2018[158])
Teachers’ needs for professional development (OECD, 2018[158])
Barriers to teachers’ participation in professional development (OECD, 2018[158])

Parents’ Briefcase – France

Context

While parents are typically involved in the schooling of their children during primary education, this relationship weakens as they enter lower secondary education, related to increasing independence, greater distance of school to home, and the multiplicity of teachers that is typical for secondary education. It can be particularly challenging for parents in socio‑economically disadvantaged situations or with a migrant background to support their children during this phase, related to linguistic, financial, and logistic reasons. A lack of understanding of how schools function can further distance parents from their children’s education. In France, teachers in lower secondary schools (collège) observe that the weaker involvement of parents contributes to discipline problems, disengagement, absenteeism, and lower learning outcomes.

Description

In 2008, the school district of Créteil, a Parisian suburb categorised as a Priority Education Zone for its socio‑economically disadvantaged student population, developed a Parents’ Briefcase (La Mallette des parents). The programme aims to improve communication between parents and schools as students transition to collège. It provides parents with the opportunity to participate in three facilitated discussions on how to successfully navigate their child’s transition from primary school to collège. The meetings are facilitated by the school principal and aim to explain how parents can be more involved in their children’s education and encourage them to succeed. The main messages communicated in the meetings include: all parents can help their children; the importance of homework for success; how parents can be involved in their children’s homework; and children need to feel that their parents understand how their school functions. The programme also includes an online platform that provides guidance for school leaders and teachers to develop co‑operation with parents so that they are better able to support their children at school.

Outcomes

A randomised evaluation covering 183 classes across 34 collèges found that the programme is associated with reduced rates of absenteeism and behavioural problems, and improved school performance. Among the students in classes that participated in the programme, absenteeism fell by 12.7%, and by 25.3% among students whose parents also attended meetings. Students were also less likely to experience punishments for disciplinary problems at school – 20.9% less for all students in participating classes and 41.8% less for students whose parents also engaged in the programme. The positive impact endured over the long term – 18 months after the programme had finished, students with parents who had participated in meetings scored 3.2% higher in French tests compared to students in classes that had not taken part.

The running costs of the programme are relatively modest and potentially much lower than other costly interventions such as reducing class size or providing additional teacher training. After some initial start-up costs for designing guidelines to run the parent-school meetings, the additional cost of extending the programme is estimated to be approximately EUR 1 000 per school per year (at the time of the evaluation). Based on the success of the initial programme in Créteil, it was expanded to 1 300 schools in priority education areas across France. The tools and guidelines developed as part of the programme are now freely available on the Ministry of Education website, with adapted resources for parents and for educators.

School Leavers’ Toolkit – New Zealand

Context

In New Zealand, 60 000 young people leave school every year. Like in many other countries, there is a concern that young people do not always leave school with the practical skills and knowledge to successfully navigate life as young adults and to thrive in wider society. While in some countries, courses related to citizenship or life skills are built into the requirements for graduation, New Zealand’s highly flexible school-leaving certificate and the high-level of autonomy devolved to schools for curriculum design means that there can be wide variation in how effectively young people are prepared for life after school.

Description

In 2017, the New Zealand Government committed to providing young people with a “School Leavers” Toolkit’ to ensure they have the knowledge, skills and capabilities required to transition successfully to further education, training or employment. The School Leavers’ Toolkit was launched in 2019. It provides information and advice on civics, well-being, financial literacy, workplace skills and personal well-being. It is aimed at students aged 13 to 18.

Co-design and engagement with young people directly influenced the final approach and design. For example, young people asked for content on mental health and well-being, leading this topic area to be more prominent in the youth-facing website. While designers had originally planned for the website to include fun graphics, user testing with young people revealed they preferred to see themselves as adults in the imagery, with realistic but aspirational photos, bright block colours and minimal text.

A dedicated website helps schools to optimise the effectiveness of the Toolkit by integrating its approaches into school life. The Toolkit includes a range of resources for use by staff secondary school staff. These include lesson plans on themes related to moving out of home, government and voting, money and tax and getting a job. The Toolkit also includes guidance on how to connect with local employers to help students discover, explore and connect with the world of work and activities to support the civic education of students. Schools are encouraged to develop a local curriculum and to integrate their own resources into the Toolkit, notably in relation to financial literacy, the development of workplace competencies, civic rights and the personalised support of students.

The School Leavers’ Toolkit includes: 1) a youth-facing website, also available in te reo Māori, with resources and information about tertiary education, moving out of home, getting a job, government and voting, money and tax and well-being; 2) a teacher-facing website with curriculum resources and tools for teaching civics and citizenship, employability skills and financial capability; 3) a curriculum integration framework for Māori Medium schools for key skills and knowledge; and 4) short, informative and funny videos on the topic areas of the School Leavers’ Toolkit and “myth buster” videos for use in social media campaigns targeted at young people.

Outcomes

As of May 2022, the number of users who had accessed the School Leavers’ Toolkit websites was 97 000, with over 240 000 page views. The New Zealand Ministry of Education committed to continuing a programme of continuous improvement and evaluation of the School Leavers’ Toolkit until at least December 2024 alongside wider reform activity for upper secondary education.

Taking teaching further – United Kingdom

Context

The Further Education (FE) sector has grappled with persistent skills shortages in the United Kingdom. Particularly, the system has struggled recruiting qualified staff with prior commercial or industrial experience suitable for teaching vocational subjects. As industries increasingly demand specialised skills, the urgency for effective strategies to bridge the gap between education and industry requirements has intensified. In this context, the United Kingdom launched the Taking Teaching Further (TTF) programme in 2018. TTF is designed to address some of the recruitment and retention challenges facing the FE sector by attracting experienced industry professionals with expert technical knowledge and skills.

Description

The TTF initiative was launched in June 2018. It was initially piloted across two rounds which ran between 2018 and 2020. Round 1 of TTF took place in the financial year 2018‑ 19 and Round 2 in the financial year 2019‑20. In 2022, the Education and Training Foundation (ETF) completed Round 5, year 1 of the programme. In March 2023, the programme was delivered by the Department for Education (DfE). So far, each round of TTF has also been divided into two separate strands, each with its specific aims and objectives.

Strand 1 of the TTF programme offers financial support to industry professionals transitioning into FE teaching roles, aiming to stimulate demand, aid recruitment, enhance industry experience within the teaching body, and ensure course relevance to employer needs. Strand 1 of TTF funded up to five trainee teachers per organisation or consortium, covering the total cost of a Level 5 Diploma in Education & Training, capped at GBP 4 000 per trainee. Additional funding supported intensive support for new teachers, including team teaching or work shadowing for eight weeks, and reduced teaching workloads for the remainder of the year. Strand 2 focused on fostering collaboration between FE and industry, offering financial support to projects to increase teaching capacity through industry collaborations. These initiatives involve curriculum development, teacher training, and bridging the education-industry gap, in addition to addressing recruitment barriers, utilising effective professional development models, promoting diversity and inclusion, and integrating emerging technologies and digital platforms into education.

Outcomes

The process evaluation from 2022 on the TTF highlights both its achievements and challenges. Within Strand 1, the initiative was successful in addressing critical skill shortages and attracting industry professionals to the FE sector. However, certain providers faced considerable obstacles in recruiting and retaining personnel, largely due to disparities in remuneration between industries. However, educators appointed through TTF demonstrated significant progress, supporting HE institutions with their industry expertise. Despite the challenges posed by the COVID‑19 pandemic, most TTF recruits demonstrated unwavering dedication to pursuing a career in FE teaching.

Regarding Strand 2, providers confirmed the establishment of enduring partnerships with employers, facilitated by the financial support provided by TTF. While the TTF programme has effectively addressed persisting retention challenges, addressing salary differentials remains paramount for ensuring sustained impact.

References

[129] Ahmed, S. et al. (2021), “Evaluation of Flexible Strategies to Manage the COVID-19 Pandemic in the Education Sector”, Global Journal of Flexible Systems Management, Vol. 22/S2, pp. 81-105, https://doi.org/10.1007/s40171-021-00267-9.

[111] American Institute of Research (2020), “The lasting benefits of early college high schools”, Policy Brief, https://www.air.org/sites/default/files/downloads/report/Lasting-Benefits-Early-College-High-Schools-Brief-Feb-2020.pdf.

[159] Avvisati, F. et al. (2010), “Quels effets attendre d’une politique d’implication des parents d’élèves dans les collèges ? Les enseignements d’une expérimentation contrôlée”, Rapport pour le Haut Commissaire à la Jeunesse, https://www.povertyactionlab.org/sites/default/files/documents/La%20Malette%20des%20Parents.pdf.

[20] Baltics News (2023), Five years of “School bag”: what were its successes and challenges?, https://baltics.news/2023/06/25/five-years-of-school-bag-what-were-its-successes-and-challenges/.

[106] Beine, M., R. Noël and L. Ragot (2014), “Determinants of the international mobility of students”, Economics of Education Review, Vol. 41, pp. 40-54, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econedurev.2014.03.003.

[112] Berger, A. et al. (2014), “Early college, continued success: Early college high school initiative impact study”, https://www.air.org/sites/default/files/downloads/report/AIR%20ECHSI%20Impact%20Study%20Report-%20NSC%20Update%2001-14-14.pdf.

[107] Blanden, J., M. Doepke and J. Stuhler (2023), Chapter 6 - Educational inequality, Elsevier, https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.hesedu.2022.11.003.

[130] Blewitt, J. (2010), “Deschooling Society? A Lifelong Learning Network for Sustainable Communities, Urban Regeneration and Environmental Technologies”, Sustainability, Vol. 2/11, pp. 3465-3478, https://doi.org/10.3390/su2113465.

[154] Boeskens, L., D. Nusche and M. Yurita (2020), “Policies to support teachers’ continuing professional learning: A conceptual framework and mapping of OECD data”, OECD Education Working Papers, No. 235, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/247b7c4d-en.

[117] Bolhaar, J., S. Kuijpers and M. Zumbuehl (2020), Effect Wet studievoorschot optoegankelijkheid en leengedrag, CPB Policy Brief, https://www.cpb.nl/sites/default/files/omnidownload/CPB-Policy-Brief-Effect-Wet-studievoorschot-op-toegankelijkheid-en-leengedrag.pdf.

[85] CAF (2016), Escuelas taller de Colombia, una herramienta de inclusión y paz, https://www.caf.com/es/actualidad/noticias/2016/04/escuelas-taller-de-colombia-una-herramienta-de-inclusion-y-paz/.

[132] CEDEFOP/OECD (2021), The next steps for apprenticeship, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg, http://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2801/085907.

[35] Centro Nacional de Consultoria (2015), “Evaluación de impacto y de la sostenibilidad de computadores para educar en la calidad de las educación en las sedes educativas beneficiadas”, https://www.computadoresparaeducar.gov.co/loader.php?lServicio=Tools2<ipo=descargas&lFuncion=descargar&idFile=101&id_comunidad=portal.

[12] Cincera, J. (2008), “Evaluace program Ekoškola”, Envigogika: Charles University E-journal for Environmental Education, Vol. 3(2), https://www.envigogika.cuni.cz/index.php/Envigogika/article/view/30.

[13] Cincera, J. et al. (2017), “Eco-School in kindergartens: the effects, interpretation, and implementation of a pilot program”, Environmental Education Research, Vol. 23:7, pp. 919-936, https://doi.org/10.1080/13504622.2015.1076768.

[91] Covacevich, C. et al. (2021), “Indicators of teenage career readiness: An analysis of longitudinal data from eight countries”, OECD Education Working Papers, No. 258, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/cec854f8-en.

[142] Dahl, Ø., T. Rundmo and E. Olsen (2022), “The Impact of Business Leaders’ Formal Health and Safety Training on the Establishment of Robust Occupational Safety and Health Management Systems: Three Studies Based on Data from Labour Inspections”, International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, Vol. 19/3, p. 1269, https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19031269.

[152] Darling-Hammond, L., M. Hyler and M. Gardner (2017), Effective Teacher Professional Development, Learning Policy Institute, Palo Alto, CA, https://learningpolicyinstitute.org/sites/default/files/product-files/Effective_Teacher_Professional_Development_REPORT.pdf (accessed on 26 March 2019).

[126] Dearden, L., H. Reed and J. Van Reenen (2006), “The Impact of Training on Productivity and Wages: Evidence from British Panel Data*”, Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics, Vol. 68/4, pp. 397-421, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0084.2006.00170.x.

[101] Department for Education (2023), Careers guidance and access for education and training providers Statutory guidance for schools and guidance for further education colleges and sixth form colleges, https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/careers-guidance-provision-for-young-people-in-schools.

[133] Department for Education (2021), Pioneering reforms to boost skills and jobs, https://www.gov.uk/government/news/pioneering-reforms-to-boost-skills-and-jobs.

[145] DigitalSwitzerland (2022), Annual Report, https://digitalswitzerland.com/annual-report-2022/.

[118] DUO (n.d.), Student finance, https://duo.nl/particulier/student-finance/.

[56] Dynamic University (2019), Evaluation of the European Social Fund Project No 8.3.4.0/16/I/001 “Support for Reducing Early School Leaving”, http://www.pumpurs.lv/sites/default/files/2020-06/IKVD_Pumpurs_Petijums_GALA_ZINOJUMS_29_06_2020.pdf.

[108] Dynarski, S. (2003), “Does Aid Matter? Measuring the Effect of Student Aid on College”, American Economic Review, Vol. 93/1, pp. 279-288, https://doi.org/10.1257/000282803321455287.

[14] Ekoskola (2023), Global Sustainable Schools Programme, https://ekoskola.cz/o-programu/.

[116] Employment and Social Development Canada (2022), Canada Student Financial Assistance Program Annual Report 2020 to 2021, https://www.canada.ca/content/dam/esdc-edsc/images/programs/canada-student-loans-grants/reports/cslp-annual-2020-2021/csfa-en.pdf.

[115] Employment and Social Development Canada (2021), Evaluation of the Canada Student Loans Program, https://www.canada.ca/content/dam/esdc-edsc/documents/corporate/reports/evaluations/2021-student-loans-evaluation.pdf.

[160] Erasmus+ (n.d.), Parents’ Briefcase - La Mallette des parents, https://www.schooleducationgateway.eu/en/pub/resources/toolkitsforschools/detail.cfm?n=24944.

[37] European Commission’s Directorate-General for Education, Youth, Sport and Culture (2022), Education and Training Monitor 2022, https://op.europa.eu/webpub/eac/education-and-training-monitor-2022/downloads/comparative-report/Education-and-Training-Monitor-Comparative-Report.pdf.

[45] Eurostat (2023), Early leavers from education and training, https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php?title=Early_leavers_from_education_and_training#Early_leavers_from_education_and_training_.E2.80.93_today_and_a_historical_comparison.

[138] Federal Ministry for Digital and Economic Affairs (2022), Apprenticeship system: The Dual System of Vocational Education and Training in Austria, https://www.bmaw.gv.at/en/Topics/Vocational-Training-and-Skills/Apprenticeship-system.html.

[122] Fialho, P., G. Quintini and M. Vandeweyer (2019), “Returns to different forms of job related training: Factoring in informal learning”, OECD Social, Employment and Migration Working Papers, No. 231, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/b21807e9-en.

[82] Fuhrer, M. and J. Schweri (2010), “Two-year apprenticeships for young people with learning difficulties: a cost-benefit analysis for training firms”, Empirical Research in Vocational Education and Training, Vol. 2/22, pp. 107-125, https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03546491.

[114] Government of Canada (2023), About the Canada Student Financial Assistance Program, https://www.canada.ca/en/employment-social-development/programs/canada-student-loans-grants.html.

[38] Grinevičiūtė, G. et al. (2023), Report of a twofold analysis of ways how innovative technologies may develop creativity of girls, http://www.digigirls.eu/downloads/nuotraukos/sparkdigigirls-io1-report2.pdf.

[40] Guell Paule, L. (2023), SparkDigiGirls, https://digital-skills-jobs.europa.eu/en/inspiration/good-practices/sparkdigigirls-lithuania.

[131] Hamburg, I. (2020), “Learning for sustainable development through innovation in SMEs”, Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, Vol. 7/8, pp. 371-381, https://doi.org/10.14738/assrj.78.8867.

[100] Hanson, J. et al. (2021), An evaluation of the North East of England pilot of the Gatsby Benchmarks of Good Career Guidance, http://www.derby.ac.uk/icegs.

[73] Holzer, H. and R. Lerman (2014), “Work-Based Learning to Expand Opportunities for Youth”, Challenge, Vol. 57/4, pp. 18-31, https://doi.org/10.2753/0577-5132570402.

[89] Hughes, D. (2016), Career education: international literature review, Education Endowment Foundation, https://educationendowmentfoundation.org.uk/education-evidence/evidence-reviews/careers-education.

[169] IFF Research (2022), Taking Teaching Further: Process Evaluation, https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/1119058/Taking_Teaching_Further_-_process_evaluation.pdf.

[43] Interministerial directorate of public transformation (2021), Mon parcours Pro : l’équipe sciences comportementales de la DITP mobilisée pour renforcer l’assiduité des jeunes accompagnés en missions locales, https://www.modernisation.gouv.fr/temoignages-et-retours-dexperience/mon-parcours-pro-lequipe-sciences-comportementales-de-la-ditp.

[69] J-PAL (2023), Vocational and skills training programs to improve labor market outcomes, https://www.povertyactionlab.org/policy-insight/vocational-and-skills-training-programs-improve-labor-market-outcomes?deliveryName=DM162473.

[161] J-PAL The Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab (2021), “Getting parents involved”, J-PAL Policy Briefcase, https://www.povertyactionlab.org/sites/default/files/publication/getting-parents-involved_7.21.21.pdf.

[124] Jyoti, J. and P. Sharma (2015), “Impact of Mentoring Functions on Career Development: Moderating Role of Mentoring Culture and Mentoring Structure”, Global Business Review, Vol. 16/4, pp. 700-718, https://doi.org/10.1177/0972150915581110.

[86] Kalidea (2015), Evaluación intermedia del proyecto: Unidad de gestión del Programa Nacional Escuelas Taller de Colombia-herramientas de paz” en Colombia, https://www.cooperacionespanola.es/wp-content/uploads/documentos/evaluacion_intermedia_escuela_taller_colombia.pdf.

[27] Kinkar, V. et al. (2019), Guidelines for career counsellors: on addressing gender equality and gender stereotypical career choices in career counselling, Innove: Tallinn University, https://www.readkong.com/page/guidelines-for-career-counsellors-on-addressing-gender-4922400.

[72] Kis, V. (2016), “Work-based Learning for Youth at Risk: Getting Employers on Board”, OECD Education Working Papers, No. 150, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/5e122a91-en.

[127] Konings, J. and S. Vanormelingen (2015), “The Impact of Training on Productivity and Wages: Firm-Level Evidence”, Review of Economics and Statistics, Vol. 97/2, pp. 485-497, https://doi.org/10.1162/rest_a_00460.

[153] Kools, M. and L. Stoll (2016), “What Makes a School a Learning Organisation?”, OECD Education Working Papers, No. 137, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/5jlwm62b3bvh-en.

[139] Lachmayr, N. and H. Dornmayr (2008), Ausbildungsverbünde in Österreich – Potenzial zusätzlicher Lehrstellen, https://ibw.at/resource/download/1307/oeibf-ibw-endbericht-ausbildungsverbund,pdf.

[21] Latvian Eurydice Unit (2018), Latvia’s 100th anniversary Culture School bag for every schoolchild, https://eurydice.eacea.ec.europa.eu/news/latvias-100th-anniversary-culture-school-bag-every-schoolchild.

[57] Latvian Ministry of Education and Science (2021), Projekta PuMPuRS īstenotie atbalsta pasākumi 2021. gadā [Support measures implemented by the PuMPuRS project in 2021], http://www.pumpurs.lv/lv/projekta-pumpurs-istenotie-atbalsta-pasakumi-2021-gada.

[22] Latvian National Cultural Centre (2022), About the “Latvian school bag” program, https://www.lnkc.gov.lv/lv/par-programmu-latvijas-skolas-soma.

[23] Latvian National Cultural Centre (2017), More than 40% of the total budget of Latvia’s Centenary assigned to the Latvian School Bag, https://www.km.gov.lv/en/article/more-40-total-budget-latvias-centenary-assigned-latvian-school-bag?utm_source=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com%2F.

[16] Latvias Skolas Soma (2024), Criteria for the inclusion of cultural developments in the content of the programme, https://latvijasskolassoma.lv/par-programmu/kriteriji-kulturas-norises-ieklausanai-programmas-satura/.

[17] Latvias Skolas Soma (2024), Kultūras norišu izlases, https://latvijasskolassoma.lv/resursi/kulturas-norisu-izlases/.

[19] Latvias Skolas Soma (2024), Metodiskie ieteikumi, https://latvijasskolassoma.lv/resursi/metodiskie-ieteikumi/.

[61] Maier, D. (2019), Vienna Vocational Training Guarantee and the transition from school to skilled work, https://www.now-conference.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/NCM_Mayors_Vocational-Training-Guarantee.pdf.

[143] Malmberg-Heimonen, I. et al. (2015), “The Effects of Skill Training on Social Workers’ Professional Competences in Norway: Results of a Cluster-Randomised Study”, British Journal of Social Work, Vol. 46/5, pp. 1354-1371, https://doi.org/10.1093/bjsw/bcv073.

[48] Marbach, L. and A. van Zanten (2023), “With a little help from my family and friends: social class and contextual variations in the role of personal networks in students’ higher education plans”, British Journal of Sociology of Education, https://doi.org/10.1080/01425692.2023.2266574.

[144] Michelsen, S. et al. (2021), “Training agencies as intermediary organisations in apprentice training in Norway and Switzerland: general purpose or niche production tools?”, Journal of Vocational Education & Training, Vol. 75/3, pp. 522-542, https://doi.org/10.1080/13636820.2021.1904437.

[162] Ministère de l’Éducation nationale et de la jeunesse (2020), La Mallette des parents, https://mallettedesparents.education.gouv.fr/professionnels/ID182/la-mallette-des-parents-mode-d-emploi.

[87] Ministry of Culture (2011), Programa nacional escuelas taller Colombia Herramientas de Paz, https://issuu.com/culturaycomunicacion/docs/e-programa_nacional_escuelas_taller.

[168] Ministry of Education (n.d.), Supporting school leavers to take the next step, https://www.springload.co.nz/work/school-leavers-toolkit/ (accessed on 7 March 2024).

[65] Ministry of Education, Science and Sport (2019), Končno poročilo o izvajanju programa PUM-O (Final report on the implementation of the PUM-O programme), https://www.eu-skladi.si/sl/dokumenti/studije-in-vrednotenja/pumo_koncno-porocilo-final-14032019.pdf.

[42] Ministry of transformation and public services (2022), Insertion Professionelle des Jeunes - Mobiliser les sciences comportementales avec un solution numérique favorisant l’autonomie et l’engagement, https://www.modernisation.gouv.fr/files/2022-05/Rapport%20final%20Insertion%20professionnelle%20des%20jeunes%20et%20sciences%20comportementales.pdf (accessed on June 2024).

[66] MOCIS (2024), Projektno učenje mlajših odraslih Plus (PUM-O+), http://www.mocis.si/pum/.

[170] Morris, S. (2022), Understanding the impact of Taking Teaching Further: A feasibility study.

[26] MsHaleKCIS (2024), Gender Roles and Stereotypes, https://embed.kahoot.it/aee73f40-0542-42ec-abff-8710d7c98691.

[47] Musset, P. and L. Mytna Kurekova (2018), “Working it out: Career Guidance and Employer Engagement”, OECD Education Working Papers, No. 175, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/51c9d18d-en.

[165] New Zealand Government Ministry of Education (2020-22), Schhol Leavers’ Toolkit Videos, https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLy7eFR9M9r0V-w4jwquzdjq1huVNVHkYV.

[166] New Zealand Government Ministry of Education (n.a.), School Leavers’ Myths - mashup, https://school-leavers-toolkit.education.govt.nz/en/tertiary-education/.

[163] New Zealand Government Ministry of Education (n.d.), School Leavers’ Toolkit, https://school-leavers-toolkit.education.govt.nz/.

[164] New Zealand Government Ministry of Education (n.a.), School Leavers’ Toolkit for Teachers, https://sltk-resources.tki.org.nz/.

[79] NIFU (2018), Evaluering av lærekandidatordningen, https://www.udir.no/tall-og-forskning/finn-forskning/rapporter/evaluering-av-larekadidatordningen/.

[119] NOS (2022), Basisbeurs voor hoger onderwijs opnieuw ingevoerd, studenten vinden bedrag te laag, https://nos.nl/artikel/2422616-basisbeurs-voor-hoger-onderwijs-opnieuw-ingevoerd-studenten-vinden-bedrag-te-laag.

[3] Nusche, D., M. Fuster Rabella and S. Lauterbach (2024), “Rethinking education in the context of climate change: Leverage points for transformative change”, OECD Education Working Papers, No. 307, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/f14c8a81-en.

[52] OECD (2024), Education statistics - Regions (for ’Developer API’), https://data-explorer.oecd.org/vis?df[ds]=DisseminateFinalDMZ&df[id]=DSD_REG_EDU%40DF_EDU&df[ag]=OECD.CFE.EDS&df[vs]=2.0&dq=A..AUS%2BAU1%2BAU2%2BAU3%2BAU4%2BAU5%2BAU6%2BAU7%2BAU8.......&lom=LASTNPERIODS&lo=5&to[TIME_PERIOD]=false.

[109] OECD (2024), Population with tertiary education 25-34 year-olds/55-64 year-olds, % in same age group, 2022 or latest available, https://data.oecd.org/eduatt/population-with-tertiary-education.htm#indicator-chart.

[67] OECD (2023), Building Future-Ready Vocational Education and Training Systems, OECD Reviews of Vocational Education and Training, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/28551a79-en.

[92] OECD (2023), “Career talks with guest speakers: A guide to delivering an effective career development activity”, OECD Education Policy Perspectives, No. 69, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/93594cb3-en.

[55] OECD (2023), Distribution of entrants to upper secondary education, by programme orientation and outcomes after the theoretical duration plus two years (2021), https://stat.link/gl28r7.

[2] OECD (2023), Education Policy Outlook 2023: Empowering All Learners to Go Green, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/f5063653-en.

[8] OECD (2023), Equity and Inclusion in Education: Finding Strength through Diversity, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/e9072e21-en.

[78] OECD (2023), Figure A1.1. Share of 25-34 year-olds whose highest level of education has a vocational orientation, by level of educational attainment (2022), https://oecdch.art/9bf0cb1baf.

[76] OECD (2023), Figure B1.5. Share of upper secondary vocational students enrolled in combined school- and work-based programmes (2015 and 2021), https://oecdch.art/244ea6c336.

[77] OECD (2023), Figure B1.6. Distribution of students enrolled in upper secondary vocational programmes by type of work-based learning (2021), https://oecdch.art/abf72b8152.

[53] OECD (2023), Figure B3.1. Upper secondary completion rates, by timeframe and programme orientation on entry (2021), https://stat.link/crjkyh.

[74] OECD (2023), Figure B4.3. Age distribution of new entrants to short-cycle tertiary programmes (2021), https://oecdch.art/0b9270a3b2.

[25] OECD (2023), Joining Forces for Gender Equality: What is Holding us Back?, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/67d48024-en.

[29] OECD (2023), OECD Digital Education Outlook 2023: Towards an Effective Digital Education Ecosystem, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/c74f03de-en.

[9] OECD (2023), PISA 2022 Results (Volume I): The State of Learning and Equity in Education, PISA, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/53f23881-en.

[32] OECD (2023), PISA 2022 Results (Volume II): Learning During – and From – Disruption, PISA, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/a97db61c-en.

[46] OECD (2023), “Proposal for an action plan to reduce early school leaving in Spain”, OECD Education Policy Perspectives, No. 71, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/0c249e7a-en.

[33] OECD (2023), Provision or use of digital tools and resources with interactive or AI-based features (2024), https://stat.link/vrxlkq.

[34] OECD (2023), Public provision of open and closed access teaching and learning resources (2024), https://stat.link/ankopu.

[150] OECD (2023), Shaping Digital Education: Enabling Factors for Quality, Equity and Efficiency, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/bac4dc9f-en.

[75] OECD (2023), Table A2.1. Percentage of 18-24 year-olds in education/not in education, by work status (2022), OECD, Paris, https://stat.link/na9q5m.

[50] OECD (2023), Table A2.3 NEET rates among young adults one to three years after completion of selected education levels, by programme orientation and gender (2022), https://stat.link/807ta3.

[51] OECD (2023), Table A2.4 Employment rates of recent graduates, by educational attainment, programme orientation and years since graduation (2022), https://stat.link/0pdg29.

[54] OECD (2023), Table B3.3. Status of upper secondary graduates in the year after their graduation, by gender and programme orientation (2020), https://stat.link/4spdzq.

[88] OECD (2022), Culture and the Creative Economy in Colombia: Leveraging the Orange Economy, Local Economic and Employment Development (LEED), OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/184f1e07-en.

[59] OECD (2022), Education Policy Outlook 2022: Transforming Pathways for Lifelong Learners, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/c77c7a97-en.

[93] OECD (2022), “Job shadowing: A guide to delivering an effective career development activity”, OECD Education Policy Perspectives, No. 62, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/614f4e25-en.

[1] OECD (2022), Recommendation of the Council on Creating Better Opportunities for Young People, https://legalinstruments.oecd.org/en/instruments/OECD-LEGAL-0474.

[6] OECD (2022), Value for Money in School Education: Smart Investments, Quality Outcomes, Equal Opportunities, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/f6de8710-en.

[58] OECD (2021), Education Policy Outlook 2021: Shaping Responsive and Resilient Education in a Changing World, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/75e40a16-en.

[95] OECD (2021), “Experiencing the workplace: The importance and benefits for teenagers”, OECD Education Policy Perspectives, No. 45, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/b679d759-en.

[134] OECD (2021), Figure A7.1. Participation in formal and/or non-formal education and training, by gender (2016), https://stat.link/bj01v8.

[94] OECD (2021), “Getting the most out of employer engagement in career guidance”, OECD Education Policy Perspectives, No. 36, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/fbbc3788-en.

[90] OECD (2021), How youth explore, experience and think about their future: A new look at effective career guidance, OECD, Paris, https://issuu.com/oecd.publishing/docs/how-youth-explore-experience-think-about-their-fut.

[44] OECD (2021), Investing in Youth: Slovenia, Investing in Youth, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/c3df2833-en.

[31] OECD (2021), OECD Digital Education Outlook 2021: Pushing the Frontiers with Artificial Intelligence, Blockchain and Robots, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/589b283f-en.

[135] OECD (2021), Table A7.6. (web only) Percentage of the population wanting to participate in education and training but did not, by reason for not participating (2016), https://stat.link/n72r1o.

[24] OECD (2021), The Future at Five: Gendered Aspirations of Five-Year-Olds, OECD, Paris, https://issuu.com/oecd.publishing/docs/future-at-five-gendered-aspirations-five-year-olds.

[146] OECD (2021), Training in Enterprises: New Evidence from 100 Case Studies, Getting Skills Right, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/7d63d210-en.

[68] OECD (2020), Education at a Glance 2020: OECD Indicators, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/69096873-en.

[105] OECD (2020), Resourcing Higher Education: Challenges, Choices and Consequences, Higher Education, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/735e1f44-en.

[136] OECD (2020), Table A7.4 (web only) Share of enterprises providing continuing vocational training, by size of enterprise and type of training (2015), https://doi.org/10.1787/888934162926.

[137] OECD (2020), Table A7.5 (web only). Share of adults participating in formal and/or non-formal education and training, by educational attainment (2016), https://doi.org/10.1787/888934162926.

[7] OECD (2019), Education at a Glance 2019: OECD Indicators, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/f8d7880d-en.

[149] OECD (2019), OECD Skills Outlook 2019: Thriving in a Digital World, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/df80bc12-en.

[4] OECD (2019), PISA 2018 Results (Volume I): What Students Know and Can Do, PISA, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/5f07c754-en.

[10] OECD (2019), Skills Matter: Additional Results from the Survey of Adult Skills, OECD Skills Studies, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/1f029d8f-en.

[155] OECD (2019), TALIS 2018 Results (Volume I): Teachers and School Leaders as Lifelong Learners, TALIS, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/1d0bc92a-en.

[157] OECD (2019), Working and Learning Together: Rethinking Human Resource Policies for Schools, OECD Reviews of School Resources, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/b7aaf050-en.

[11] OECD (2018), Are Students Ready to Take on Environmental Challenges?, PISA, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://stat.link/vg1mh6.

[158] OECD (2018), TALIS Database, https://www.oecd.org/en/data/datasets/talis-2018-database.html#data.

[5] OECD (2016), PISA 2015 Results (Volume I): Excellence and Equity in Education, PISA, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264266490-en.

[123] OECD (2016), Skills Matter: Further Results from the Survey of Adult Skills, OECD Skills Studies, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264258051-en.

[156] OECD (2013), Synergies for Better Learning: An International Perspective on Evaluation and Assessment, OECD Reviews of Evaluation and Assessment in Education, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264190658-en.

[98] OECD (forthcoming), Percentage of students who have attended job shadowing or a work-site visit.

[96] OECD (forthcoming), Percentage of students who have spoken to a Career Advisor.

[97] OECD (forthcoming), Percentage of students who have visited a job fair.

[49] OECD/ILO (2023), Youth at Work in the G20: Progress and Policy Action towards the Antalya Goal, OECD, ILO, https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---dgreports/---dcomm/documents/genericdocument/wcms_888719.pdf.

[110] OECD/UIS/Eurostat (2023), Indicator B5.1. Distribution of first-time tertiary graduates, by level of education (2021), https://stat.link/s3mky9.

[83] Office fédéral de la statistique (2022), Parcours de formation et intégration sur le marché du travail après le degré secondaire II, https://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/fr/home/actualites/quoi-de-neuf.gnpdetail.2022-0032.html.

[167] Open Government Partnership New Zealand (2022), Update on commitments from OGP National Action Plan 2018-2021, https://ogp.org.nz/new-zealands-plan/third-national-action-plan-2018-2020/update-on-commitments-from-ogp-national-action-plan-2018-2021 (accessed on 7 March 2024).

[151] Opfer, V. and D. Pedder (2011), “Conceptualizing teacher professional learning”, Review of Educational Research, Vol. 81/3, pp. 376-407, https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654311413609.

[99] Percy C and Tanner E (2021), The benefits of Gatsby Benchmark achievement for post-16 destinations, https://www.careersandenterprise.co.uk/media/zt0bgoa0/1488_destinations_report_v4.pdf.

[147] Player, B. (2022), Recommendations for gender-sensitive MINT offerings, https://digitalswitzerland.com/de/empfehlungen-fuer-gendersensible-mint-angebote/.

[60] PuMPuRs (2020), The PuMPuRS project expands the support provided during the emergency situation (Projekts PuMPuRS paplašina sniegtā atbalsta iespējas ārkārtējās situācijas laikā), http://www.pumpurs.lv/lv/projekts-pumpurs-paplasina-sniegta-atbalsta-iespejas-arkartejas-situacijas-laika.

[70] Quintini, G. and T. Manfredi (2009), “Going Separate Ways? School-to-Work Transitions in the United States and Europe”, OECD Social, Employment and Migration Working Papers, No. 90, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/221717700447.

[64] Regional Development Centre (RDC) (2024), Projektno učenje mlajših odraslih Plus (PUM-O+): Program aktivne politike zaposlovanja, https://rcr-pro.eu/o-programu/.

[103] Resnjanskij, S. et al. (2023), Mentoring erhöht die Ausbildungsbeteiligung benachteiligter Jugendlicher, ifo Institute, pp. 7-10, https://www.ifo.de/en/publications/2023/article-journal/berufseinstieg-als-wachstumsfaktor-kompetenzen.

[102] Resnjanskij, S. et al. (2024), “Can Mentoring Alleviate Family Disadvantage in Adolescence? A Field Experiment to Improve Labor Market Prospects”, Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 132/3, pp. 1013-1062, https://doi.org/10.1086/726905.

[120] Rijksoverheid (n.d.), Veranderingen studiefinanciering 2023, https://www.rijksoverheid.nl/onderwerpen/hoger-onderwijs/veranderingen-studiefinanciering-2023.

[104] Rock Your Life (2024), Rock Your Life, https://rockyourlife.de/.

[80] Rogaland fylkeskommune (2024), Hva er lærekandidatordningen?, https://www.rogfk.no/vare-tjenester/skole-og-utdanning/opplaring-i-bedrift/larling-og-larekandidat/larekandidatordningen-opplaring-i-deler-av-lareplanen/hva-er-larekandidatordningen/.

[28] Roosalu, T. et al. (2019), Project BREAK! Evaluating outcomes and assessing impact. Empirical insight, RASI toimetised no 8, Tallinn University, Tallinn, https://www.tlu.ee/sites/default/files/Instituudid/%C3%9CTI/RASI/2019_RASI%20toimetised%20nr%208_evaluating%20outcomes%20and%20assessing%20impact.pdf.

[71] Ross, M. et al. (2020), Work-based learning can advance equity and opportunity for america’s young people, https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/20201120_BrookingsMetro_Work-based-learning_Final_Report.pdf.

[84] Schmid, E., U. Scharnhorst and M. Kammermann (2021), “Developing Two-Year Apprenticeships in Norway and Switzerland”, Vocations and Learning, Vol. 44, https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12186-020-09254-0.

[125] Shukla, S. (2021), “Empirical Study on Understanding Impact of Mentoring and Coaching on Career Development”, SSRN Electronic Journal, https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3907707.

[113] Song, M. et al. (2021), “Early College, Continued Success: Longer-Term Impact of Early College High Schools”, Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness, Vol. 14/1, pp. 116-142, https://doi.org/10.1080/19345747.2020.1862374.

[39] SparkDigiGirls (2024), SparkDigiGirls, http://www.digigirls.eu/.

[41] SparkDigiGirls (2023), Empower Girls’ Creativity Through Use of Digital Technologies, http://www.digigirls.eu/downloads/untitled%20folder%201/io5_e-guidebook_eng_compressed.pdf.

[62] Steiner, M. et al. (2021), Evaluation des Jugendcoachings, Institut für Höhere Studien – Institute for Advanced Studies (IHS), Research Report, https://irihs.ihs.ac.at/id/eprint/6036/.

[81] Storinget (2023), Representantforslag om å styrke lærekandidatordningen og gjøre den tilgjengelig for flere, https://www.stortinget.no/no/Saker-og-publikasjoner/Publikasjoner/Representantforslag/2022-2023/dok8-202223-099s/?all=true.

[15] TEREZA (2023), Our Programs, https://terezanet.cz/.

[18] The Latvian Centre for Contemporary Art (LCCA) (2024), Latvian School Bag, https://lcca.lv/en/education/school-bag/#:~:text=The%20Latvian%20School%20Bag%20program%20aims%20to%20ensure%20that%2C%20within,and%20gets%20to%20know%20Latvia.

[30] Thorn, W. and S. Vincent-Lancrin (2021), Schooling During a Pandemic: The Experience and Outcomes of Schoolchildren During the First Round of COVID-19 Lockdowns, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/1c78681e-en.

[148] United Nations (2015), Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/post2015/transformingourworld.

[36] Universidad Nacional (2018), “Informe final del estudio de medición y evaluación de impacto de CPE 2014-2018 (Final report of the FPC Impact Measurement and Evaluation Study 2014-2018)”, https://www.computadoresparaeducar.gov.co/loader.php?lServicio=Tools2<ipo=descargas&lFuncion=descargar&idFile=100&id_comunidad=portal.

[121] Visser, D., M. Zumbuehl and S. Konijn (2020), Niet-gebruik van de aanvullende beurs, https://www.cpb.nl/sites/default/files/omnidownload/CPB-Notitie-Niet-gebruik-van-de-aanvullende-beurs.pdf.

[63] WAFF (2024), Wiener Ausbildungsgarantie, https://www.waff.at/wiener-ausbildungsgarantie/.

[128] WEF (2023), The Future of Jobs Report 2023, https://www.weforum.org/publications/the-future-of-jobs-report-2023/.

[140] WKO (2024), Ausbildungsverbund - die Förderungen, https://www.wko.at/wien/bildung-lehre/ausbildungsverbund-wien.

[141] WKO (2021), Lehrausbildungsverbünde für die Wiener Hotellerie- und Gastronomiebranche, https://www.wko.at/service/w/bildung-lehre/lehrausbildungsverbuende-hotellerie-gastronomie.html.

Featured topics

Agriculture and fisheries

Climate change

Development

Digital

Economy

Education and skills

Employment

Environment

Finance and investment

Governance

Health

Industry, business and entrepreneurship

Regional, rural and urban development

Science, technology and innovation

Society

Taxation

Trade

Energy

Nuclear energy

Transport

Featured topics

Agriculture and fisheries

Climate change

Development

Digital

Economy

Education and skills

Employment

Environment

Finance and investment

Governance

Health

Industry, business and entrepreneurship

Regional, rural and urban development

Science, technology and innovation

Society

Taxation

Trade

Energy

Nuclear energy

Transport

Countries A - C

Countries D - I

Countries J - M

Countries N - R

Countries S - T

Countries U - Z

Regional and global engagement

Countries

Countries A - C

Countries D - I

Countries J - M

Countries N - R

Countries S - T

Countries U - Z

Regional and global engagement

Publications

Publications

Featured publications

Data

Data

Featured data

News & events

News & events

Featured events

About OECD

About

Engage with us

Work with us

Featured topics

Agriculture and fisheries

Climate change

Development

Digital

Economy

Education and skills

Employment

Environment

Finance and investment