This chapter examines the beginning of the international student journey. First, it examines how prospective international students find reliable information about study options and life in another country. The chapter compares national information platforms, policies and initiatives to support prospective students in their study choice. Second, it considers how well study choices match applicant aspirations and abilities, while also considering a country’s needs. This section also delves into enrolment patterns and key characteristics of international students. Third, the chapter focuses on finances, tuition fees, financial means requirements and scholarships. The fourth section compares different admission approaches. The fifth section describes processes and conditions related to acquiring of study visas/permits, noting recent policy changes.
International Students in Higher Education
Abstract
International students rely most on institutional websites and rankings for information, yet all six countries support comprehensive national information portals complemented by many provincial, state-level, regional and even municipal portals with information for international students. The use of education agents is increasingly being regulated, particularly in Australia, Canada and the United Kingdom.
International students are over‑represented in postgraduate education. A higher share of international students, compared with domestic students, is enrolled in STEM and business, administration and law, while a smaller share is in health and education. International students are primarily enrolled in university-type institution rather than other types of higher education institutions (e.g. universities of applied sciences, academies, engineering schools). Across all six countries, international students are enrolled in institutions based in the major metropolitan areas in even larger shares than domestic students.
International tuition fees are generally highest in Australia, Canada and the United Kingdom, while nearly German public institutions charge only a small administrative fee to all students, domestic and international. Financial means requirements for study visas/permits have risen across most countries, except in France. General scholarship schemes are shifting to more targeted schemes by level, field or region of origin.
Admissions processes range from more centralised platforms (Studielink in the Netherlands, UCAS in the United Kingdom, Études en France in France) to more decentralised organisation, where each institution organises its process. All countries are parties to the Lisbon Recognition Convention and have national information centres and processes for recognising foreign qualifications.
Study visas/permits processing times, fees and sponsor obligations vary between countries. Australia, Canada and the United Kingdom have recently taken steps to tighten the processes, introducing further obligations and restrictions for international students and higher education institutions that host them.
For international students, country of origin and previous educational qualifications play a major role in shaping their study choice, whether they meet eligibility criteria for admission, and how difficult it will be for them to obtain a study visa/permit. This section focuses on the specific challenges prospective and admitted international students face before arrival to study in their chosen host country.
Prospective students make study decisions based on available information about possible study programmes, institutions and places to study, as well as information about study and post-graduation visa/permit. Compared to domestic students, international students are less likely to have pre-existing knowledge, guidance or support in prior education and from their social network. As such, they face greater challenges in obtaining information about study and life in potential destination countries.
In response to this challenge, OECD governments, including the six comparison countries, have developed or supported the development of dedicated online portals for international students (Table 2.1).
Note: Compiled by the OECD Secretariat
All six portals have a similar structure, providing information on why students should study in the country, about the educational system, on the study offer and on living in the country. Portals, to varying extents, also cover topics of study costs and overview of available scholarships. All national portals also either directly mention or provide reference to sites with information about study visas/permits and associated conditions. While all six countries have among the most comprehensive information sources, compared to portals in other OECD countries, the depth of information shared varies greatly between portals. These portals not only provide information but are often part of larger campaigns to promote country and its higher education sector and to assist higher education institutions with recruitment.
Study NL, the Dutch promotion portal and campaign, has recently changed its focus, effectively halting active recruitment and presence in recruitment events, as a result of policy changes aimed at curbing the number of international students. Nuffic closed some of its offices abroad and embassies are no longer engaging in recruitment. The focus shifted from prospective students to those who have already applied, providing more information to support their arrival and integration.
In addition to national outreach and information portals most Australian states and territories, Canadian provinces and territories, German states and individual countries of the United Kingdom also have their respective portals targeted at international students (Table 2.1). In the Netherlands, the sub-national portals are available for specific regions or even cities, supported by respective regional and local governments. Some sub-national portals are also directly supported by individual higher education institutions. There is a greater variety in the scope of information offered by these portals, but they are also an important resource for prospective and current international students, especially on guiding them regarding living, working and studying in a particular state, province, country, territory, region or city.
Survey evidence from some of the comparison countries suggests that international students tend to rely on information from institutional websites and global university ranking portals, while government-supported portals are perceived as less important. In Canada, 95% of international students found institutional websites to be the most useful resource for information and 87% referred to rankings, while only 67% found EduCanada a useful resource and 78% rated the website of Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada positively (CBIE, 2024[1]). In Australia, only 35% of international students said they used the Study Australia website, but 84% of those who did use it found the information to be helpful (Study Australia, 2025[2]). In Germany, international students most frequently report using university website (68% of respondents), followed by ranking portals (36%) and only then the information services provided by DAAD (35%). However, DAAD information services were found to be more relevant than ranking portals (considered relevant by 23% of respondents compared to 16% respectively) but still less than university websites – rated positively by 45% of respondents (DAAD, 2025[3]). Besides institutional websites, ranking and national portals, international students most often rely on information from other people, current students they know or their family and friends, and some prospective students also found information on social media. Despite a relatively information-rich environment for prospective international students, a survey in Canada found that about 25% still faced challenges in obtaining sufficient information about higher education providers (CBIE, 2024[1]).
Information on study programmes and support for international students
All national outreach and information portals for international students allow prospective students to search through an available study offer. The depth of information however differs between countries.
Study Australia has a Course Search tool (2026[4]), which references all programmes listed in the Commonwealth Register of Institutions and Courses for Overseas Students (CRICOS). The prospective students can easily verify that the programme is eligible to sponsor study visas. The portal provides some information about each study programme, including a short course description, qualification classification, address and registration of the provider, attendance options, tuition costs, possible related careers and a reference to more detailed information provided on the institutional websites. While the website is offered in multiple languages, information on study programmes is only in English.
The EduCanada search tool draws from the Canadian Post-Secondary Institution Collection (CPIC) database from Employment and Social Development Canada (EduCanada, 2025[5]). The information provided on the website is relatively brief, allowing users to filter study offer by language, education level and location. The programme description shows only the programme name and the name and location of the provider, with a hyperlink to institutional websites that provide more detailed information about the study content. The content is offered in both English and French.
DAAD has a database with international programmes (2025[6]) that includes a subset of all offered study programmes in Germany that are more geared towards international students, mainly because they are taught in English. Besides degree programmes, the database also includes short programmes and language courses. The search has multiple filters. The database has very detailed information on individual study programmes, programme descriptions, costs and funding, requirements and application process, services offered by the institution, details about the university and relevant contact information. This submission of the programme into the database is voluntary by institutions and is permitted if the programme meets certain criteria. Institutions pay for every programme that is published in the database. Additionally, DAAD also provides the My GUIDE platform (2025[7]), which includes all study programmes offered in Germany, drawing on the Higher Education Compass, an information portal provided by the German Rectors’ Conference. All information is provided by the institutions, basic set of information is available for all study programmes, while detailed information is available for programmes listed in the database with international programmes. DAAD has combined this information with their database on admission requirements and scholarships. Prospective international students can use My GUIDE to conduct a preliminary check on whether they meet admission requirements based on their prior education, and they can also find information about relevant scholarship opportunities. The portal also facilitates communication with the institution, allowing institutions to set up automated replies to general inquiries in both German and English, aided by artificial intelligence (DAAD, 2025[7]).
Campus France directs prospective students to multiple programme search tools (Campus France, 2026[8]), with a diverse level of detail. It has developed its own Taught in English database, which has relatively basic filters (i.e. study level, field, language, type of degree and a marker for institutions with Bienvenue en France label1) and simple information on each study programme, such as a programme description, admission prerequisites, programme objectives, tuition fees and institutional profile. Campus France also has separate catalogues with bachelor’s and master’s level programmes. Both however, offer a relatively limited set of information on individual study programmes. While both catalogues are in English, most content is only in French. The most detailed information is within the CampusArt catalogue, which only covers programmes in arts and detailed information is also only provided in French.
The Study in NL platform, an initiative from Nuffic, provides Studyfinder that includes all English-taught programmes in the Netherlands (2026[9]). The information is simple but comprehensive, covering a programme description, admission criteria, information on tuition fees, available scholarships and a prominent link to the programme at the institutional website. Additionally, the portal recommends Studiekeuze123 as a tool to search for all study programmes offered in the Netherlands, but which is only available in Dutch. This Studiekeuze123 portal provides very detailed information for prospective students, incorporating statistics on enrolment, completion, student satisfaction and labour market outcomes (e.g. profession, job search, salary, match, satisfaction) for each study programme.
As part of the “Study UK” platform, the British Council provides a search tool for programmes and scholarships – Plan your studies (Study UK, 2026[10]). The portal includes key information on tuition, study mode, duration, location of the provider, course details and entry criteria. Additionally, Study UK recommends prospective students to also search for undergraduate programme information on the website of the Universities and Colleges Admissions Service (UCAS) and on Discover Uni platform. UCAS provides detailed programme-level information, focusing on admission, application deadlines and process, entry requirements, historical entry grades, data on student outcomes from the Office for Students and information on fees and funding. Discover Uni incorporates programme-level data from the national student survey, prior education, student progression and completion, accreditation, labour market outcomes and graduate perceptions of the programme.
Agents and third parties
Some international students are aided and guided in their study choice by agents and third parties that provide information and guidance on study options and assist with admission and study visa/permit processes. However, the scale of their use differs and seems to be especially prevalent in Australia, where around 88% of international students used an agent for visa application or enrolment, according to the 2024 Student Experience Survey (QILT, 2025[11]). The use of agents is also quite common in Canada and the United Kingdom, where most institutions work with agents to aid their recruitment and around half of international students are estimated to be referred by agents (ICEF, 2021[12]). Although not all agents are affiliated with the institutions for which they recruit. The use of agents in the Netherlands, Germany and France seems to be more restrained. Rather than relying on agents, Campus France has an extensive network of 257 offices and branches in 134 countries around the world that often provide local advice and guidance (Campus France, n.d.[13]).
All three countries with a widespread use of agents (AUS, CAN, GBR) have regulated the activities of agents through placing requirements on higher education institutions in relation to education agents acting on their behalf. In Australia, for example, as part of the Education Services for Overseas Students Framework, the National Code of Practice for Providers of Education and Training to Overseas Students 2018 directly sets out requirements for providers working with education agents in Standard 4. Higher education institutions need to ensure that their agents act in the best interest of the student. Institutions need to have a written agreement with the education agents and maintain their list in a register, ensure that agents have appropriate knowledge and must take immediate corrective actions if an agent has not complied with the responsibilities (Department of Education, 2023[14]). Observing an increase in risks to compliance, the Tertiary Education Quality and Standards Agency (TEQSA) conducted an assessment in 2023 to observe how providers in Australia are meeting their obligation regarding monitoring of education agents. They found some gaps in internal processes and responsiveness to problems, while some providers were able to address the concerns, in some cases regulatory intervention was required (TEQSA, 2024[15]).
The British Council, the Universities United Kingdom (UUK), the UK Council for International Student Affairs (UKCISA) and the British Universities' International Liaison Association (BUILA) have jointly developed the UK Agent Quality Framework, which includes a guide for students and parents on choosing education agents, a national code of ethical practice for agents and a good practice guide for providers that use education agents. The British Council has furthermore developed training for agents and counsellors, maintains an engagement hub and a database of certified counsellors (British Council, 2025[16]). The UK Government has agreed that signing up to the Agent Quality Framework will be added to the student sponsorship guidance as a sponsorship duty for any sponsors who use agents when recruiting international students.
In Canada, the federal government does not regulate education agents, although some provinces and territories have implemented guidance or regulation on the use of agents as part of their process of accrediting designated learning institutions that are eligible to host international students. For example, amongst a broader suite of measures strengthening support for international students, British Columbia has adopted the International Education Code of Practice as part of its Education Quality Assurance designation, which sets consistent standards for institutions interacting or engaging with an education agent by requiring institutions to have practices for effectively managing and monitoring the performance and conduct of education agents (Ministry of Post-Secondary Education and Future Skills, 2025[17]). On the federal level, the College of Immigration and Citizenship Consultants licenses and regulates International Student Immigration Advisors, that assist international students with immigration matters (College of Immigration and Citizenship Consultants, 2026[18]).
Pre-departure services and guidance
All comparator countries, through the portals mentioned in Table 2.1. , offer relatively comprehensive information concerning the practical aspects of life in the host country. However, some initiatives have also developed activities and tools to support international students prior to their arrival and facilitate their academic and social adjustment to a new environment. The British Council, for example, organises pre‑departure briefings for admitted international students and region-specific events to offer guidance and information on travel, visa, finances, accommodation, expectations and life as a student in the country. The British Council has also developed online courses for international students, relevant before arrival or even during studies, to prepare them to study and live in the country, to manage their wellbeing and prepare them for work (British Council, 2026[19]). “Study in NL” organises regular online question and answer sessions on different topics. These sessions include both relevant experts and current students acting as student ambassadors, to share their experience. The “Study Australia” portal offers international students a detailed Cost of Living Calculator (2026[20]) that allows them to project their expected living expenses based on multiple factors and preferences. The portal also developed a Career Matcher tool (Study Australia, 2026[21]), a short quiz that gives personalised advice on careers that might fit students’ personality and skills. Another tool is the Speaking English Practice Test that identifies areas to improve spoken English (Study Australia, 2023[22]). The “Study in Germany” portal includes, alongside information on study options, a detailed overview of all cities that host a higher education institution, providing practical information about the place and a tool to help find student accommodation (Study in Germany, 2026[23]).
The enrolment patterns of international students tend to differ from those of domestic students. This reflects the different prerequisites, aspirations and specific constraints they face. The challenge for prospective international students is to identify a study programme that suits their aspirations and abilities, within their constraints. As explored above, international students do not always have access to the same set of information and guidance as domestic students, which might lead to sub-optimal decisions and unmet expectations. In parallel, the challenge for institutions and host countries is to shape available study offers to make them attractive to international students, while also considering available capacity and domestic labour market needs.
Enrolment patterns
More international students are enrolled in master’s than in bachelor’s-level programmes
Across OECD countries, international students are enrolled in higher shares in master’s and doctoral programmes (ISCED 7-8) compared to bachelor’s-level programmes (ISCED 6). The share of enrolment in short-cycle tertiary education (ISCED 5) differs between countries (OECD, 2025[24]). Across the six comparator countries (Figure 2.1), this pattern holds, with Australia and Canada having a substantial number of international students enrolled in short-cycle programmes, with about one-third of students in these programmes being international in 2023. The share of international enrolment in bachelor’s-level studies is relatively low in France (7%) and Germany (8%), while the other four countries have between 15% and 17% international-student enrolment rates at bachelor’s level. Combined, across the six countries, about 0.98 million international students were enrolled in bachelor’s-level programmes in 2023, while about 1.03 million were enrolled in master’s-level programmes. International students account for about half (51%) of all students in master’s-level programmes in both Australia and the United Kingdom, and about one‑quarter to one-fifth of all students in Germany (20%), Canada (23%) and the Netherlands (27%). The headcount of students in doctoral programmes is relatively low overall, but the share of international students tends to be high across the six countries.
Proportion of mobile students by level of education (in brackets)
Note: Short-cycle – ISCED 5, bachelor – ISCED 6, master – ISCED 7, doctorate – ISCED 8
[1] DEU: no international students enrolled in programmes reported as short-cycle tertiary education
[2] NLD: total doctoral students (ISCED 8), available data does not provide split for international students.
Source: OECD (2025[25]) Number of enrolled students, new entrants and graduates by age, https://data-explorer.oecd.org/s/3eq.
Compared to five years earlier in 2018, the largest shifts in enrolment patterns were observed in Canada, with the rise of international enrolment in short‑cycle tertiary programmes. The number of international students in these programmes more than tripled (a 211% increase). Enrolment in ISCED 5 programmes also increased rapidly in the Netherlands, but such programmes are still a relatively small part of the sector in the Netherlands. The number of international students more than doubled in master’s-level programmes in the United Kingdom (159% increase) and in doctoral programmes in Germany (101%) (OECD, 2025[25]).
The different levels and types of programmes are oriented towards different groups of international students and respond to their diverse motivations. A growing number of shorter study programmes, pre‑bachelor’s or master’s level programmes, is a response by higher education institutions to offer more affordable study opportunities. Some international students pursue shorter and specialised programmes, as means for their professional advancement. However, there is also a concern that some international students pursue short programmes in order to access post-graduation visa/permits and migrate permanently to the host country.
International students are more frequently enrolled in STEM and business programmes
Across five countries (data not available for the Netherlands), there seem to be consistent differences in the distribution of domestic and international students across study fields (Figure 2.2). International students tend to be enrolled in STEM study fields more frequently than domestic students, especially in study programmes focusing on ICT (on average 5% of domestic students but 11% of international students) and engineering, manufacturing and construction (11% domestic, 16% international). Shares of international students in natural sciences, mathematics and statistics are similar to those of domestic students, except for France, where international students are over-represented (7% of domestic compared to 13% of international students). The highest share of international students is enrolled in business, administration and law to an even greater extent than domestic students in all countries except Germany. In Australia, Canada and the United Kingdom, the share of international students in business, administration and law is about 70% higher than the share of domestic students. Two fields where international students are clearly under-represented are health and welfare (18% domestic, 8% international) and education (7% domestic, 2% international). The shares of enrolment in social sciences, humanities and arts seem to be more varied across countries, but there tends to be a lower share of international students enrolled in these programmes compared to domestic students, except in France.
Note: No internationally comparable data available for NLD. ICT stands for Information and Communication Technologies.
Source: OECD (2025[26]), Distribution of enrolled students, new entrants and graduates by field of education, https://data-explorer.oecd.org/s/3es
Many stakeholders consulted in preparation of this report expressed their concern that international students tend to choose study fields that do not have the best labour market outcomes and are not related to labour markets sectors that are facing labour shortages.
International students are mostly enrolled in university-type institutions
International students in the three European countries (DEU, FRA, NLD) tend to be enrolled in higher levels in university-type institutions rather than in other types of higher education institutions. Table 2.2 compiles available national data for five comparator countries, showing distribution of domestic and international student population across different types of institutions. The United Kingdom is omitted in the table, as nearly all students are enrolled in universities, so sectoral comparison is not relevant.
Note: AUS: Data for 2024, overseas students. Table A includes public universities, Table B approved private universities. Other providers include overseas universities and institutions (Table C) and non-university higher education providers. Categorisation made based on eligibility for public funding and loan scheme. Count only considered students in undergraduate and postgraduate courses.
CAN: Data for 2023/24. International students enrolled in post-secondary ISCED 5-8 programmes.
DEU: Data for 2024/25. Table refers to foreign students rather than international students. Universities of applied sciences also include federal and state universities of applied sciences for public administration.
FRA: Data for 2024/25.
NLD: Data for 2024/25.
GBR: No data reported, as there is only a small number of total students enrolled in tertiary education courses outside universities.
[1] Total students, rather than domestic students. Total students rounded to the closest hundred.
Table compiled and calculated based on:
Department of Education (2025[27]), Selected Higher Education Statistics – 2024 Student data, https://www.education.gov.au/higher-education-statistics/student-data/selected-higher-education-statistics-2024-student-data (accessed on 2 December 2025).
Statistics Canada (2026[28]), Table 37-10-0018-01: Post-secondary enrolments, by registration status, institution type, status of student in Canada and gender, https://doi.org/10.25318/3710001801-eng
Destatis (2026[29]), Statistik der Studierenden Wintersemester 2024/2025 (Statistical report - Student statistics - Winter semester 2024/2025), https://www.destatis.de/DE/Themen/Gesellschaft-Umwelt/Bildung-Forschung-Kultur/Hochschulen/Publikationen/_publikationen-innen-hochschulen-studierende-endg.html (accessed on 19 February 2026).
DEPP (2025[30]), Repères et références statistiques - 2025 (Statistical Benchmarks and References - 2025), https://rers.depp.education.fr/ (accessed on 19 February 2026)
CBS (2025[31]), Hoger onderwijs; internationale studenten, onderwijskenmerken (Higher education; international students, educational characteristics), https://www.cbs.nl/nl-nl/cijfers/detail/85125NED (accessed on 19 February 2026)
The widest gap is in the Netherlands, where about 71% of international students were enrolled in universities, compared to only 38% of the domestic students. In the universities of applied sciences, the trend is reverse, with 62% of the domestic enrolment while only 29% of the international student population (CBS, 2025[31]). In France, 64% of international students on degree mobility were enrolled in universities, compared to 54% of the total enrolment. However, in recent years, the share of international students in France has been rapidly rising in business schools. The most recent data, from 2024/25, show that 16% of international students, while only 10% of the total enrolment was in business schools (DEPP, 2025[30]). In Germany, about 62% of foreign students were enrolled in universities, slightly higher than 57% of domestic students. A smaller share of foreign students was enrolled in the universities of applied sciences, 36% of foreign and 41% of domestic students, but foreign students seem to be more represented in academies and universities of arts (Destatis, 2026[29]).
Outside Europe, as seen in Table 2.2, the distribution is different. In Australia, international students are slightly over-represented in the non-university sector. In 2024, 84% of overseas students were enrolled in Australian universities, while this was the case for 94% of all domestic students (Department of Education, 2025[27]). In Canada in 2023/24, international students in ISCED 5-8 programmes (i.e. tertiary education) are almost evenly split between universities (53%) and colleges (47%). However, about 77% of domestic students are enrolled in universities, compared to only about 23% in colleges. It is important to note that about 0.39 million students are enrolled in other study programmes offered by Canadian post-secondary institutions, primarily colleges (Statistics Canada, 2026[28]).
International students tend to be concentrated in a few major metropolitan areas
Tertiary enrolment tends to be skewed towards urban areas, as higher education institutions are primarily located in these areas and may also be better known. In comparison to domestic enrolment, international students are even more heavily concentrated in major metropolitan areas. This is visible across all six countries to some extent, as seen in Table 2.3.
Five small regions in each country with the highest enrolment in tertiary education
Note: Calculated based on the OECD Analytical Database of Higher Education Providers, which has institutional level data based on national databases for AUS and CAN, and the European Tertiary Education Register for DEU, FRA, GBR and NLD. The database is incomplete but captures a significant part of the enrolment. The shares are calculated out of the enrolment captured in the database. Domestic students calculated based on difference between total enrolment and number of enrolled international students. The small regions based on the OECD Territorial grids TL2024 classification.
AUS and CAN: Each higher education institution was manually associated with the small region (TL3) based on their main location. For other countries (DEU, FRA, GBR, NLD), institutions were already linked with specific small region (TL3).
GBR: Small regions within London combined for comparison purposes.
In Australia, about 40% of domestic students were enrolled in institutions located in Melbourne or Sydney, while about 55% of international students were in the same institutions. In Canada, institutions located in Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver account for 36% of domestic enrolment, but about 45% of international enrolment. In the United Kingdom, Greater London hosts about 14% of domestic enrolment and 27% of all international students. Milton Keynes, which hosts the Open University, has enormous enrolment, but most of these students are distance learners and they reported only a small number of international students. Both major Scottish regions, around Glasgow and Edinburgh both have higher share of international enrolment than domestic enrolment.
In France, the concentration is primarily in Paris, which accounts for about 15% of domestic students and 19% of international students. While other French regions in Table 2.3 have higher share of domestic students, international students are more concentrated in regions around Montpellier, Strasbourg and Marseille, so primarily on the coast or in border regions. In the Netherlands, Amsterdam is a major hub for both domestic and international students, accounting for 15% of all domestic enrolments and 20% of international enrolments. Groningen and Maastricht, and their respective small regions have combined 10% of domestic enrolment, while they host about 22% of all international students in the country. What these regions share is proximity to the border.
In Germany, the enrolment is more evenly spread out, but still with concentration of international students. Higher education institutions in Berlin, with the largest share of the total enrolment in the country, host only about 6% of domestic students, but about 11% of international students. Second, Munich, which has 4% of domestic enrolment and 8% of international enrolment. Other regions are not as internationally oriented, except Aachen, a border region, with 2% of domestic enrolment and 4% of international students.
The regional pattern of international enrolment across all six countries seems to gravitate towards the capital city and the major metropolitan areas, as well as to border regions in Europe.
Countries have been implementing policies to promote greater regional distribution of international students. The Australian Government’s Migration Strategy introduced a system of visa processing prioritisation, that encourages students to take up study programmes linked to sectors with labour shortages and programmes offered in regional locations (Department of Home Affairs, 2023[32]). In the Netherlands, similarly, the border regions and programmes linked to sectors with labour shortages are expected to be exempted from planned regulation of the number of international students allowed to enrol per programme and of whether particular programmes can be delivered in English (Government of the Netherlands, 2024[33]).
In Canada, the federal government has started distributing its Provincial Attestation Letter allocation to provincial governments on a per-capita basis, which will impact the geographic distribution of international students in coming years. It is up to the discretion of provincial and territory governments to allocate the letters to institutions, however they have yet not used this to push international students to apply to a greater diversity of institutions and locations. International students tend to continue to study primarily in major metropolitan areas. Under the former International Education Strategy in Canada, there was a targeted digital marketing strategy to attract students to a greater diversity of educational institutions and study programmes.
In France and Germany, efforts to better distribute international students across the country are mainly pursued through support to institutions to better market themselves and build up support services for international students.
International students tend to be more mature and to have parents with higher education
International students across European countries included in this study tend to be older than their domestic peers at the start of their education (AdvanceHE & HEPI et al., 2025[34]; Eurostudent, 2025[35]). A key factor is that international students are more likely to be enrolled in postgraduate programmes, in which students tend to be older.
From countries with available data, it seems that international students are likely to have at least one parent with higher education more often than domestic students. In the United Kingdom, for example, only about 16% of international students are the first generation to enter higher education, compared to 31% of domestic students (AdvanceHE & HEPI et al., 2025[34]). In Germany, nearly 70% of international students have at least one parent with a higher education qualification, while this is the case for only 57% of German students (Kroher et al., 2023[36]). A similar trend is also observed in the Netherlands, but differences are smaller in the case of France (Eurostudent, 2025[35]). In Canada, in a student survey conducted in 2023, about 34% of international student respondents reported being first generation (i.e. first person in the immediate family to attend a post-secondary institution) (CBIE, 2024[1]). This presents a relatively complex picture. There are some international students who come from a relatively affluent background. At the same time, there are many who, individually and their families, choose to make significant financial commitments to support their study abroad.
Aspirations and motivations
Understanding the aspirations and motivations of international students in relation to their study choice is important to identify which policy levers might be used to steer the choices. Across the selected countries, surveys of prospective and existing international students have found a large value being placed on the safety and security of the host country, the perceived quality of the education system, affordability of studies and living costs, ability to work during studies and possibilities for stay and work after graduation. The choice of institution and programme is shaped by the perceived quality of education and the reputation of the provider – often understood through university rankings – as well as the offer of specific programmes, location, tuition and scholarships, and language of instruction (CBIE, 2024[1]; DAAD, 2025[3]; QILT, 2025[11]). Conditions like social networks, accessibility by transport as well as legal requirements can also shape where and whether prospective students pursue education abroad (Shkoler and Rabenu, 2022[37]).
Countries have introduced and expanded post-graduation visas/permits and also some countries, particularly Australia, Canada and the United Kingdom, and to lesser extent also Germany and the Netherlands, shifted the messaging towards prospective students from primarily emphasising cultural exchange and quality of education, to focus on work opportunities and employment outcomes (Collett, 2025[38]). For example, in the United Kingdom, this shift was part of the 2019 International Education Strategy, which aimed to diversify from where international students are arriving and widen recruitment to the growing middle class, rather than wealthy elite, enabling students to work after study to pay off loans and creating a clear return on the investment (Department for International Trade and Department for Education, 2019[39]). In turn, more international students now cite career and employment outcomes, as well as opportunities to obtain post-graduation visa/permit and permanent residence as key motivators for study choice. Recent research in Australia highlighted how central permanent residency became to many choices international students made, including enrolling in programmes that they have no particular interest in and might not want to work in long-term, but ones that offer the highest chances of obtaining permanent residence (Jobs and Skills Australia, 2025[40]). Findings from surveys in Germany suggest that international students consider expected post-graduation income, career opportunities and specific career goals, as well as the reputation, ranking and international orientation of the institution in their study choice, more than domestic students (Kroher et al., 2023[36]). Another survey among international students in Germany also confirms that they are mostly considering where they can study with their financial means, possibilities to work in the country after studies and what is the offer of study programmes, especially taught in English (DAAD, 2025[3]).
These various motivations and aspirations intersect and apply to various subgroups of international students. A study by DAAD providing an in-depth survey of analysis of choice motivations has proposed five profiles of international students and their key characteristics (Pineda et al., 2022[41]):
a) Cultural explorers have desire to try life abroad. They are curious about other cultures and want to develop themselves, but do not always have clear academic or career goals.
b) Cosmopolitans are people already exposed to a multi-cultural environment; they might have been mobile before and often speak multiple languages.
c) Career-oriented pragmatists are focused on improving their career prospects and focus on labour market relevance of their studies. They are flexible in study choice, based on costs and relevance.
d) Career-oriented idealists often have a strong interest in a specific discipline and possible career afterwards. They tend to be very targeted in where they apply and have high expectations.
e) Immigrants came to the country for non-academic reasons but decide to pursue studies. This category can also include displaced populations.
Abilities and capacities
As for domestic students, the choice of study programme is guided by prospective students’ existing general or subject‑specific knowledge and abilities. Different education systems have different focuses and, as a consequence, international students might have more advanced knowledge and skills in some domains compared to domestic students, but also greater weaknesses in other areas. Study choice for international students is thus also shaped by their prior education, the topics it focuses on and the type of qualification they already hold. Because of prior education and future plans, some international students are also more inclined to study programmes with a more international focus (e.g. international law, international business, international relations) or area studies.
A major ability that shapes study choice is language, which influences choice of the country and language of instruction. International students with higher German proficiency more frequently pick Germany as their first-choice destination for studies (DAAD, 2025[42]), while mobility to France is predominantly Francophone (Cour des comptes, 2025[43]). One reason the Netherlands has become such a popular student destination, has been the widespread use of English in instruction and the ability to use English in daily life. In Germany, France and the Netherlands, English-taught programmes have much higher shares of international students than those taught in the national language. Language proficiency can also shape choice of a study programme. Irrespective of where they are taught, some study fields, like ICT and business, have more study content and learning materials in a widely spoken international language (primarily English) and some fields, like mathematics or physics, can rely more on abstraction. While students in study fields, like journalism, law or literature, require very high levels of proficiency in the language of instruction.
Constraints to enrolment
Citizenship shapes the particular conditions associated with entry to another country. While students from EEA countries can freely move around most of Europe, non-EEA students often face complicated and lengthy processes to obtain a study visa/permit. A correlated factor to country of origin is language proficiency, with prospective students from Francophone countries often having already studied in French and having more options to study in France or in Canada. A third factor is prior education, which also differs between countries and even within countries, with impacts on admission requirements and the existing knowledge students possess in specific subjects. A fourth factor is bilateral and multilateral agreements on recognition of secondary and higher education qualifications between countries, which can facilitate the access of some international students and hinder others. All six countries reviewed here are part signatories to the Lisbon Recognition Convention, Convention on the Recognition of Qualifications concerning Higher Education in the European Region. They all have a national information centre and established processes for the recognition of higher education qualifications. This topic is covered in more detail in section Recognition and equivalence of foreign qualifications and in Chapter 5.
As noted, a key factor in the decisions of international students is affordability, including tuition fees, expected living costs and the availability of scholarships and other financial assistance. The costs of living and studies, linked with a lack of affordable housing, are becoming a major obstacle to international mobility in all six countries covered by this study (Studyportals, 2025[44]). The challenge lies not only in the total expense the studies entail, but also in a lack of clarity about the level of resources needed and a risk of actual costs being higher than anticipated and the opportunities available to access part-time work during studies being more challenging than expected (Oduwaye, Kiraz and Sorakin, 2023[45]).
The annual average or most common tuition fees for international students and the financial means required by visa/permit regulations in the six countries covered by this study are shown in Table 2.4. Data presented here, collected for the OECD Education at Glance 2025, are averages for master’s or equivalent programmes, which does not reflect the level of tuition across various tertiary education programmes, but they are the best available and most comparable data on this issue.
Australia, Canada and the United Kingdom all charge relatively high fees to both domestic and international students, but international students on average pay at least double the rate of domestic students. One exception are Scottish domiciled students studying in Scottish universities, whose tuition fees are waived.
The Netherlands has relatively low tuition fees for domestic students and student from other EEA countries, but substantially higher tuition fees for non-EEA international students (about 28% of international students). France has even lower annual average tuition fees for domestic students and students from EEA countries than the Netherlands. In 2019, France has introduced differentiated tuition fees for international students coming from non-EEA countries, although these are not yet broadly applied (Cour des comptes, 2025[43]) and annual average is therefore still relatively low. In Germany, rather than tuition fees, all students, regardless of their origin, have to pay a relatively small administrative fee. This fee is a mandatory flat charge which typically covers university administrative costs, contributions to the student services organisation, the student union and often the semester ticket for public transportation. Only a few students also pay tuition fees, this includes students in private higher education institutions and non-EEA international students pay tuition fees in three German states, Baden-Württemberg (in all public institutions), Bavaria and Saxony (institutions can choose).
Note: In DEU, FRA and NLD students from other EEA countries are treated as domestic students.
[1] Rounded, converted to USD as of 27 February 2026. Monthly amounts for FRA and NLD calculated for annual amount based on 12 months, while for GBR based on nine months as international students in the United Kingdom need to provide proof of financial resources only up to nine months.
[2] Students in Germany pay administrative fee rather than tuition fees. Public institutions in three states, all in Baden-Württemberg and some institution in Bavaria and Saxony charge fees to non-EEA international students.
[3] No data reported by the United Kingdom for the OECD collection. The amount is range based on information provided by the British Council on their website, rather than an annual average. Currency converted to USD as of 27 February 2026.
[4] Tuition fees waived for Scottish domiciled students enrolled in Scottish universities. Domestic tuition fees also capped in the Northern Ireland for domiciled students at about half of the national cap.
Source: Annual tuition fees: OECD (2025[46]), Education at a Glance 2025: OECD Indicators, https://doi.org/10.1787/1c0d9c79-en.
Tuition fees for GBR based on Study UK (2026[47]), Cost of studying in the UK, https://study-uk.britishcouncil.org/moving-uk/cost-studying (accessed on 26 February 2026).
Required financial means for study visa/permit based on information provided by countries and from OECD (forthcoming[48]), Services and Costs in International Study.
The study visa/permit system in all six countries places a requirement on students to demonstrate sufficient annual financial means (Table 2.4). Immigration authorities require that for the first study visa/permit application, prospective students show proof of resources for the first year of studies. In Australia and the United Kingdom, international students on programmes longer than one year do not have to again prove resources. In Canada, as part of the initial application, international students are also required to have some evidence on how they plan to fund the further years of their studies. In France and Germany, regardless of the length of study, international are given time-limited residence permit, one or two years, and they need to prove that they meet annual financial requirements every time they renew their residence permit. In the Netherlands, higher education institutions, as sponsors of study visa, are required to check annually whether international students have sufficient resources to support themselves.
The lowest amount is in France, where the requirement has not been updated for several years, and has been found to be well below the real costs of living, especially in Paris (Cour des comptes, 2025[43]). All other countries have been updating these figures in recent years to better reflect living situation. For example in Canada, prior to December 2023, international students were required to document annual financial means of CAD 10 000 (USD 7 325), amount that was not adjusted for many years prior. The current requirement, as of November 2025, is more than double the amount. Other countries more directly link the amounts required to expected living expenses, with the United Kingdom also making a distinction between students coming to London, where the costs of living, especially rent, is higher than elsewhere in the country. Proving sufficient financial means is reported as an increasing challenge for international students. In Canadian survey, carried out prior to the recent increases in required financial means, 35% of international students reported having issues with demonstrating sufficient funds (CBIE, 2024[1]) and in Germany 39% of international students found proof of financial means to be one of the most difficult aspects before arrival (Pineda et al., 2022[41]).
The relatively high price tag of international mobility is one of the reasons why international students tend to come from more affluent backgrounds, are dependent on scholarships or fund their studies from their savings and working on the side. To address affordability issues and steer study choice, some governments provide scholarships, loans, grants or tuition fee exemptions, in a targeted or generalised fashion. However, in recent policy shifts, the reviewed countries have been moving away from general financial aid towards more targeted funding, focusing on regions, postgraduate programmes, specific study fields and mobility from a few selected partner countries.
Australia has implemented the “Australia Awards” scheme, which offers scholarships every year to students coming from developing countries, covering their tuition, travel and living expenses (Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, 2026[49]). In Canada, most of the financial aid to international students comes from institutions or private sources. Provincial, territorial and federal government schemes are oriented towards shorter education or training mobilities, for example, the Emerging Leaders in the Americas Program and Study in Canada Scholarships. Funding is provided for short-term study or research exchanges rather than for degree mobility. There are some notable exceptions, through participation in the Commonwealth and Francophonie scholarship schemes. Some measures and incentives also exist on the provincial and territorial level. For example, the Government of Quebec provides exemptions from differential tuition fees for some international students coming from countries with which it had signed an international agreement. In September 2023, it also introduced a distinct scheme of exemptions for students who go into selected study fields, studying in French and in institutions outside Greater Montreal (Gouvernement du Québec, 2024[50]).
In France, the Eiffel Scholarship offers a monthly stipend primarily to international students in master’s and doctoral-level programmes, often connected with fee waivers offered by the institution. Additionally, some French embassies offer specific scholarships for students coming from the countries where they are located (Campus France, 2025[51]). In 2019, when France introduced higher tuition fees for non-EEA international students, it allowed institutions to exempt up to 10% of international students from higher fees. However, most higher education institutions decided to provide exemptions to a higher share of international students. It is estimated that only 10% of non-EEA international students pay differentiated tuition fee (Cour des comptes, 2025[43]).
Most higher education institutions in Germany continue to support international students by not charging tuition fees, instead only charging a small administrative fee each semester. Additionally, DAAD has multiple scholarship schemes that go towards covering living expenses, some of which focus on specific fields or partner countries. In the Netherlands, the NL Scholarship offers a modest one-time grant of EUR 5 000 (USD 5 909) to first-year international students coming from outside the EU (Study in NL, 2026[52]). There are multiple scholarship schemes in the United Kingdom (Study UK, 2026[53]). The British Government, through the Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office supports the Chevening and Commonwealth scholarship schemes, both covering tuition, living expenses, travel and visa for postgraduate studies. The British Council, in partnership with universities, has also introduced the GREAT Scholarships, a one-time GBP 10 000 (USD 13 420) award towards postgraduate study, focused on selected countries.
In the area of higher education admissions, the countries analysed in this report differ in two primary respects: the level of centralisation in the application process and the timetable for applications. Australia and Canada have more diverse application pathways, with some centralised portals in some provinces, states or territories, but a majority of international students apply directly to the institutions. In Germany, many institutions are part of the uni-assist platform, which can perform an initial or full evaluation of international students’ application, especially of their prior education (uni-assist, 2026[54]). The most recent data suggest that most international students (42%) still apply directly to their institutions of choice and another 15% after initial evaluation via uni-assist. However, about 26% of international students in Germany apply directly through the uni-assist portal and about 9% went through Hochschulstart portal, used for application to admission-restricted programmes (DAAD, 2025[3]).
France is also in a transitionary period, with the development of the Études en France (Study in France) platform, which facilitates both admission and study visa/permit applications, now covering applications from 73 countries. Campus France local offices interview candidates and provide them guidance, while admission decisions are made by individual institutions. Students from other countries apply through the same portal as domestic students: Parcoursup (Campus France, 2025[55]). The Netherlands has a centralised portal for both domestic and international students, Studielink (2026[56]), although some institutions process international applicants directly. In the United Kingdom, most applications for undergraduate degrees go through UCAS, about 90% of international undergraduate entrants from the EU and about 60% of the non-EU international entrants in 2023 (Bolton, 2026[57]). For postgraduate programmes, which enrol more international students, students apply directly to institutions. Countries with more centralised applications tend to have more standardised processes, systems to pre-screen applications and collect information. However, in all countries, admission decisions are still made by individual institutions. A centralised or co-ordinated approach to applications allows setting system-wide limits on number of applications by one person and to manage offers based on priority set by the applicant. This can reduce number of offers received by one applicant and facilitate enrolment confirmation. Prospective students can be also encouraged to apply to less known institutions, promoting greater regional and institutional distribution of international students.
The primary intake in most countries is in September or October of the year, while in Australia the academic year starts in February. However, countries differ by application windows and deadlines. The gap between application and enrolment is relatively long in Canada and the United Kingdom. In Canada, the exact application window and deadline vary by institution and programme, although most applications for the fall intake open in October of the previous year, with admission deadlines usually from January to March of the entry year, some institutions extending it further into the year. In the United Kingdom, the application deadlines are more centrally fixed in UCAS, with an early deadline for some institutions and study fields already in October of a year before intake, while most undergraduate courses have a deadline in January. However, applications can still be made until end of June (UCAS, 2026[58]). Deadlines for postgraduate study programmes are more varied. As part of introducing its new application platform for international students, France has recently tried to move the application period ahead of the summer to give incoming students more time to apply for study visa/permit and ensure that students can arrive to France in time. Late admissions have been attributed to a relatively low confirmation of studies, as only about 53% of students offered a study place actually enrol (Cour des comptes, 2025[43]). Currently, in France, international students should mark their choices in the platform by the beginning of April, and the admission decisions are made by July (Campus France, 2025[59]). The Netherlands has a January deadline for programmes with a fixed number of study places, while other applications must be made by early May (Study in NL, n.d.[60]). Germany has a comparatively late deadline for fall intake in mid-July (DAAD, n.d.[61]). In Australia, the deadline would usually fall in October to December, for the February intake, although the exact deadline depends on the institution and programme. It is important to ensure that prospective students have easy access to information about application deadlines. Furthermore, there needs to be sufficient time after the admission decision is communicated, for students to obtain their study visa/permit and to arrange their move.
Recognition and equivalence of foreign qualifications
One of the primary challenges in assessing the application of international students is to get their foreign qualification recognised and compared against domestic qualifications and to understand whether they meet admission criteria. In all comparator countries, the decision on recognition and equivalence is made by the institutions accepting the students, but in some cases, some institutions outsource part of the assessment process, and countries also approach differently whether they support gathering of information on foreign qualifications. In line with their international, legal commitments, under Lisbon Recognition Convention that governs recognition of higher education qualifications (Council of Europe, 1997[62]), all countries included in this report have established processes of recognition of higher education qualifications (OECD, 2026[63]), which facilitates access especially to postgraduate degrees.
Furthermore, under the Lisbon Recognition Convention, all six countries have established national information centres and co‑operation mechanisms that collect and share information about the higher education system (part of the ENIC-NARIC Networks). The Australian Department of Education (ENIC Australia) developed Country Education Profiles, an online qualifications recognition tool, which institutions can access for a fee, to facilitate the recognition and equivalence of foreign qualifications (Department of Education, n.d.[64]). In Canada, the Canadian Information Centre for International Credentials (CICIC or Canadian ENIC) is mandated under UNESCO conventions to provide information and referral services to individuals and organisations on the recognition of academic and occupational credentials for working and studying in Canada and abroad, as well as descriptions of the 13 provincial and territorial education systems (CICIC, 2025[65]). In complementarity, six members of the Alliance of Credential Evaluation Services of Canada (ACESC) have been mandated to issue assessment reports for general purposes to outline expert, non-binding opinions on the assessment of academic credentials issued outside Canada (ACESC, 2025[66]). These reports are widely used by competent recognition authorities in Canada, such as some post-secondary educational institutions that may rely on these third-party services in their admission decisions. In Germany, the Central Office for Foreign Education (ZAB or German ENIC-NARIC) manages the “anabin” database, which lists many foreign qualifications and their German equivalent (ZAB, 2026[67]). Many institutions are part of the uni-assist platform and use it to evaluate the applications against the anabin database. The “My GUIDE” platform provided by DAAD is the only one that allows international students to conduct a pre-check on whether their qualifications meet the admission requirements for specific programmes. France Education international (ENIC-NARIC France) also gathers information on foreign credentials and recognition and equivalence procedures are built into both admission portals (France Éducation international, 2026[68]). In the Netherlands, Nuffic (Dutch ENIC-NARIC) has a statutory task to advise the public and government about comparability of foreign qualification to the Dutch system. Nuffic therefore developed a public overview of foreign education systems comparing them with the Dutch education system (Nuffic, n.d.[69]). Lastly, in the United Kingdom, information on foreign qualification is also collected centrally by the UK ENIC and admission offices have subscriptions to this database (UK ENIC, 2026[70]).
International students not only need to be admitted to the institution but many also need to obtain permission to enter and reside in their chosen host country through a study visa/permit if they do not have the citizenship or another authorisation to be in the country. The terms used and processes to obtain the authorisation differ between countries and are explained in detail in Annex 2.A. Exception to this occur in the case of Germany, France and the Netherlands, for international students who are nationals of another country within the EEA, and more specific exemptions exist based on bilateral agreements between countries. As already mentioned, changes in study visa/permit access have been the primary policy tool used by some countries to regulate the number of international students in the country. Institutions around the world report that restrictive government policies are a significant obstacle to international enrolments, with this factor mentioned by 86% of surveyed institutions in Australia (Studyportals, 2025[71]), 90% of responding providers in Canada, 51% in the United Kingdom and around 59% in other European countries combined (Studyportals, 2025[44]). Countries are not only using migration policy to reduce or stabilise the number of international students but also taking steps to make the study visa/permit application processes more seamless and efficient and facilitating access to the country for admitted international students. France and Germany have made this a priority in their internationalisation strategies. Australia has been working to implement a system where some study visa applications are prioritised, and Canada has recently introduced expedited visa processing for international PhD students.
Data from a policy survey for the forthcoming OECD publication show differences in processes for study visa/permits (OECD, forthcoming[48]). First, in terms of processing times, ranging from on average less than two weeks in the Netherlands, three weeks in the United Kingdom and up to 60 days in Canada (and up to 120 days for study permit extension). However, processing times also depend on demand and the country where the application is filed. While Dutch immigration authorities have up to three months to decide, visas are often processed quicker. In part, because higher education institutions, as recognised sponsors, do their due diligence and they carry the legal responsibility for the risks involving the migration.
Australia has recently increased the student visa application fee to AUD 2 000 (USD 1 422 converted as of 27 February 2026). The United Kingdom also has a high fee of GBP 524 (USD 706) in addition to a mandatory immigration health surcharge of GBP 776 (USD 1 046). The UK Government has also recently announced an intention to introduce an international student levy, which will require higher education institutions in England to pay a flat fee of GBP 925 (USD 1 247) per international student per year, starting from academic year 2028/29 (UK Government, 2026[72]). This may be passed to international students in the form of higher tuition fees. France has the lowest fees (USD 59 or USD 117 based on country), followed by Germany (USD 89), Canada (USD 110) and the Netherlands (USD 287).
All six countries require study visa/permit applications to include proof of acceptance or sponsorship from the institution, as well as to provide evidence of financial means and of prior education. In most countries (except a few Canadian provinces/territories), international students also need to secure health insurance. Australia, Canada and the United Kingdom require a health certificate or check before travel. Only Australia requires to present a criminal record check and proof of accommodation, in case they are still minors upon arrival.
Requirements and guidance for institutions hosting international students
A shared prerequisite for study visas/permits is proof of acceptance from a recognised (higher) education institution. Some of the countries analysed impose specific conditions and requirements on institutions and programmes related to issuing study visas/permits.
Australia has the Education Services for Overseas Students framework, which consists of dedicated legislation from 2000, a national code of practice from 2018 and a register of institutions and programmes that can enrol students on student visas. The framework regulates the work of the Tuition Protection Service and outlines the registration process and obligations for registered providers. The national code of practice provides standards for registration and conduct of these providers, covering a wide range of topics, including marketing and recruitment practices, agreements with students, use of educational agents, support services for international students, student transfers, deferrals, suspensions and cancellations of enrolment, and visa requirements (Department of Education, 2023[14]).
In the United Kingdom, all institutions that want to enrol international students on a study visa, need to obtain a student sponsor licence from UK Visas and Immigration. They need to meet certain basic criteria and annually pass the Basic Compliance Assessment. As part of Immigration White Paper published in May 2025, the UK Government has announced that it will tighten the requirements. The assessment will require student sponsors to have a visa refusal rate of less than 5% of admitted students (down from 10% already required), an enrolment rate of at least 95% of accepted students (up from 90%) and a course completion rate of at least 90% of enrolled students (up from 85%) (UK Government, 2026[72]). Besides that, the regulation gives institutions instructions on how to register students, what work during studies is allowed, requirements to report any changes to student status and institutions need to remain under the oversight of one of the quality assurance bodies (UK Visas and Immigration, 2025[73]). The UK Government also considers that institutions have obligations under consumer protection law, which apply to students in general, especially in relation to information provision to prospective and current students, clear and fair terms and conditions, and complaint handling processes (Competition and Markets Authority, 2023[74]). This is accompanied by guidance from the Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education (QAA), Supporting and Enhancing the Experience of International Students in the UK, focused on information provision pre-arrival and on arrival, induction and integration, provider requirements and external compliance, academic support, professional services and non-academic support, inclusivity and employability (QAA, 2023[75]).
In Canada, federal government and provinces/territories have introduced a more robust system of requirements on institutions hosting international students. Within provincial/territorial responsibility for licensing, accreditation and approval of institutions and programmes, provinces and territories are responsible also for the designation of learning institutions for the purposes of hosting international students. Through federal-provincial/territorial collaboration, a single Designated Learning Institutions list is compiled and hosted by the Government of Canada. The list serves as the reference for the granting of study permits, conditional on the acceptance of the individual into their study programme. Provincial and territorial requirements vary, supplementing general criteria and conditions applicable to all student intake and awarding of qualifications with specific assurances pertaining to international students, such as recruitment practices, information provision and support services. Additionally, a system of provincial attestation letters was introduced in 2024. These letters are a mandatory document issued through a province/territory to confirm that an international student has been allocated a space within the national cap on study permits.
In Germany, there are no elaborate specific conditions on which institutions can host international students, the only condition is that they are a recognised educational institution. While there are no legal criteria, the German Rectors’ Conference has adopted a National Code of Conduct for German Universities Regarding International Students (2009[76]) that provides guidance to institutions. The national code covers topics like information and marketing, admission and placement, academic, language and social support and counselling, services related to completing studies and handling complaints.
The Netherlands works with a system of recognised sponsors. In the case of study visas/permits, higher education institutions carry a considerable responsibility. They check the entry conditions of the student and will apply on behalf of the international student for residence permit. Institutions that are recognised sponsors bear legal risk and obligations for the international students they sponsor. Additionally, a national commission with the representatives of the government and higher education institutions has developed the Code of Conduct for International Students in Higher Education (2024[77]), which guides institutions in relation to information provision, use of agents and private providers, admission and registration, and offers and assistance to international students. The commission has also further elaborated specific guidance on language tests.
France is a special case. Regulation states that study visa/permit can only be granted to students admitted to a recognised provider. However, no definitive list of all providers and programmes exists, which has led to some confusion regarding which programmes and providers are state recognised (Cour des comptes, 2025[43]). Campus France, as part of the 2018 internationalisation strategy, developed an institutional label Bienvenue en France (Welcome to France), which assesses the quality of services for international students in higher education institutions. The criteria consider the quality and accessibility of information, orientation services and activities, teaching support, housing and life on campus, post-graduation support and commitment to sustainability and social responsibility (Campus France, 2024[78]).
International students need to apply for the student visa (subclass 500) that acts both as authorisation to enter and reside in the country for the duration of studies and usually a few additional months after the end, depending on the length of the study. Students arriving from outside Australia need to inform their education provider of their address within seven days of their arrival and report any changes in residential address. More information: https://immi.homeaffairs.gov.au/visas/getting-a-visa/visa-listing/student-500.
International students need to apply for a study permit that authorises them to stay in the country for the duration of their study with some additional time. Once the study permit is issued, the applicant will also receive either a temporary visa or a travel authorisation, allowing entry to the country. More information: https://www.canada.ca/en/immigration-refugees-citizenship/services/study-canada/study-permit.html.
International students need to apply for visa de long séjour valant titre de séjour (long-stay visa equivalent to a residence permit) for the purpose of study. The visa is valid up to one year. Within three months of entry, students need to validate it online. At least two months before the visa expires, students need to apply for a temporary residence permit, which can last one year or be multi-annual (up to four years) and is renewable. More information: https://www.service-public.gouv.fr/particuliers/vosdroits/F2231.
International students need to apply for either Visum zu Studienzwecken (Student visa) or, if they have not been yet admitted, Visum zur Studienbewerbung (Prospective student visa). The student visa is valid for up to one year, while the prospective student visa is only valid for up to three months, but can be extended up to six months. Within three months of entry to Germany, international students need to apply for a residence permit, issued for up to two years and can be extended. More information: https://www.study-in-germany.com/en/plan-your-studies/requirements/visa/.
In the Netherlands, higher education institutions, as visa sponsors, are responsible for checking whether the international students meet the entry conditions. Institutions bear the legal responsibility for everyone they sponsor. Higher education institutions apply for the student residence permit for university or higher professional education on behalf of international students. If needed (i.e. if they do not have a current permit to reside in the Schengen zone), international students are given an entry visa. Upon arrival in the Netherlands, a residence permit card is issued for the duration of studies, up to five years. More information: https://ind.nl/en/residence-permits/study.
International students need to apply for the Student visa when their higher education institution issues the Confirmation of Acceptance for Studies (CAS). The student visa is valid for the duration of the studies with some additional time, depending on programme length. The visa is both an authorisation to enter the country and to reside in it. More information: https://www.gov.uk/study-uk-student-visa.
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← 1. Label awarded based on assessment on how well a higher education institution can support international students, explained in detail in section Requirements and guidance for institutions hosting international students