This chapter looks at what happens to international students after graduation. First, the chapter looks at intentions to stay and evidence on how many international students remain in the country post-graduation. Second, it outlines the processes for recognition of the acquired qualifications in other countries. The third section examines the different arrangements for post-graduation visas/permits and the possibilities for longer or permanent stay in the country. Fourth, the chapter analyses available evidence on the labour market outcomes of international students and challenges they face in accessing the job market. Fifth, it highlights existing international alumni networks.
International Students in Higher Education
A comparative analysis of trends, challenges and policy responses in Australia, Canada, France, Germany, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom
Abstract
While most international students intend to stay in the country, at least for some time, only some remain long-term. Five years after being granted a study visa/permit, many international students are no longer in the country on a valid visa/permit. This ranges from about half in Canada and Germany, about one-third in Australia and France, one‑fifth in the Netherlands and below one‑tenth in the United Kingdom. With the expansion of post-graduation visas/permits, a higher share of international students appears to stay short-term in some countries.
All examined countries have adopted the Lisbon Recognition Convention, facilitating recognition of their higher education qualifications abroad.
Post‑graduation visa/permit schemes differ between countries. They typically last from one to three years, depending on country and level of study. Recent or announced changes announced amend conditions and eligibility, as well as the duration of the visa/permit. While temporary stay in the country after graduation is common, transitions to permanent residence or citizenship often take many years, and many international graduates leave before securing it.
International graduates often start with lower employment rates or salaries than domestic peers, but gaps typically shrink with time in the labour market. Proficiency in the local language, relevant work experience, internships and access to employer networks ease the transition.
There appear to be tensions between recruitment messaging, which suggests future employment and possible residence, and the realities of post‑graduation opportunities.
Most international students intend to stay on, but only some remain long-term
Survey evidence suggests that most international students contemplate staying in their host country after graduation. In Canada, about 70% of international students intended to apply for a post-graduation work permit (CBIE, 2024[1]). In the Netherlands, 73% of international students report wanting to remain in the country for a year or more after graduating (Nuffic, 2023[2]). In Germany, 64% of international students are inclined to stay in the country, 28% undecided and only 8% are inclined not to stay. The proportion of students inclined to stay increases to almost 70% towards end of their studies (DAAD, 2025[3]). An earlier survey from France, shows that in 2017, about 83% of responding international students expressed that they wish to extend their stay in France with a first professional experience (Campus France, 2017[4]).
While a majority of students intend to stay for some time in the country where they studied, actual retention rate in the country (i.e. share of students who remain in the country after their graduation) tends be lower. Earlier OECD analysis calculated the share of students who were given first study visa/permit in 2015 and how many were recorded with a valid visa/permit five years later in 2020. When excluding those that were still on study visa/permit, about half of students remained in Canada and Germany (both 52%) five years after receiving their first study visa/permit (Figure 5.1). Australia and France saw about one-third of the first-time receivers of a study visa/permit still in the country after five years (34% and 33%). The equivalent figure for the Netherlands was 19% and only 7% in the United Kingdom.
Share of first study visa/permit receivers in 2015, recorded with valid visa/permit in 2020
Note: Data include individuals on a valid visa/permit. Data for DEU includes persons already resident who obtained a first-time education visa/permit. Data do not include citizens in FRA and the NLD. Data for GBR refer to out-of-country visa grants with no valid leave in the prior 12 months, are based on nationality and include a small number of minors arriving for secondary education. This graph refers to visa/permit statistics and does not include individuals benefiting from free mobility.
Source: OECD (2022[5]), International Migration Outlook 2022, https://doi.org/10.1787/30fe16d2-en.
Using the same methodology, for the cohort entering the country in 2010, ten-year retention rate seems to remain high, 45% in Germany and 44% in Canada, around 29% in Australia. Rates are lower in France (19%), 16% in the United Kingdom and 12% in the Netherlands. What is consistent in the pattern of ten-year retention is the initial rapid drop in the number of individuals staying, as many international students leave the country when they leave education and even more so among international students on short-term programmes. Throughout the ten years, the number of individuals remaining decreases, with only a sub-section of former international students changing their status to work or family-related visas/permits, or obtaining long-term stay visas/permits or even citizenship (OECD, 2022[5]).
More recent national data suggest that the number of international students staying in the country is increasing. In Australia, about 53% of international graduates were granted another visa in 2022/23 after their student visa, 15% of these were for further studies. Still, this is up from 40% in 2017/18 (Jobs and Skills Australia, 2025[6]). In Canada, out of the cohort whose study permit expired in 2017, 43% were on post-graduation work permit, up from 33% of students whose study permit expired in 2012 (Crossman, Lu and Hou, 2022[7]). In the United Kingdom, following the introduction of the Graduate route in 2021, the three-year retention increased from below 40% for students starting throughout 2010s, to about 60% students starting in 2020 and 2021 (Home Office, 2025[8]). In France, five years after being granted the first study visa in 2019, about 27% of students were still in the country with a work-related visa/permit. This is up from 23% in the 2015 cohort (Cour des comptes, 2025[9]). In the Netherlands, the one-year stay-on rate after graduation has kept increasing: for the cohort graduating in 2022, about 57% were still in the country a year later. This is up from 48.5% in 2018. For each graduating cohort, the share of staying gradually declines with each year. The 2018 cohort had about 30% of graduates remaining in the country, five years after graduation (Nuffic, 2025[10]). Consistently across these studies, it is clear that, at least initially, most students try to stay in the country, but over time more of them leave. This matches findings in the survey cited above, which suggest that while most students want to stay in the country, many only intend to stay in the medium-term, either for further studies or to work for a limited period. Data presented in this paragraph suggest that the share of international students staying at least short-term in the country after graduation seems to have been increasing in Australia, Canada France, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom in recent years.
International graduates are more likely to continue in further studies
In Australia and the United Kingdom, international graduates are nearly twice as likely to continue to further studies after graduation than their domestic counterparts. In Australia, only about 18% of domestic undergraduate graduates are in further studies one year after graduation, compared to about one-third (33%) of international graduates (QILT, 2025[11]). In the United Kingdom, about 17% of international graduates continued in full-time further studies, compared to only 6% of graduates with a domestic permanent address (HESA, 2025[12]). In the Netherlands, one year after graduation, about 30% of international students are in further studies (Nuffic, 2025[10]), while the share is estimated to be much lower for domestic students at about 11% (Bowley et al., 2019[13]). In Germany, about one-third of international students (32%) from those that intend to stay in the country after graduation plan to continue studies (DAAD, 2025[3]). While more international graduates seem to continue immediately to further studies, domestic students have more options to take a break and return to studies after a gap, as they do not need to maintain a specific legal status. More domestic graduates seem to return to education later in their career.
Who stays, perspectives from Europe
The most comprehensive mapping of post-graduation pathways identified by this study comes from the Netherlands, which uses administrative data to monitor the movement of people in the country and their labour market status (Nuffic, 2025[10]). As in the case of intentions to stay on among international students in Germany, non-EEA students have higher stay rates in the Netherlands, and among EEA graduates, graduates from Southern and Eastern Europe show higher stay rates than those from neighbouring countries. One year after graduation, the stay rates are higher for university graduates (44%) in contrast to graduates of universities of applied sciences (37%), but the difference becomes smaller five years after graduation. One reason is that university graduates are more likely to pursue further studies. Graduates from master’s-level programmes have slightly better five-year stay rates (26%) than those only with bachelor’s-level degree (24%). The stay rate for graduates who completed both bachelor’s and master’s-level studies in the Netherlands is slightly higher (30%, and 37% for the cohort graduating in 2018). Education and engineering graduates have the highest stay rates, even though education programmes have low rates of international enrolment.
A survey in the Netherlands among international students (Nuffic, 2023[2]) found that most want to stay in the country due to the quality of life (87%), career opportunities (83%), safety (78%) and work-life balance (76%). Across people who left the country and stayed in the country, but faced challenges, a similar set of factors was mentioned, including difficulty in finding a suitable job and housing, language barriers in work and outside of the workplace, financial difficulties, a lack of social and professional networks, and challenges with visa and residence permits. About 62% from non-EEA graduates who left the country indicated that issues with residence permits and legal status were an important factor. At the same time, a strong motivator for some students is a partner or a relationship in the country, with 50% of students mentioning a partner or relationship as one of the reasons to stay and 55% of those that did stay indicating that having a partner in the country was an important reason to stay. Some of these findings also correspond to a survey in Germany, where students who had a partner in Germany or had better language skills, were more likely to consider staying in the country after graduation (Pineda et al., 2022[14]). Language and the relative wealth of the country of origin seem to play a significant role in whether international students stay in France after graduation (Zhu, 2025[15]).
Studies into the motivations for international students to stay on in their host country mostly come from Europe. This in part reflects the fact that government-subsidised higher education for international students creates greater pressure to justify whether the students and graduates contribute sufficiently to host countries’ economic development. A study from Germany, modelled various scenarios of in-country retention rates after graduation and their impact on the financial return of public investment in international students. With high retention rates (50% still in the country five years after obtaining their first visa/permit), the net balance turns positive about two to three years after graduation, if students finish on time. In a more conservative model, with lower retention rates of about 30%, the net balance is reached after three to five years (Geis-Thöne and Plünnecke, 2025[16]).
Where do international students go after graduation?
International students who stay in the country after graduation, also tend to stay in the place they studied, although a substantial proportion of them also move to another major urban centre (Tang et al., 2016[17]; Nuffic, 2025[10]; González-Leonardo et al., 2022[18]; DAAD, 2025[19]). This even further concentrates international talent in the cities and limits the potential of international graduates to fill labour shortages in less-populated regions. Domestic graduates also tend to stay in the location or to move a more urban location, but a study from Europe suggests that foreign-born populations with tertiary education are twice as likely to migrate internally, compared to native-born populations with the same level of education (González-Leonardo et al., 2022[18]). Such mobility is determined both by economic factors, such as access to job opportunities, and more personal factors, such as relationships and family ties.
Most international graduates who plan to leave their host country intend to move to their country of origin (DAAD, 2025[3]) and over time a majority return, as in the case of France (Campus France, 2024[20]). However, at least some international students, as individuals that already have experience of migrating, are inclined to continue moving between countries, either to access further studies in another country or to find a job. In the EU, most international students, especially those from the EEA, find it easier to be mobile across national borders and to search for jobs in multiple countries.
Recognition of qualifications and participation in recognition conventions are crucial for countries hosting international students because they ensure the portability and credibility of national qualifications around the globe. All six countries are part of the Lisbon Recognition Convention, the Convention on the Recognition of Qualifications concerning Higher Education in the European Region, which facilitates recognition of degrees and study abroad period between the state parties (Council of Europe, 1997[21]). Furthermore, Australia, France and the United Kingdom have already ratified the Global Convention on the Recognition of Qualifications concerning Higher Education (UNESCO, 2019[22]). All comparator countries are also part of bilateral and multilateral mutual recognition agreements that facilitate recognition. A 2026 report on the implementation of the OECD Recommendation concerning Guidelines for Quality Provision in Cross-Border Higher Education also found that extensive efforts have been undertaken to facilitate academic recognition of qualifications, but more policy work is needed to streamline professional recognition, especially in regulated professions, which requires participation of various public and professional bodies across countries (OECD, 2026[23]). An example is the agreement between Canada and the EU on the professional recognition of architects (European Commission, 2022[24]).
All comparator countries have a dedicated post-graduation visa/permit scheme for international graduates. However, the schemes differ, as displayed in Table 5.1. Post-graduation visa/permit allows international students to take time to search for a job and seek initial employment under relatively favourable conditions.
Note: Compiled by the OECD Secretariat based on policy survey (April-May 2025), based on OECD (forthcoming[25]), Services and Costs in International Study.
[1] In France, a person on Job seeker/ new business creator residence permit can work only in jobs related to their field of study and their gross monthly salary needs to be at least EUR 2 734.55 (USD 3 231.42 as of 27 February 2026)
[2] The UK Government announced changes from 2027 to the length of Graduate Route visa, shortening it to 18 months for undergraduate and master’s graduates, while keeping 36 months for graduates who obtained a PhD or other doctoral qualification.
[3] In the United Kingdom, a person on the Graduate Route visa cannot work as a professional sportsperson.
Post-graduation work permits have become an important part of the attractiveness of some of these countries, offering prospective students not only high-quality education but also time‑bound rights to work and clearer pathways into longer‑term employment visas/permits, in some cases even to permanent residence. Governments treat these post‑study visas/permits as an important tool of talent policy (Campus France, 2025[26]); data presented in section above show growing take‑up, particularly in Australia, Canada and the United Kingdom. At the same time, all three countries have also recently made or announced changes to the permit with the aim to limit the scope. In Australia, recent changes reduced the length of the permit and lowered age limit to 35 years in most circumstances. The UK Government announced changes starting in 2027, which will reduce the length of the Graduate Route visa to 18 months for bachelor’s and master’s graduates. Lastly, in 2024, federal government in Canada changed eligibility criteria for post-graduation work permit for graduates from colleges graduating from specific study fields.
In any of the countries, international students on study visa/permit are not guaranteed that they will be able to obtain the post-graduation visa/permit. Recent policy changes have highlighted that the conditions can evolve, and eligibility or length of post-graduation visa/permit will be different. Furthermore, in some cases, international students have been presented with unrealistic information about possibilities to stay in the country after graduation. However, also some international students, not always having all relevant information, have, at times, unrealistic expectation of the ease with which they could find a job, secure visa/permit and obtain permanent residency or even citizenship.
Possibilities for a longer or permanent stay in the host country
As discussed, a sizeable proportion of international students intend to stay long-term in the country of their studies. While there are post-graduation schemes that allow graduates to seek employment, these are all temporary arrangements. As such, international graduates need to find and maintain employment that will make them eligible and support them in an application for another visa/permit. This puts some international graduates in a precarious situation, where they accept jobs for which they are overqualified, with lower earnings and worse working conditions, in return for the possibility to remain in the country. The graduate outcome survey in Australia found that about one-fifth of international graduates (18% of undergraduate, 20% of postgraduategraduate coursework international graduates) reported the main reason for working in jobs that do not fully utilise their skills or education was they do not have permanent residency (QILT, 2025[11]). Some graduates also extend their stay by pursuing further studies and some also stay thanks to family-related visa/permits. The situation of moving between temporary visas/permits in Australia has been characterised as “visa limbo”, with the country seeing an increasing number of “permanently temporary” international graduates (Coates, Wiltshire and Reysenbach, 2023[27]).
Report from Australia found that many international students try to also stay on various temporary permits with the aim to obtain permanent residency. However, in part due to rapid growth in the recent years, the number of available permanent residencies is far lower than number of graduates. In report, the authors estimate based on various sources that about 35-40% of international students who started in early 2010s achieved permanent residency within ten years, but they estimate this share to decline to about 25-30% for international students entering Australia in late 2010s (Jobs and Skills Australia, 2025[6]). In Canada, the share of post-graduate work permit (PGWP) holders that transition to permanent residency seems to be growing. Among graduates first issued PGWP from 2006 to 2010, about 74% of them achieved permanent residency within ten years. For graduates with PGWP issued from 2011 to 2015, 73% of them were already permanent residents within five years. For the latest cohort, that was granted PGWP from 2016 to 2020, about 40% of them achieved permanent residency within two years, higher shares than previous cohorts (Lu and Hou, 2024[28]). In the United Kingdom, while the share of international students who stay short-term increased, in part to new Graduate Route visa, the share of international graduates who obtain indefinite leave to remain (i.e. settlement) is very low. Calculations based on data, published in the Migrant journey: 2024 report, suggest that only about 4% of people who arrived in 2015 on study visa achieved settlement within nine to ten years. For people who arrived in 2010 that was 6% and for those arriving in 2005 it reached 10% (Home Office, 2025[8]).
Recruitment messaging by some higher education institutions, agents and national promotion campaigns emphasises post-graduation opportunities in terms of employment and possibilities to stay in the country. While these messages raise attractiveness, they also raise students’ expectations regarding possibilities for longer and more permanent stays. However, this messaging, at times, does not adequately reflect the complexities, such as various eligibility criteria that need to be met to receive post-graduation visa/permit and permanent residency. A more realistic approach clearly communicates that the available opportunities, jobs and permanent residency permits, might be scarce. That stay after graduation is not guaranteed and there is a significant uncertainty, whether a particular international student will be able to settle in the country long term.
International students have better employment outcomes than foreign-born groups but worse than the domestic populations
Compared to other migrant groups, international graduates can be considered as a “pre-integrated group” in society, having often initial contact with the labour market during their studies, either through part-time jobs or internships. They also have domestic qualifications, which are easier to understand for domestic employers than credentials held by other highly educated migrants (OECD, 2022[5]). A working paper analysing the 2021 and 2023 Eurostat Labour Force Survey found that international graduates in the OECD-EU countries tend to have better labour-market outcomes than other foreign-born individuals with higher education. However they are still both disadvantaged compared to the native-born population, they often struggle to find suitable employment and some feel discriminated against in the labour market (Andersson and Dumont, forthcoming[29]).
International graduates are initially worse off compared to domestic graduates
Australia and the Netherlands have the most comprehensive data on the labour outcomes of international graduates. The Graduate Outcome Survey in Australia initially monitors the labour market outcomes of students after four to six months after graduation and undertakes a follow-up survey three years after graduation. In the Netherlands, analysis relies on administrative data, which tracks information on international graduates five years after graduation, offering a perspective on change over time.
Initially, in both countries, the labour force participation of international graduates is lower than for domestic graduates, in part because more of international graduates continue in further studies. In Australia, the survey report suggests that domestic students entering postgraduate education are typically older and possess professional experience. This results in a wider gap at the postgraduate level in labour market outcomes after graduation. International graduates are typically younger and are much more likely to go straight into postgraduate studies following completion of their undergraduate qualification (QILT, 2025[11]). Initial employment outcomes show wide gaps between domestic and international graduates who stayed. Among undergraduate graduates in Australia, the full-time employment rate a few months after graduation is 74% for domestic graduates but only 52% for international graduates. The smallest difference in the employment rates is observed among those that finished postgraduate research programmes (83% for domestic graduates and 78% international graduates). In the Netherlands, one year after graduation, about 42% of international graduates who stayed have a paid job, compared to 65% of Dutch graduates (Nuffic, 2025[10]).
In both countries, the gap between international and domestic graduates becomes smaller over time. In Australia, for the cohort first approached in 2021 for the short-term outcomes survey and then followed up in 2024, the gap of 25 percentage points in full-time employment between domestic and international undergraduate graduates shortly after graduation has reduced to 8 percentage points three years after graduation. Similar patterns are observed among postgraduate coursework graduates, where the gap has reduced from 38 percentage points to 6 and postgraduate research programmes graduates, where the gap falls from 10 to 2 percentage points (QILT, 2025[30]). In the Netherlands, five years after graduation, 80% of international graduates who stayed in the country have paid employment compared to 90% of domestic graduates, a gap of 10 percentage points, compared to a 23 percentage-point gap one year after graduation (Nuffic, 2025[10]). The initial gap can be attributed to the initial challenges faced by international graduates in accessing the labour market and higher participation in further studies. The improved outcomes reflect that more graduates are in the labour force, but also that many have left the country.
While employment rates among international graduates improve over time, a salary gap persists for most international graduates. International students who stay on after graduation in both Australia and the Netherlands across all levels and types of education start with lower earnings than their domestic counterparts. In the medium term, the salaries increase for both, but the earnings gap persists. The only exceptions are international graduates from universities in the Netherlands, who appear to be more represented among high earners five years later than their domestic peers: 48% of international graduates earn more than EUR 55 000 annually (USD 64 994 as of 27 February 2026), compared to 44% of domestic graduates (Nuffic, 2025[10]).
In Australia, the pay differential does not diminish substantially over the three-year period covered by the study (QILT, 2025[30]). The differences in salaries can also be attributed to the different sectors in which international and domestic graduates work, and what opportunities international graduates have for career progression. Data from Australia suggest that graduates report differences in occupation, with fewer international undergraduates and postgraduate coursework graduates working in managerial or professional occupations that require higher levels of skills. Furthermore, international postgraduate coursework graduates more often report feeling that their education and skills are underutilised. This reflects their younger age profile and higher rates of continuous further full-time study after completing an undergraduate degree, both resulting in less experience in the workforce than domestic graduates (QILT, 2025[11]). The Dutch data also highlight an uneven distribution of international graduates across sectors compared to their domestic peers. About 39% of domestic graduates work in the Government, Education and Healthcare sector, compared to only 18% of international graduates five years after graduation (Nuffic, 2025[10]). These sectors are a primary destination for higher education graduates, but because profession-specific regulations, requirements for advanced language skills and even restrictions based on citizenship, they can be difficult to enter for international graduates.
In Canada and the United Kingdom, data on the labour market outcomes of international graduates are based on a one-off graduate survey. In the case of Canada, this takes place three years after graduation and in the case of the United Kingdom, 15 months after graduation. Both surveys confirm that international graduates who stayed in the country have slightly worse employment rates than domestic graduates. In Canada, the difference is minimal: 89% of international graduates compared to 91% of domestic graduates. However, the gaps are relatively large among those who finished bachelor’s-level programmes, with an employment rate of 85% for international graduates and 92% for domestic graduates (Etmanski, 2025[31]).
Excluding those continuing in full-time studies, 86% of domestic graduates and 80% of international graduates are found to be in some form of employment 15 months after graduation in the United Kingdom. Students from EU countries have levels of employment similar to domestic graduates (HESA, 2025[12]). International graduates in Canada report more frequently working in jobs unrelated to their field of study: 54% of international graduates, while 41% of domestic ones. More international graduates also feel overqualified (29% of international graduates and 21% of domestic graduates) (Etmanski, 2025[31]). In the United Kingdom, 32% of international graduates earn below GBP 27 000 (USD 36 401 as of 27 February 2026) compared to 27% of domestic graduates (HESA, 2025[12]). In Canada, international graduates who stayed in the country with bachelor’s-level qualifications having a median salary 20% lower than domestic graduates. Also, international graduates working in Canada have 17% lower earnings in the case of master’s-level graduates. While the differences can, in part, be explained by different patterns of employment by sector and occupation, these factors do not explain the whole difference (Etmanski, 2025[31]).
France and Germany do not have comprehensive graduate surveys that report data separately for domestic and international graduates. According to estimates based on the EU Labour Force Survey, calculated for an OECD report, former international students in Germany and France have higher employment rates than the overall foreign- and native-born populations, but slightly below those who arrived as labour migrants. Moreover, the incidence of overqualification is much lower for this group than for native-born population, labour migrants or for migrants overall (OECD, 2022[5]). Furthermore, an alumni survey by Campus France suggests that about 87% of international graduates have found job within a year of completing their studies, but that this share has been falling for more recent cohorts. Among the degree programme international graduates, 56% of them found their first job in France, the rest primarily secured a job in their country of origin. Interestingly, the survey results also show that about 36% of international graduates work in public bodies, but twice as many do so in their country of origin rather than in France (Campus France, 2024[20]). This confirms the earlier finding from the Netherlands that it is harder for international graduates to access public-sector and civil-service jobs.
Supporting transition to the labour market
International graduates in Germany mention during interviews that finding a job is more difficult than they expected (Pineda et al., 2022[14]). In the Netherlands, about 59% of international graduates who remained in the country reported facing difficulty in finding a job after graduation (Nuffic, 2023[2]). The Eurostudent survey in France, Germany and the Netherlands found that most international students feel less prepared for the national labour market than their domestic peers, but that they were more ready for the international labour market (Eurostudent, 2025[32]).
Interestingly, in Australia, international graduates reported that their education prepared them well for their job more often than their domestic counterparts across all study levels (QILT, 2025[11]). Surveys in Germany and the United Kingdom have highlighted that many international students are relatively dissatisfied with the preparation for labour market they receive from their institution. In Germany, preparation for the labour market was the aspect of studies emerging with the worst satisfaction score. Only 35% of international graduates felt “rather” or “well” supported by their institution in planning their career. The support was more felt in universities of applied sciences (42%) than in universities (31%) (DAAD, 2025[3]). In the United Kingdom, career support and placements were seen by 53% of international graduates as areas for improvement at their institution, with the second highest rated area being internships and experiential learning. Only 21% of international graduates from the United Kingdom report that they used the career support service at their institution to help them find a job after graduation and only 3% of those working found a job through career support services (UUKi and QS, 2024[33]). There seems to be a shared nervousness about the transition to employment among both international and domestic students. However, in the case of international graduates, the transition to employment is also tied with the possibility to remain in the country.
An uncertainty regarding international graduates is also felt by the employers, especially in smaller organisations and business. Employers are not always aware of specific conditions and obligations they need to meet to hire someone on temporary visa/permit. At the same time, employers might be more interested in hiring someone permanently, but, at least initially, most international graduates are on temporary visas/permits. A survey among Dutch businesses found many employers reporting that they had problems in understanding the exact implications of hiring international graduates, their obligations and costs regarding visa and permits, so they often opted to look for someone else (Nuffic, 2025[34]). Further experience from the Netherlands, shared by stakeholders, highlights that some employers were not willing to invest time to become visa sponsor, there were also challenges in hiring process, language proficiency and active steps to integrate them. In the United Kingdom, research on the implementation of the Graduate visa found that some students had to explain their visa status to their perspective employers, with some even refusing to accept it as a valid visa/permit to work (AGCAS, 2023[35]). In Australia, some employers are also hesitant to hire temporary visa holders, many of whom are international graduates. In part because not all, especially smaller businesses, understand the visa system and have resources to meet all obligations and they are also sometimes looking to hire some for longer periods or permanently (Jobs and Skills Australia, 2025[6]).
Policymakers and higher education institutions can play multiple roles in supporting students in transition to labour market. First, they can help international or domestic students to understand the labour market, before and during their studies, to guide them in what topics to focus on and on choices regarding their education. Some of the relevant information is already available on existing national outreach and information portals (explored in Chapter 2, section Identifying reliable information about study and life in foreign countries). At the institution level, labour-market literacy can be well integrated into programmes and supported by career centres. Second, there is a need for more personalised guidance and advice, which can direct individual students to explore possible careers and even apply for jobs and prepare for the recruitment process. Australia has developed a relatively basic virtual career matching tool for international students to explore possible careers. Much of this guidance can be also provided by the institutions and their career centres. Third, students can engage with employers and work experience already during their studies. This can help students to build professional networks and gain experience, facilitating their search for employment. Both professional networks and relevant work experience have been identified as among the most highly rated factors in finding employment by international graduates in the Netherlands (Nuffic, 2023[2]). All these require for higher education institutions to establish and maintain strong relations with relevant employers. Consultations with stakeholders for this report highlight that it is important to inform international students to start looking for possible employment early, to better inform them about various employment opportunities, as international students tend to be aware of the big and well-known companies, but not always are aware of small- and medium-sized businesses and other employers.
In 2024, the federal government in Germany, through DAAD, started a large-scale initiative to support the labour market transition of international students (Box 1). The actions focus on better language preparation, academic support to complete studies, strengthening institutional career services and promoting closer co-operation with regional employers to facilitate networking and work experiences for international students. While many areas of the initiative are already improving the labour market transitions, stakeholders reported difficulties in meaningfully engaging with employers, in part due to the uncertain economic situation.
To address growing shortage of skilled labour in Germany, DAAD launched the Campus Initiative for International Talents in 2024. Backed by EUR 120 million (USD 142 million as of 27 February 2026) in federal funding until 2028, the initiative supports 114 projects at 104 universities to strengthen the transition of international students and graduates into the German labour market. The initiative consists of two main actions.
FIT – Promotion of international talents for integration into studies and the labour market
The FIT action focuses on supporting international students throughout their journey, from preparation to study through their study progression all the way to their graduation and employment. In the preparatory phase, it focuses on bridging and language courses, as well as providing information and advice to international students. Further, it focuses on study success, supporting additional courses (e.g. language, academic writing, methodology), tutorials, integration services and activities, information and support for international students. The action aims to promote employability through job-related language training and career services assisting with job search and application, and by encouraging more networking and co-operation between higher education institutions and employers, to facilitate internships and work experiences, organise networking events (e.g. career fairs), and buddy schemes with international alumni.
Pro plus – Academic Training for the German Labour Market
Targets international graduates with foreign degrees, offering additional professional training, language and social skills development, and practical experience through partnerships with German companies to facilitate their access to labour market.
Source: DAAD (2025), Campus Initiative for International Talents, https://www.daad.de/en/information-services-for-higher-education-institutions/expertise-on-subjects-countries-regions/campus-initiative-international-academic-experts/ (accessed on 17 September 2025).
In Nova Scotia (CAN), EduNova, a provincial co-operative association of education providers, has developed Study and Stay programme targeted on international students, providing them with events, resources, employment opportunities, tools and support to help them launch a career in the province (EduNova, 2025[36]). In Australia, the engagement with employers is promoted through the Study Australia Industry Experience Program (2026[37]), a free two-week virtual programme for students to work jointly with other international and domestic students on a project as defined by one of the industry partners. Study NSW, in promoting study opportunities in New South Wales (AUS), has additionally developed a longer, in-person industry experience programme and has also partnered with a major job advertisement platform to filter jobs in the region that are relevant for the international students (Study NSW, 2025[38]). Study in NL has a career ambassador programme with events for current international students and recent graduates to interact with international alumni based in the Netherlands (Study in NL, 2025[39]).
Language barriers in access to labour market
Particularly in Europe, a frequently reported issue for international graduates has been language barriers encountered in accessing the labour market. In the Netherlands, speaking Dutch is seen as one of the most important factors in finding suitable employment (Nuffic, 2023[2]). In Germany, international students from English-language programmes expressed frustration with their job search, mainly because of their limited German-language skills (Pineda et al., 2022[14]). A higher level of French proficiency is also correlated with better employment outcomes in France (Cour des comptes, 2025[9]). This issue has been also highlighted in consultations for this report with stakeholders in Canada, especially in French-speaking areas.
International students, particularly those studying in English or other language that is not the language of the host country, might have slightly skewed understanding of the labour market. During their studies, they are surrounded by English, in their institution and they tend to socialise with other internationals. However, job opportunities for English speakers, in non-English speaking countries, tend to be very limited and concentrated in a few specific industries. Most companies in France, Germany or the Netherlands will still expect at least working-level proficiency of the local language. In Germany particularly, governments and institutions have been making efforts to promote language learning during studies but facing obstacles with finding space in the curricula for the classes and hiring quality staff to teach German.
Staying in touch with alumni can be valuable for countries hosting international students because it creates a long‑term link between graduates and their host country. Alumni networks also have value for graduates, as they can turn to them for career support and mentorship. The DAAD alumni network consists of more than 140 alumni associations worldwide, which has been supported for many years (DAAD, 2026[40]). France Alumni was established and is supported by Campus France, comprises alumni groups in at least 130 countries around the world (Campus France, 2025[41]). The British Council launched the Alumni UK in 2022, as a platform to connect alumni, organise networking events, share job opportunities and even provide resources for career (e.g. research insights, online courses) (British Council, 2026[42]). EduCanada lists on its website 20 alumni groups around the world, part of the Canada’s Alumni Network (EduCanada, 2026[43]). At the same time, it is important to recognise that many higher education institutions have their own, well-developed, alumni networks that engage both domestic and international graduates. Institutions tend to have much closer connections to their graduates and these networks might be much more effective than country-level networks. However, national networks play an important role in strengthening relationships between countries. Both national and institutional alumni networks might serve their respective purposes.
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