International Students in Higher Education

4. Life in a new country and integration

Abstract

This chapter examines the lives of international students outside their academic pursuits. First, it outlines challenges they face in securing housing. Second, chapter examines how international students are familiarising themselves with new surroundings and accessing local services, including health insurance. Third, it explored challenges they face with integrating into local communities. Fourth, it covers their study and living expenses. Fifth, the chapter looks at how many international students work during their studies and the conditions for employment during studies. Sixth, it outlines the obligations that international students and their institutions need to meet for students to maintain their study visas/permits. Seventh, it summarises experiences of discrimination and sense of safety. Eight, chapter reviews policies on accompanying family members.

Key findings

• Difficulties with housing for students are widespread across countries. International students often require ready-to-live-in accommodation, face higher risks of scams and, in some countries, pay more than domestic students. International students primarily live in private rentals and student accommodation. The supply of available housing units is constrained, but across the examined countries, plans and funding have been put forward to incentivise the building and upgrading of affordable housing, including for students.

• Orientation, local welcome desks and national portals help with navigating registration, banking, insurance and transport, among others, yet information gaps persist for some groups. However, international students often feel disconnected from their local communities.

• Some international students across countries report financial stress and difficulty covering their study and living costs. Most international students work, and many rely on these earnings. Study visas/permits impose limits on allowed work time that range from 16 to 24 hours per week. The search for part-time jobs is not always easy, especially if international students do not speak the local language and have limited local networks.

• International students must keep progressing in their studies while also meeting other obligations to maintain a study visa/permit. In Australia, Canada, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom, international students are usually granted study visa/permit for the whole duration of their studies, while in France and Germany, they typically need to renew them.

• Reports of discrimination are higher for internationals than for domestic students, although nearly all international students feel safe on campus, less so in the broader community.

• Policies on dependants and partners have tightened in several examined countries.

Specific academic challenges faced by international students are exacerbated by diverse obstacles they face in their life, outside of their education. Some of these challenges are shared with domestic students who move within their own countries. Students in these situations struggle to navigate the housing market and secure suitable housing. They need time to settle down, understand their surroundings and access different services. International students are also, to varying extents, integrating into their local communities. Covering study and living costs remains a major challenge for some international students, which for many means a need to work while studying. International students often have specific restrictions, related to their study visa/permit, on how much they can work and other conditions to maintain their legal status, as well as to bring family and dependants with them during their studies.

Securing suitable housing

Housing costs relative to income are high in all six countries covered by this study compared to other OECD countries (OECD, 2025[1]). This is combined with limited availability of housing, especially affordable housing, in the major metropolitan areas or even specific neighbourhoods, where most international students reside. Securing suitable and affordable housing is one of the challenges most frequently highlighted by international students and in related studies.

In Canada, the most cited challenge during the arrival phase for international students is securing accommodation, reported by around 60% of international students in a recent survey (CBIE, 2024[2]). In Australia, about half of international students responding to a survey (51%) found it hard to find suitable housing (Study Australia, 2025[3]). Australian stakeholders highlighted that the proportion of available resources that goes towards housing has increased significantly. In Germany, apartment search was also the element with which international students were most dissatisfied, with 59% of survey respondents citing this as problematic (DAAD, 2025[4]). One of the issues highlighted in Germany, by stakeholders consulted, was stagnation in student housing, while the overall enrolment, domestic and international, has gone up, the number of student housing units did not grow. While about 26% of all students in Germany faced some challenges in finding accommodation, this was much more common among international students, with 39% of them reporting frequently applying for accommodation unsuccessfully (Kroher et al., 2023[5]).

In the Netherlands, about 72% of international students surveyed mentioned having issues with housing. The difficulty with housing also influences considerations about staying or leaving the country after graduation, about 37% of those that left indicating that not being able to find suitable housing was an important factor. For those staying, about 60% identified difficulties with finding housing as one of the top challenges with life in the Netherlands (Nuffic, 2023[6]). While domestic students also face many challenges with securing accommodation, the situation of international students seems to be more precarious, as they do not necessarily have as vast of a network of social contacts in the country, they have more limited understanding of the rental market and tenant rights, more frequently face discrimination and, in some countries, also face language barriers. For example, in France most renters need a guarantor for private independent accommodation. Only 8% of domestic students had difficulty with finding a guarantor in France, but about 36% of international students were in the same situation (Feres et al., 2023[7]). Due to these challenges, international students (33%) were more likely than domestic students (14%) to mention they have a significant need for advice on housing in Germany (Kroher et al., 2023[5]).

Unlike domestic students, most international students cannot stay with their family or parents. As such, they are dependent on housing associated with their institution or on private landlords. Furthermore, they also need a place ready to live in from the first day and fully furnished accommodation, especially when arriving in the country for the first time. A survey in the Netherlands has shown that 72% of international students want to live in furnished accommodation, while for 72% of domestic students accommodation with only basic fixtures is sufficient (ABF Research, 2025[8]). As such, some international students coming to the Netherlands only find a temporary place before they arrive, but then they struggle to find more permanent places to live.

A majority of domestic and international students live in accommodation rented on the private market, while some domestic students live with their parents. A significant proportion of students also live in student residences; however, international students tend to live in student housing in higher proportion compared to domestic students. Especially in the first year, living in a student residence gives international students ready-to-live-in accommodation and can facilitate opportunities for socialisation.

In Australia, a majority of undergraduate international students live in a private rented house, flat or room (54%) or are staying with friends or family in their accommodation (20%). A share of international students living in student housing is lower, with about 7% of international students in institutional (university) halls of residence, 5% in private student halls or hostels and another 5% in student house or flat controlled by university. Among international postgraduate coursework students, an even larger share lives in a private rented house, flat or room (66%) (QILT, 2025[9]).

In Canada, on-campus residences are only used by 14% of international students (CBIE, 2024[2]). However, another Canada-wide survey found that the total student population living in student residences, whether it is operated by the institutions (4%) or by private owners, is even lower (2%) (UTILE, 2022[10]). Across Europe, more domestic and international students live in student residencies. Based on the Eurostudent survey and excluding students living with their parents, about 40% of international students in Germany live in a student residence, compared to about 13% of domestic students, followed by 38% in the Netherlands, where 56% of domestic students not living at home are in student residences, and lastly in France, where 30% of international and 18% of domestic students live in student residences (Eurostudent, 2025[11]). In the United Kingdom, among those living away from home, 46% of domestic students are in student accommodation, compared to only 33% of international students, but international students are more likely to live in non-university halls (16% compared to 10% of domestic students) (AdvanceHE & HEPI et al., 2025[12]).

International students tend to spend more on accommodation than domestic students. This is very visible in the Netherlands, where across different types of accommodation, international students pay consistently more than domestic students (ABF Research, 2025[8]). In Canada, based on survey of students across the country, international students also pay higher median and average rent than most domestic students. But interestingly, they pay slightly less than domestic students studying out of the province (UTILE, 2022[10]). This underlines the importance of social networks in the place where a student studies. Other available data from Germany and France does not suggest great differences in mean costs for accommodation. In Germany international and domestic students spend about the same amount, while in France international students spend slightly less than domestic students (Eurostudent, 2025[11]). Based on this overview of various surveys, international students in the Netherlands and Canada tend to have higher housing expenses than domestic students. While international students seem to more frequently live in student residences, still most international students rely on private rentals, which impacts the housing costs. Furthermore, a contributing factor, for some international students, is greater uncertainty around their enrolment, which means that they start their accommodation search and secure accommodation later than domestic students, which means they have more limited choice and thus end up paying more or accepting less suitable housing arrangement.

The providers of student residences differ between countries and as does the scale of the student residence offering. To some extent, all countries have private purpose-build student accommodation, operated by private companies. In Australia, Canada and the United Kingdom, this is complemented by some institution-managed housing. In Canada, based on country-wide survey, about 4% of students who rent are in a residence operated by their institutions, while only 2% are in student residences operated by private companies (UTILE, 2022[10]). In Australia only 3% of the total student population is in on-campus housing, while 6% live in other student accommodation (amber, 2024[13]). Higher education institutions in the United Kingdom host more students in their residences (about 27% of all students) than other private residences (7%) (AdvanceHE & HEPI et al., 2025[12]). In the other three countries, most student housing is operated by regional organisations. In the Netherlands, rather than institution-owned residences, about 33% of students living away from home live in student housing provided by non-profit social housing organisations (ABF Research, 2025[8]). In Germany and France, dedicated student housing is provided by public organisations, which have a regional presence. The French network of Centres régionaux des œuvres universitaires et scolaires (CROUS) hosts about 7% of all students in France and other university residencies about 4% (Feres et al., 2023[7]). In Germany, most student housing is offered by local Studierendenwerke branches that host about 10% of all students, while about 18% of students overall live in some form of student residence (Kroher et al., 2023[5]).

Factors like remote searching for housing and reliance on online ads, language barrier, shortage of suitable and affordable housing and lack of knowledge about local rental market, make international students particularly vulnerable to fraud and scams. Due to unfamiliarity with tenant rights and high competition in major student cities, international students face higher risks of scams, illegal payments, exploitation, discrimination and ending up in unsuitable or overcrowded housing. Survey of students with study abroad experience in Europe, found that up to a quarter of them (25%) have experienced scams (ESU and ESN, 2023[14]). A study based on the Canadian 2021 Census of Population, found that international students have consistently higher rates of living in unsuitable housing, particularly effecting students from India (Stick, Hou and Zhang, 2024[15]). These experiences affect their study experience, housing insecurity increases financial stress, and can disrupt academic focus, harm mental health and slow down social integration, undermining both their wellbeing and academic success (Fang and van Liempt, 2020[16]; Hastings et al., 2023[17]; Mu and Soong, 2025[18]).

Policymakers have taken multiple strategies to promote better access to suitable student housing. In Germany, public authorities directly supported the building of new and renovation of existing student residences as part of the Junges Wohnen (Young Living) programme, allocating EUR 500 million annually since 2023 (USD 591 million as of 27 February 2026), as part of a larger effort for the construction of social housing (BMWSB, 2025[19]).

Similarly, in France, the CROUS has been expanding the number of available places, but the growth has not matched rising student demand (Cour des comptes, 2025[20]). In January 2025, student housing was declared a priority policy for the French Government, followed by a letter from the Prime Minister in August 2025, to regional governments and higher education institutions to develop regional plans and targets. At the same time, the Banque des Territoires launched the AGiLE programme, with EUR 5 billion (USD 5.9 billion) dedicated to support the construction, conversion and major renovation of student housing units by 2030 (Banque des Territoires, 2025[21]). One reason for slow growth in France is restrictions placed on public higher education institutions in France to directly invest in student housing.

The Dutch government together with the representatives of municipalities, higher education institutions, students, housing associations and other stakeholders with the Landelijk Platform Studentenhuisvesting (National Student Housing Platform) agreed on the National Action Plan for Student Housing 2022-2030, aiming to provide an extra 60 000 student housing units (Landelijk Platform Studentenhuisvesting, 2022[22]). The plan involves co-ordination with local governments, housing associations and other stakeholders. While there are some government funding incentives, the construction is expected to be primarily carried out through private projects. The plan seeks to increase housing through both new constructions, incentivised by government funding but primarily privately supported, and identifying opportunities to better use the existing housing stock.

In Canada and the United Kingdom, as part of government support for housing, a combination of subsidies and loans has been directed to also support the development of student accommodation, by higher education institutions or private companies (i.e. Social and Affordable Homes Programme in the United Kingdom or the Affordable Housing Fund in Canada). Federal, provincial, territorial and local governments in Canada are also addressing regulatory barriers to speed up construction.

Across institutions, it became common to prioritise first-year students in allocating student accommodation. National information portals now have specific sections on housing and provide advice on how to search for accommodation and tenants’ rights. Institutions are also working locally with associations and student organisations to inform students about available housing in the community and supporting them to find accommodation off campus.

Familiarising with the surroundings and accessing services

The first weeks and months after arrival present many challenges for international students, a period during which they need to quickly become familiar with a foreign place. First, students need to navigate their new surroundings, finding where various amenities (e.g. groceries, pharmacy) are located and figuring out the local transport system. A second group of challenges is more related to accessing services, including registration with local government and applying for residence permits, financial integration by opening a bank account and starting to file taxes, when relevant, getting a phone plan, and access to health care and identifying appropriate doctors and hospitals to use. These challenges can be especially difficult if an international student does not speak the local language or there are larger cultural barriers.

Many higher education institutions try to assist students who might face these challenges either by information provision, various orientation activities and, in some cases, individual guidance. Some also collaborate with local governments, organisations and companies to facilitate students’ access to various services. National information portals for international students to various extents also offer information on these topics. There are a few specific examples of more systematic policies. In the city of Paris, CROUS Paris and other partners operate together the Welcome desk Paris (CIUP, 2025[23]), a one-stop-shop which is helping international students online and through individual appointments before and during their arrival with various administrative procedures, finding housing and getting housing benefits, getting health insurance, providing language courses and practical information about banking, transport and working, and also helping international students to discover the city, culture and various activities going on. IN Amsterdam is a joint initiative of the cities of Amsterdam and neighbouring towns, along with the Dutch Immigration and Naturalisation Service and the Dutch Tax Office. There is an office in Amsterdam and an online portal that provides advice to international students moving to the Amsterdam metropolitan area. The portal gives advice on finding student housing, official procedures, healthcare and insurance, tax, information for families on education and various benefits, how to learn Dutch and advice for students on how to find internships (IN Amsterdam, 2025[24]). Similar initiatives are also present in other Dutch cities, such as the Utrecht International Centre, the Hague International Centre, Leiden International Centre and International Welcome Center North (Groningen). Germany also has a network of welcome and advisory centres that support foreign nationals arriving in the country and some of these centres have dedicated services and information for international students (Make it in Germany, 2026[25]). Furthermore, as part of the “Internationalization of Higher Education Institutions in Germany” strategy, Germany aims to encourage the professional development of employees (e.g. foreign language and intercultural skills training) working in relevant public and local authorities that interact with higher education institutions and international students to enable them to better support this international audience (BMBF and KMK, 2024[26]).

Health insurance

Health insurance is organised differently in the countries covered by this study. In Australia, international students have a specific plan, the Overseas Student Health Cover, that they need to have for the duration of their studies (Study Australia, n.d.[27]). In the United Kingdom, international students pay an immigration health surcharge during their visa application, which gives them access to healthcare in the National Health Service (UK Government, n.d.[28]). In Canada, the health insurance rules vary by province and territory, with some allowing international students access to their public health insurance and others requiring them to take out private insurance (EduCanada, 2024[29]).

In Germany, international students need to provide proof of health insurance when applying for their visa and then also, after arrival and when applying for a residence permit. They can either have insurance from another country that covers them in Germany, or they need to sign up for the German public health insurance. Non-EEA international students over the age of 30 at the beginning of their studies generally are unable to register for German public health insurance (Study in Germany, n.d.[30]). In the Netherlands, health insurance is mandatory, but only international students who work can take out Dutch public health insurance, otherwise they need other, private, insurance to cover them (Study in NL, 2025[31]). France is the only country that provides universally free access to basic health insurance, although taking out a private complementary insurance is recommended (Campus France, n.d.[32]). While free, a survey also found that not all students in France have health insurance, about 4% of domestic students and 21% of international students are not covered. As a consequence, the same survey found that international students were less likely to visit a doctor and even forego treatment for financial reasons (Feres et al., 2024[33]). In Germany, France and the Netherlands, international students who are nationals of other EEA countries can use health insurance of their home country and use the European Health Insurance Card.

Local and community integration

The findings on local and community integration are mixed. On one side, international students seem to be content with their lives, although at least some of them seem to struggle more than domestic students with loneliness and a sense of isolation (Eurostudent, 2025[11]; AdvanceHE & HEPI et al., 2025[12]) and missing their friends and family back home (Nuffic, 2022[34]). Many report generally good social lives, such as 65% of international students in Canada that said they found a community (CBIE, 2024[2]). In Australia, 85-87% of international students gave a positive rating on making friends (QILT, 2025[9]). And in the Netherlands 48% of international students are satisfied with their social life (Nuffic, 2022[34]). Results of this survey by Nuffic, however, could also be affected by the COVID-19 pandemic.

Evidence from Germany and the Netherlands suggest that international students have different experiences within the academic community, where they tend to feel comfortable and welcome, while in greater proportions, struggling with life in their local communities. In the Netherlands, around 40% of international students said they mainly interact with other international people and 67% said they would like more contact with Dutch people (Nuffic, 2022[34]). A survey in Germany found that 75% of international students felt welcome at their institution but only 50% felt welcome outside the university (DAAD, 2025[4]). The evidence from Germany suggests that this is connected with the ability to use German in everyday life and local integration is easier for international students coming from countries with a smaller cultural distance (i.e. other European countries) (Pineda et al., 2022[35]).

Across surveys and literature, proficiency of language used in host country shows up as an important factor in integration. International students who feel proficient are more comfortable to interact with locals and engage in community life (Wilczewski and Alon, 2022[36]). Meanwhile, students with low language proficiency feel more comfortable to interact with international peers, living and socialising inside, primarily English-speaking bubbles. Higher education institutions, as they host international students and staff, are often one of these bubbles. In turn, however, many international students have less opportunities to practice host language and improve their proficiency.

Many higher education institutions in co-operation with local governments and organisations are trying to facilitate connections between students and the local community, providing language courses and trying to involve international students in various local activities, such as volunteering or sports. Findings from a study on supporting the integration of international students in England found that continuous shared spaces are more conducive to making friends than one-off socialisation events (Pagliarello et al., 2023[37]). In this area, there seem to be some institutional examples of initiatives primarily on the local level. For example, My Local Friend in Groningen (NLD), sponsored by the Groningen Alliance, which connects the municipality and local higher education institutions. As part of the initiative, international students are linked with locals for various activities, with the purpose to build links and practice Dutch (IWCN, 2025[38]). In Germany, local Studierendenwerk branches offer various activities for both domestic and international students, excursions and trips, get together events and activities for students living in the residences. In Australia, the City of Sydney has created the International Student Leadership and Ambassador Program, which provides volunteering opportunities as well as training and integrated learning, bringing students to city events and activities. Participating students are supported to implement various projects for other international students in the city (City of Sydney, 2026[39]). The city also organises an annual mayor’s welcome for international students to show appreciation and encourage them to actively participate in the community. Study Melbourne (AUS), initiative of the state of Victoria, has an annual funding call for activities in the state that support the wellbeing of international students and enhance their experience, by, among other things, promoting a strong sense of belonging and connectedness with the local community (Study Melbourne, 2026[40]).

Covering study and living costs

As already mentioned above, studying abroad tends to come with a relatively high price tag, which causes significant worries to students and their relatives that support them. For more details, see Chapter 2, section Funding studies, which provides a comparison of study costs. Furthermore, international students in the six comparator countries tend to be concentrated in metropolitan areas (see Chapter 2, section International students tend to be concentrated in a few major metropolitan areas), in cities that have globally relatively high costs of living.

While international students tend to need more resources for tuition fees, their expenditure on other items broadly corresponds to that of domestic students. In Australia, excluding tuition fees, international students spend similar amounts and the patterns are broadly similar, although international students seem to spend slightly more on accommodation, food and travel (McCowage, Stinson and Fink, 2025[41]). According to Eurostudent, in Germany, living costs are about the same for international and domestic students, in France international students spend slightly less, while in the Netherlands they spend a little more. International students spend more on accommodation in the Netherlands than domestic students, while less in France (Eurostudent, 2025[11]). In France, there is an issue with the financial resource requirements needed to secure a study visa/permit being only EUR 615 per month (USD 727 as of 27 February 2026), which is below the poverty line and below real living expenses in France, especially in Paris. Furthermore, for proof of resources, it is sufficient to submit sworn statements and public authorities are unable to systematically verify these (Cour des comptes, 2025[20]).

International students rely primarily on funding from their relatives and on self-earned income, either from savings or part-time jobs. To a lesser extent, they also receive some resources from scholarships and student support schemes, but these appear to be decreasing in importance (CBIE, 2024[2]; AdvanceHE & HEPI et al., 2025[12]; Eurostudent, 2025[11]; DAAD, 2025[4]; Campus France, 2022[42]). Analysis from Germany also shows changing patterns over the course of students’ study time, with students later in their studies relying more on self-earned income and facing decreased contributions from parents and depleted personal savings (Pineda et al., 2022[35]).

Across all six countries, news reports exist on the precarious financial situation of some international students. Despite high financial resource requirements in many countries, the costs of living and tuition, and insufficient earnings from part-time jobs exceed expectations of international students. In the United Kingdom, impacts of the cost of living were felt by a majority of both international (77%) and domestic (78%) students. Despite satisfying visa requirements, some international students have insufficient funds to sustain themselves (AdvanceHE & HEPI et al., 2025[12]). This is in part, because financial requirements for study visa/permit are only checked at the time of application or permit renewal, except for the Netherlands, where international students are checked every year whether they still meet financial requirements. In France and Germany, where most international students need to renew their residence permit, their financial situation is also checked. Financial requirements are not placed on international students who do not require visa, for example nationals of other EEA countries, if they study in another EEA country.

In continental Europe (FRA, DEU and NLD), in countries where most international students pay low or no tuition fees, more international students still report more serious financial difficulties than domestic students (Eurostudent, 2025[11]). A French survey found that about 40% of international students are unable to cover their basic needs, compared to 16% of domestic students. About 26% of international students at least sometimes had to rely on food assistance, compared to only 6% of domestic students (Feres et al., 2023[7]).

While many international students face financial difficulties, they are often not eligible for public support schemes or due to lower language proficiency and less information, might not be aware of available support instruments. In Europe, across Germany, France and the Netherlands, fewer international students than domestic students received national public support (Eurostudent, 2025[11]). Nearly 47% of international students expressed a need for financial advice, a much higher proportion than among domestic students (Kroher et al., 2023[5]). In France, nearly half (48%) of emergency social assistance paid out by CROUS between academic years 2018/19 and 2022/23 went to international students (Cour des comptes, 2025[20]). In the United Kingdom, most internationals are not eligible for maintenance loans, the primary funding for living costs for most domestic students (AdvanceHE & HEPI et al., 2025[12]).

Some countries (CAN, FRA, GER, GBR) have introduced hardship funds that also cover international students, disbursed either during the COVID-19 pandemic or, more generally, in response to rising living costs for students. Many institutions in all six countries have their own hardship funds, but these are primarily targeted to students in the most extreme financial need, rather than providing general assistance for the many domestic and international students who struggle financially. The Studierendenwerk in Germany offers hardship loans to students. Various charities and student associations help students in greatest need. CROUS and Studierendenwerke have canteens with subsidised food (available to all students) and offer other assistance (CROUS, 2026[43]; Deutsches Studierendenwerk, 2023[44]). All countries, except France, have also addressed this issue by adjusting the financial requirements for study visas/permits and better verifying these requirements. In the United Kingdom, for example, differentiated requirements exist for students coming to London, where the expenses tend to be higher. Living-cost calculators (AUS) and detailed information on expected living costs (DEU, FRA, NLD) provided by the national informational portals can give prospective and current international students a more realistic overview of the costs associated with studying and living in their intended destination country. Access to affordable subsidised or rent-regulated housing certainly has the most significant impact on the financial stability of international students and provides them with the peace of mind needed to focus on their studies.

Working during studies

Most international students work during their studies. In European countries (DEU, FRA, NLD), it seems that international students tend to work slightly less than domestic students (Eurostudent, 2025[11]). In the United Kingdom, more international students than domestic students have paid employment during term time, but they work fewer hours: around 50% of working international students work 10 or more hours per week, compared to 64% of domestic students (AdvanceHE & HEPI et al., 2025[12]). In Germany, 51% of international and 65% of domestic students were employed, with domestic students working 17.4 hours per week on average, while international students only work an average of 14.9 hours per week (Kroher et al., 2023[5]). In Canada, around 57% of international students reported working at the time of the last major survey in 2023: an increase of nine percentage points compared to 2021 (CBIE, 2024[2]). In Australia, it is estimated that about 61% of international students have participated in the labour market in 2024, up from 44% labour market participation rate before the pandemic (2015-2019) (McCowage, Stinson and Fink, 2025[41]).

Across countries, a majority of international students rely on income earned during their studies to cover their study and living costs. In Canada, 70% of international students reported that income from work during their studies was an absolute necessity (CBIE, 2024[2]). In Germany, 88% of international students report that they rely on income from work to cover their study and living costs (DAAD, 2025[45]). In France, among those working, 54% of international students report that the wage is essential to cover basic expenses (Campus France, 2022[42]). In the United Kingdom, both domestic and international students work, although domestic students (66%) are more likely to work to cover their living costs than international students (49%). However, 31% of international students in the United Kingdom report that they also work to financially support their family, either family members that are accompanying them or in the form of remittances (AdvanceHE & HEPI et al., 2025[12]). At least in Germany, the reliance on income from work increases over time, which sometimes leads to delays in academic progress (Pineda et al., 2022[35]). Other reasons cited for seeking employment in available surveys include a desire to acquire professional experience and to explore possible career paths (AdvanceHE & HEPI et al., 2025[12]; Campus France, 2022[42]).

Access to jobs does not guarantee financial stability (Wilson et al., 2022[46]), as many international students struggle to find jobs during their studies and the jobs they do find are frequently not sufficiently well paid to cover the students’ financial needs (Oduwaye, Kiraz and Sorakin, 2023[47]). For example, in the United Kingdom, about half of non-working international students report that they need additional income, but cannot find a job (49%), compared to 35% of non-working domestic students (AdvanceHE & HEPI et al., 2025[12]). While settling in the country, 42% of international students in Germany were dissatisfied with the experience of looking for a part-time job (DAAD, 2025[4]). In Australia, international students rated “employment while studying” and “work experience” as the two lowest rated factors in the domain of living experience, although a majority of international students still rated these aspects positively (QILT, 2025[9]).

Study visas/permits in the six countries restrict how many hours and which jobs international students can do while studying. None of the six countries analysed allow full-time employment during term time. However, the Dutch study residence permit allows international students to work as entrepreneurs without restrictions. The exception is international students from EEA countries in France, Germany and the Netherlands, who are allowed to work full time on the same conditions as domestic students. Although full-time employment comes with implications for their social insurance contributions and possibly their formal status for tax, residency and social security purposes. For example, in France, any student who works more than 60% of maximum annual working hours is generally considered to be an employee rather than a student by the French administration.

An OECD policy survey carried out in early 2025 (OECD, forthcoming[48]) found that most international students are allowed to work during term time on average up to 16 hours a week in the Netherlands, 18.5 hours in France, 20 hours in Germany and the United Kingdom, and up to 24 hours in Australia and Canada. However, countries differ in terms of the period over which maximum employment hours are calculated. In France and Germany, maximum employment hours are calculated over a full year, while in Australia it is per fortnight, while in the other countries the maximum is set per week. In Canada, a distinction is made between on and off campus work, with the weekly work time limit only applying to off-campus work. In Australia, Canada, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom, international students can work full-time outside the study terms. In some countries (DEU, FRA and GBR), the right to work does not extend to self-employment or business activity. Another special situation is internships and work-based learning activities connected to studies, which are usually exempted from standard work restrictions or regulated separately, allowing international students to participate in such activities.

The difficult financial situation of some international students, restrictions regarding their employment and sometimes-insufficient language proficiency makes them more vulnerable to different forms of precarious working conditions, informality and even exploitation. Survey evidence shows that international students particularly appreciate efforts that connect them with available employment opportunities on and off campus. For example, some local Studierendenwerk branches in Germany collect job opportunities for current students. They also offer social counselling, share information about worker’s rights and regulations, and sometimes even assist students in problematic employment situations.

Another promising approach involves integrating work experience as part of the study programme (e.g. internships, work-based learning), with the connections to employers facilitated by the institution. Supporting international students to find part‑time jobs in the short-term can help with their financial situation and, in the long term, help them with their transition to the labour market.

It is however not only that international students depend on work to finance their studies, but also certain businesses, especially in hospitality, depend on part-time work by students, including international ones. This became obvious, for example, in Australia during the COVID-19 pandemic, where the government even temporarily lifted limits on work hours, due to their crucial role in the labour market (Packer, 2023[49]).

Maintaining study visas/permits

Among other concerns, international students also need to continue meeting requirements under their study visa/permit. In all countries, students need to progress with their studies, comply with limits on employment, report changes in address or enrolment, and maintain health insurance, where relevant. In Australia and the United Kingdom there is a single visa that serves both as authorisation for entry and to reside in the country for the purpose of study. In France, Germany and the Netherlands, international student, if needed, is first given an entry visa and they receive a residence permit once they are in the country. In Canada, arriving students need a travel authorisation to enter the country as well as a letter of introduction, which confirms that the person was approved for a study permit (and, in Quebec, a CAQ, Québec Acceptance Certificate). The study permit will be issued at the port of entry or sent to an address if the person already resides in Canada.

In Australia, Canada, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom, a study visa/permit is issued for the duration of the studies and with some additional time after graduation. Pursuing further studies requires students to apply for a new visa/permit or to renew their visa/permit. Germany relies on a shorter residence permits, usually lasting only one to two years and need to be renewed. In France, non-EEA international students in France are eligible for a multi-annual residence permit on renewal (up to 3 years), however, most students have a shorter residence permits that need to be renewed annually. This is in part because processing officers do not always have sufficient information on the length of study programmes and they have adopted a cautious approach to issuing renewals for longer period. A high proportion of students (60%) also submit the application for an extension to their residence permit later than the deadline of two months before the permit expires (Cour des comptes, 2025[20]). More details about national processes for study visa/permit are in Chapter 2, Annex 2.A.

All comparator countries also have some policies that monitor academic progress of international students. In the case of France and Germany, study progress is examined as part of residence permit renewal. Dutch institutions, as sponsors of the study visas/permits, need to report students who do not obtain at least 50% of the credits assigned for the year and provide justification as to whether they are making sufficient progress in their studies. Australian education providers are also required to “report students who: a) do not achieve satisfactory attendance, b) withdraw from a course, or c) do not maintain satisfactory course progress” (Department of Home Affairs, 2024[50]). In the United Kingdom, study sponsors are required to report if international student stops being “academically engaging,” with defined conditions international students need to meet and institutions must have in place academic engagement policy (UK Visas and Immigration, 2025[51]). In Canada, designated learning institutions must regularly respond to compliance reporting and confirm that international students are still actively pursuing their study programme.

A qualitative study, which interviewed international students in Australia, Canada and the United States observed how study visa/permit policies had a pervasive influence on students’ everyday life (Crumley-Effinger, 2023[52]). This shaped their study choice, created pressure on them to finish on time, limited options to take a break, limited access to work, and created uncertainty about processes for visa/permit extensions. Visa/permit policies were even reported to affect whether students invest in relations with other students and the local community, given the significant long-term uncertainty regarding their chances to stay in the country.

Discrimination and safety

In addition to many other challenges, some international students face discrimination. Available data from the Eurostudent survey, covering France and the Netherlands showed that nearly twice as many international students experienced discrimination in some form compared to domestic students. In the case of France, 14% of domestic and 31% of international students reported discrimination, while in the Netherlands, the equivalent figures were 21% of domestic students and 41% of international students. Nearly a quarter of international students in the Netherlands (23%) and France (24%) reported in the survey experience with discrimination based on their nationality or ancestry (Eurostudent, 2025[11]).

In Germany, a national student survey focused on discrimination faced by those perceived as foreigners and as people of colour. Many international students from other European countries were found to be less often perceived as foreigners than domestic students with a migration background. Among those that felt perceived as foreigners, 80% never experienced discrimination at university. However, international students from Sub-Saharan Africa (29%) and the Middle East and North Africa (26%) were over-represented among those that report having experienced discrimination. Discrimination was more frequently experienced outside university, where 68% of foreign-perceived students experienced discrimination, 13% “often” and 55% “sometimes”. This was especially the case for students from Sub-Saharan Africa (88% combined), Asia Pacific (78%) and Middle East and North Africa (74%) (DAAD, 2025[4]).

Similar dynamics have been also reported in Canada, where international students report discrimination and harassment more often off campus, in the community or online. Experiences with harassment or discrimination also differed by country of origin, with discrimination less frequently experienced by French students but more often experienced by those coming from Asia or Africa (CBIE, 2024[2]). A survey carried out across Russell Group universities in the United Kingdom, universities that enrol about 40% of international students, found that about one-third of international students reported having experience with racism (32%) and xenophobia (30%) (Russell Group Students’ Unions, 2025[53]). A report from Australia further underlines this issue by highlighting discrimination, harassment and experiences of staff and students with racism in higher, with a particular focus on the incidence of antisemitism, Islamophobia and the experience of First Nations peoples’ (Australian Human Rights Commission, 2024[54]).

While many international students experience discrimination and harassment, only some know about the process for reporting such incidents. In Canada, only 50% of international students knew who to contact and the process for reporting discriminatory incidents (CBIE, 2024[2]). In Germany, only about 34% of those who experienced discrimination knew about anti-discrimination offices at their institution. About 19% went to the office, while 15% chose not to use it despite being aware of its existence (DAAD, 2025[4]). A report from Australia also highlights that many international students are afraid of reporting incidents of discrimination, as they fear it might compromise their visas (Australian Human Rights Commission, 2024[54]).

Despite the evidence of discrimination, most international students tend to feel safe in their host countries, especially in their institution. In the Netherlands, perceived safety is even higher for international students than for domestic students (Eurostudent, 2025[11]). Safety was one of the most positively rated factors of the living experiences of international students in Australia, but the positive rating was higher for on campus (98%) than off campus (88%). Transport was positively rated only by 77% of international students (QILT, 2025[9]). Similarly in Canada, international students generally report a high degree of perceived safety, but felt most unsafe in public transport (21%), public places (19%) and online (9%) – compared to only 2% feeling unsafe on campus (CBIE, 2024[2]). Across Russell Group universities in the United Kingdom, only 6% of international students felt unwelcome and unsafe in their university, while about 27% felt unwelcome and unsafe in the country more generally (Russell Group Students’ Unions, 2025[53]).

Accompanying family members: partners and dependants

International students tend to be older than domestic students, and, as such, they are more likely than domestic students to live with partners and have children (AdvanceHE & HEPI et al., 2025[12]; Eurostudent, 2025[11]). This creates another challenge for international students, as their mobility not only impacts them but also their partners and dependants. The available data for four of the countries analysed in this report show a substantial number of additional visas/permits being issued for family members accompanying international students. The ratio of visas/permits for family members per study visas/permits issued to students in 2024 was 16% in Canada, 10% in Australia and 6% in the United Kingdom. In France, there were only a few individual cases of such visas/permits, as international students are not allowed to come with dependents in France (OECD, 2025[55]). The number of issued visas for dependants of students in the United Kingdom has declined rapidly, from a ratio of 32% in 2023 (OECD, 2024[56]) to 6% in 2024, as the government introduced restrictions on the ability of postgraduate students to bring dependants and family members. As of January 2025, Canada has also introduced stricter rules, limiting open work permit eligibility for spouses to master’s and doctoral international students, and students enrolled in select professional and eligible programmes (IRCC, 2026[57]).

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