This overview maps recent trends in international student mobility across Australia, Canada, France, Germany, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom, and situates these trends within the evolving policy contexts in these countries. It documents a decade of strong growth in enrolments, increasing concentration by countries of origin, and the central role of international students in overall tertiary education growth and institutional finances. It also notes a trend to tightening of policies since 2024 in Australia, Canada, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom, with emerging effects visible in study visa/permit and enrolment data. The chapter establishes a framework for analysing the international student journey, highlighting challenges international students face, starting with the search for information about study options, through to arrival and integration, and, ultimately, post-graduation trajectories. The chapter also highlights the interplay of policy areas and levels involved in international-student policy.
International Students in Higher Education
Abstract
International student numbers increased rapidly across the six countries in the 2010s, declined during the COVID‑19 pandemic and recovered in most cases by 2023. Since 2024, Australia, Canada, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom have moved to stabilise the numbers of international students enrolling in their countries. Early data show the effects of policy changes on the number of study visas/permits issued, the number of new international entrants and overall international enrolments. In contrast, France and Germany have continued to pursue their established policies aimed at attracting more international students.
International students’ origins are increasingly concentrated. Students from Asia make up a larger share of international students in 2023 than in 2013 in Australia, Canada, Germany and the United Kingdom. Students from Africa have an ever-larger presence in France, while the Netherlands primarily attracts international students from other European countries. Indian enrolments increased across countries, while the share of Chinese students fell in most countries.
International students are an important driver of growth in the tertiary education systems in all six countries. However, reliance on their tuition fees has created financial vulnerabilities and governance concerns in several systems, particularly Australia, Canada and the United Kingdom.
International-student policy sits at the intersection of higher education, migration and foreign policy, with implications also for research, employment, housing, health, social, fiscal, security, international development, trade and industry policies. Effective international-student policy requires co-ordination across policy domains and levels of government.
This report has been developed as a contribution to future reflection on policies influencing international students in OECD countries. The report compares trends, policy responses and practices in six major host countries for international students – Australia, Canada, France, Germany, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom. These countries were selected based on the size of their international student population, a shared pattern of rapid growth in the number of international students in recent decades, similarities in the contemporary policy debate and a common search for appropriate responses. The report starts with an overview of recent trends and developments in international student mobility in the selected countries, followed by four substantive chapters structured around four groups of challenges faced by international students as they progress through their study journey. The report concludes with emerging policy considerations for policymakers and stakeholders.
The report refers to international students, a group that may refer to mobile students (i.e. students whose prior education was pursued in another country) or foreign students (i.e. whose citizenship is different from the country they are studying in currently). The analysis will distinguish between these two groups, where relevant and possible. In contrast, the term “domestic students” is used to refer to students who pursue studies in the country of their citizenship and/or where they have also pursued prior education. Various data sources used in this report use different definitions, which are explained where relevant. The report considers students at all levels of tertiary education, from short-cycle degrees (ISCED level 5) up to doctoral education (ISCED level 8), unless specified otherwise. The primary focus of the report is on degree mobility, where students move abroad to obtain a full qualification, rather than credit mobility, where students spend only part of their studies abroad. Throughout the report, the term “study visa/permit” refers to an authorisation that allows a foreign national to enter and reside in a country for the purpose of study. The comparator countries use different terms and processes for this authorisation, which are described in detail in Chapter 2.
Most OECD data used in this report were, at the time of writing, only available up to 2024. Several countries examined have introduced new measures relating to international students very recently, but the available data do not yet show the effects of these reforms. Where possible, the report also draws on other international and national data sources to capture emerging trends.
International student enrolment is peaking in leading host destinations
The six comparator countries covered in this report are all major destinations for international students and, in all six systems, international students make up a significant share of overall enrolment in tertiary education (Figure 1.1).
Note: Figure only includes OECD Members, Key Partners and accession candidate countries. The six comparator countries analysed in this report are highlighted in dark blue. Countries are ranked by the total number of mobile students in tertiary education.
[1] Data refers to foreign students.
[2] Year of reference is 2022 for Argentina, Saudi Arabia and South Africa.
[3] Data does not include doctoral students.
[4] Share of international students in Luxembourg is 52.3%.
Source: Based on Table B4.3. in OECD (2025[1]), Education at a Glance 2025: OECD Indicators, https://doi.org/10.1787/1c0d9c79-en.
Furthermore, all six comparator countries have experienced rapid growth in the number of international students over the last decade (Figure 1.2). The United Kingdom is the second largest destination globally, after the United States, in terms of international student enrolment (748 461 international students in 2023). The number of international students in the United Kingdom has increased by 80% since 2013 and, in 2023, international students accounted for 23% of tertiary enrolment. Australia was in third place globally with 467 074 international students in 2023, their enrolment having increased by 87% since 2013. While the country experienced a significant fall in international-student enrolment in 2020 and 2021, the number of international students is increasing again and, in 2023, they made up 27% of tertiary enrolment. Fourth globally, Germany (423 197 students) saw growth of 115% over the decade to 2023 and the share of international students in the overall student population reached 13% in 2023, up from 5% in 2013. Canada was the fifth destination globally, with 389 181 international students, accounting for 21% of the tertiary enrolment in 2023. Canada saw one of the most rapid rates of growth in international student numbers between 2013 and 2023, with international enrolment growing by 157%. France hosts the eight largest population of international students globally (276 217 in 2023), an increase of 21% since 2013. International students in France made up about 10% of the student population in 2023, about the same share as a decade earlier. Lastly, the Netherlands was the twelfth destination globally (169 459 in 2023), but has been one of the fastest-growing countries in terms of international-student enrolment, with a 166% increase between 2013 and 2023 and international students accounting for 17% of its total tertiary education enrolment in 2023 (OECD, 2025[1]; UNESCO, 2025[2]).
Note: NLD without doctoral students (ISCED 8). From 2018, FRA reported mobile rather than foreign students.
Source: OECD (2025[3]) Number of mobile students enrolled and graduated by country of origin, https://data-explorer.oecd.org/s/3ju.
While, at the time of writing, internationally reported and standardised data were only available up to 2023, national statistics provide more recent information on trends in international student mobility (Table 1.1). Australia has the most up-to-date statistics, as it reports monthly statistics, and, at the time of writing, the latest refer to October 2025. The comparison of the year ending in October shows an 10% increase in international-student enrolment in Australia between 2024 and 2025 (Department of Education, 2025[4]). The second highest growth was in Germany, which saw a 6% increase of foreign students enrolled in the winter semester 2024/25 compared to year earlier (Destatis, 2026[5]). In France, a similar comparison showed a 3% growth in international enrolment between 2023/24 and 2024/25 (DEPP, 2025[6]). In the Netherlands, growth in the numbers of international students seems to have slowed down, with an increase of around 3% between 2023/24 and 2024/25 (Nuffic, 2025[7]). The latest data from the United Kingdom show a 6% decrease in the number of students with a non-UK permanent address between the academic years 2023/24 and 2024/25 (HESA, 2026[8]). National data from Canada are published only up to the academic year 2023/24, when there was a rapid (23%) increase in international enrolment compared to one year earlier. However, international enrolment rapidly decreased in years after due to federal policy changes that limited study permits for international students. Institutional surveys, carried out by Studyportals, NAFSA and Oxford Test of English, found that, in autumn 2024, about 90% of Canadian institutions had lower international enrolment than the year before (Studyportals, 2024[9]). In autumn 2025, 82% of responding Canadian institutions reported lower undergraduate international enrolments and 71% lower postgraduate international enrolments compared to a year earlier. At both levels of study, only 6% and, respectively, 7% of institutions experienced an increase in international enrolments in 2025.
Note: There are notable differences between data presented in this table, based on national sources, and data presented in other figures, which use internationally harmonised data, as reported by individual countries. The differences in the number of international students are in part due to time lag, particular definitions of international students and what levels of education are considered.
AUS: International enrolments and commencements by the sector – Higher Education
CAN: Total enrolments based on international students enrolled in ISCED 5-8 programmes. New enrolments considers post‑secondary students who enrolled in programmes leading to career, technical or professional training diploma, undergraduate, master’s or doctoral degree.
DEU: Table refers to foreign students and new enrolments of foreign nationals rather than international students.
NLD: Only includes international bachelor and master students.
[1] Preliminary data for year ending in October 2025. Yearly change compared to the same period last year.
Source: Compiled and calculated based on:
Department of Education (2025[4]), International student monthly summary, https://www.education.gov.au/international-education-data-and-research/international-student-monthly-summary-and-data-tables (accessed on 17 February 2026).
Statistics Canada (2026[10]), Table 37-10-0018-01: Postsecondary enrolments, by registration status, institution type, status of student in Canada and gender, https://doi.org/10.25318/3710001801-eng
Statistics Canada (2025[11]), Elementary to Postsecondary Student Education Dashboard: Enrolments, Graduations and Tuition Fees, https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/71-607-x/71-607-x2022019-eng.htm (accessed on 17 February 2026).
Destatis (2026[5]), Statistik der Studierenden Wintersemester 2024/2025 (Statistical report - Student statistics - Winter semester 2024/2025), https://www.destatis.de/DE/Themen/Gesellschaft-Umwelt/Bildung-Forschung-Kultur/Hochschulen/Publikationen/_publikationen-innen-hochschulen-studierende-endg.html (accessed on 19 February 2026).
DEPP (2025[6]), Repères et références statistiques - 2025 (Statistical Benchmarks and References - 2025), https://rers.depp.education.fr/ (accessed on 19 February 2026)
HESA (2026[8]), Figure 3 - HE student enrolments by level of study 2020/21 to 2024/25, https://www.hesa.ac.uk/data-and-analysis/sb273/figure-3 (accessed on 17 February 2026).
Nuffic (2025[7]), Countries of origin, https://www.nuffic.nl/en/countries-of-origin (accessed on 17 February 2026).
Nuffic (2025[12]), New enrolments, https://www.nuffic.nl/en/new-enrolments (accessed on 2 December 2025).
Compared to data on total enrolments, developments in the number of new students, first-time entrants, can provide greater insight into current trends. The number of international first-time entrants (i.e. new international students) increased in all five countries with internationally reported data between 2013 and 2023. As seen in Figure 1.3, in 2023, international students accounted for 17% of all new entrants in Germany compared to 37% in Australia (no data for France). All five countries shown in the figure, experienced a fall in international-student enrolment during the COVID-19 pandemic, but subsequently saw international enrolment recover.
Note: AUS: Data only considers bachelor, master and doctoral-level students, as there are no data on short-cycle programmes reported until 2019. FRA: No internationally comparable data available.
Calculated based on OECD (2025[13]), Total number of enrolled students, new entrants and graduates, https://data-explorer.oecd.org/s/40i.
The most recent data on first-time entrants, based on national sources (in Table 1.1), suggests a slowdown in recruitment of new international students in most of the six comparator countries. In Australia, the number of new commencements by overseas students in higher education increased rapidly after the COVID-19 pandemic, in 2022 and 2023. However, since then, growth in commencements by international students has slowed down, with only a 3% increase between 2023 and 2024. Data for the year ending in October 2025 show only a slight increase of 1% from the same period in 2024 (Department of Education, 2025[4]). In the Netherlands, the number of new international enrolments stayed nearly the same between 2021 and 2024 (Nuffic, 2025[12]). In the United Kingdom, the number of entrants with non-UK permanent address decreased in two consecutive years, by 7% between 2022/23 and 2023/24, and by a further 5% by 2024/25 (HESA, 2026[8]). While data for Canada in Table 1.1 show a 30% yearly increase in new international enrolments between the academic years 2022/23 and 2023/24, recent policy changes appear to have reversed this trend. In the Global Enrolment Benchmark Survey, Canadian higher education institutions reported a decline in new international enrolments by over one-third for both undergraduate (‑36%) and postgraduate (-35%) programmes (Studyportals, 2025[14]). The only country with continuing growth of international new entrants is Germany, with a 9% increase of newly enrolled foreign students in the winter semester 2024/25 compared to year before (Destatis, 2026[5]). No data are available on newly enrolled international students in France, although the data presented below on the number of new temporary student residence permits show little change between 2023 and 2024 (see Figure 1.6. ). These findings from national and international statistics, and institutional surveys on first-time entrants highlight that international enrolments have peaked in some countries. This aligns with recent developments in Australia, Canada, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom, which have seen the introduction of more restrictive policies, explored in section Developing policy for international students.
International students originate primarily from Asia, Africa and Latin America
International students worldwide originate primarily from Asia, with China and India as the leading countries of origin. Across the six comparator countries, the composition of international student populations varies considerably (Figure 1.4). In 2023, students from Asian countries made up the largest share of international students in Australia (89% of those with known country of origin), Canada (73%) and the United Kingdom (68%). Students from Asian countries were also the largest group in Germany (49%), followed by students from other European countries (31%). In France, the largest numbers of international students came from African countries (53%), with Asian (22%) and other European (16%) countries following. By contrast, the Netherlands primarily attracted students from other European countries (74%).
Between 2013 and 2023, the number of international students from Asian countries at least doubled in Canada (316% increase), Germany (291%), the Netherlands (270%) and the United Kingdom (228%). Much of this growth came from India, while the share of Chinese students declined in all countries except the United Kingdom, where it remained stable.
Although the numbers of international students from African countries were relatively low in 2013, they grew significantly across all six countries by 2023, more than doubling in all countries except France, which nevertheless continued to receive the largest student inflow from Africa. Mobility from European countries to Australia, France and the United Kingdom decreased, but increased in the Netherlands, Canada and Germany. The numbers of international students from countries in Latin America and the Caribbean remain smaller overall but grew substantially in all six comparator countries, while the largest increases of international students from North America occurred in Germany and the Netherlands.
Reliance on a single country or region increases the risk for higher education systems and institutions, as sudden declines in enrolments can be caused by geopolitical tensions, pandemics, or shifts in immigration policy.
Note: Calculated based on OECD (2025[3]) Number of mobile students enrolled and graduated by country of origin, https://data-explorer.oecd.org/s/3ju.
International students have been a major contributor to overall enrolment growth
In all six comparator countries, the number of international students increased between 2013 and 2023. In all except France, growth in the international-student population outpaced domestic enrolment growth (Figure 1.5). As such, enrolment of international students has been a major contributor to overall growth in tertiary education enrolment. The most significant difference was seen in Canada, where domestic enrolment grew by only 3% in the decade to 2023, while international enrolment grew by 157%. In Australia, domestic enrolment increased by 10% and international by 87%, while Germany saw an increase of 13% in domestic enrolment and of 115% in international students. The United Kingdom and the Netherlands experienced significant growth in domestic (GBR 24% and NLD 30%) and even more rapid growth in international enrolment (GBR 80% and NLD 166%). In France, the rate of change in enrolment in domestic and international students was nearly identical (22% for domestic and 21% for international). Domestic enrolment trends were likely influenced by a shrinking population aged 18–22 in some countries, including the United Kingdom, where this group declined by 8% between 2013 and 2023, Germany (‑7%), Canada (-4%) and Australia (-2%). In contrast, the Netherlands and France saw an increase in the population of young people in typical higher education age in the same period (5% in NLD, 8% in FRA) (UN, 2024[15]).
Shown in relation to the population of typical age of higher education students (18-22 years old)
Note: Data for NLD excludes doctoral students (ISCED 8).
Source: OECD (2025[16]) Number of enrolled students, new entrants and graduates by age, https://data-explorer.oecd.org/s/3eq.
United Nations (2024[15]), World Population Prospects: The 2024 Revision, https://population.un.org/wpp/ (accessed on 21 March 2025).
International students boosted institutional revenue
In many countries, international students have become an important source of revenue for higher education institutions (OECD, 2025[17]). In countries with tuition fees for international students (AUS, CAN, FRA, GBR, NLD and in three German states), tuition fees are a direct form of additional revenue. In Germany, all students, international and domestic, pay a relatively small administrative fee. Tuition fees are charged only by private institutions and to international students from outside the European Economic Area (EEA) in some public institutions in three German states (Baden-Württemberg, Bavaria and Saxony). In France, fees for both domestic and international students from other EEA countries are set at a low level and are moderate in the Netherlands for domestic and EEA students. However, tuition fees for international students coming from non-EEA countries are, on average, much higher in these two countries, although these higher tuition fees are not always applied in France (Cour des comptes, 2025[18]). In Australia, Canada and the United Kingdom, the revenue from international student fees has become a particularly significant source of funding for many higher education institutions. Reports from governments and stakeholder organisations have raised concerns about over‑reliance on revenue from international-student fees and noted the ethical and policy challenges related to cross-subsidisation of research or even teaching costs for domestic students with income from international student fees (Popovic et al., 2025[19]; PwC, 2024[20]; Australian Universities Accord Panel, 2024[21]).
Revenue from international students has helped to supplement sometimes insufficient public funding and low revenue from other sources. However, increased reliance on international students has also exposed institutions to significant risks for their finances in cases where international enrolment stagnates or starts declining. Signs of this vulnerability were brought into focus during the COVID-19 pandemic and have become even more apparent in light of more recent geopolitical developments and political pressures to lower incoming international migration in some countries. In Australia, Canada and the United Kingdom, the rapid growth in enrolments and reliance on income from international students has contributed to calls for more “managed” or “sustainable” patterns of international student recruitment and enrolment. Particularly in Australia and the United Kingdom, higher education institutions have also worked to expand their offer of transnational education abroad, which allows them to host (more) students outside the country (PwC, 2024[20]; Universities Australia, 2024[22]).
To varying extents, possible revenue from international students has also led institutions in several countries to expand their offer of programmes particularly targeted at international students. The pathways to temporary stay after graduation and possible permanent residency, introduced by governments in some form in all six countries, also play an important role in recruitment efforts. In some select cases, however, they may also have been used as a questionable marketing tool by agents or institutions, who expanded their offerings focused primarily on short programmes with less stringent academic and compliance requirements, but which would still facilitate immigration. While nearly all international students are enrolled by legitimate providers operating within appropriate quality assurance frameworks, some providers have exploited regulatory gaps, which permitted the mass recruitment of international students and the charging of high fees for low-quality education.
A recent report in France has raised concerns about the emergence of private, unregulated or little-regulated providers recruiting international students to non-degree programmes and training courses with misleading information about the recognition and value of the qualifications provided (Cour des comptes, 2025[18]). This has been a longstanding issue, and countries have taken steps to regulate the sector more effectively. The United Kingdom already introduced tighter compliance regulations in the 2010s and plans to further regulate student visa sponsors. Australia and Canada have more recently been working on measures to tackle fraudulent providers. In Canada, this has focused on improved verification of acceptance letters by the migration authorities in order to detect fraudulent letters issued without the knowledge of the education institution by agents (Collett, 2025[23]).
Particularly in France, Germany and the Netherlands, study costs for international students are subsidised from public budgets and only some pay full tuition fees (more details on what fees students pay in each country are provided in Chapter 2). With demographic decline and declining interest in some institutions, international students allow institutions to maintain or even increase their enrolment, which is tied with the level of public subsidy. In the academic year 2023/24, Germany experienced declines in domestic first-time entrants, which have been largely offset by increased international enrolment (Stacey, 2024[24]).
The financial impact of international student enrolment is felt not only by higher education institutions, but also by businesses in the localities where institutions are located. International students drive up the demand for, and spending on, housing, travel, food and other items. Furthermore, they provide additional labour, during and after their studies, especially for service industries of all skills level, and can thus potentially address local labour shortages.
Policies are increasingly being amended to regulate numbers of international students
Attitudes towards international immigration have been shifting in some countries in recent years, which has also affected the perception of international students. The significant growth in international student flows, occurring against the backdrop of increasing economic and societal pressures, has negatively affected the longstanding welcome with which they had previously been received. In many national contexts, international students are concentrated in larger urban areas, where they are sometimes perceived to place further strain on already limited housing supply. As discussed above, these issues have combined with concerns about the integrity of certain education agents, providers and programmes catering to international students, and the possible misuse of entry to the country for the purpose of study. At the same time, particularly in France, Germany and the Netherlands, where study costs of international students are partially or fully covered by the state, the concern is the economic contribution of international students during their studies and especially after the graduation. In the context of overall increases in rates of inward international migration, promoted to address dire demographic prognostics and propel economic growth, current public perception towards migrants, including international students, seems to have shifted. Several countries have thus taken steps to curb migration, which have also resulted in changes to the issuance of study visas/permits and related regulation in several leading host countries for international students (Collett, 2025[23]). Consequently, Australia, Canada and the United Kingdom are becoming more selective in their efforts to recruit international students.
In the United Kingdom, the government restricted the right to bring dependants for individuals holding a student visa in 2024 and, in 2025, announced further changes to shorten the duration of the post-graduation visa and increased the level of financial resources that students must demonstrate (OECD, 2025[25]). Further changes were introduced in the 2026 United Kingdom's International Education Strategy, which outlines a tightening in the regulation of study visa sponsors (i.e. higher education institutions) and the introduction of a levy on international student fees paid to English higher education providers starting in academic year 2028/29. The strategy also places emphasis on sustainable recruitment of international students and improving their student experiences (UK Government, 2026[26]).
In Australia, in recent years, the government has increased language requirements for international students, restricted visa hopping (i.e. switching between temporary visas), changed conditions for financial capacity and raised visa application charges (OECD, 2025[25]). In 2024, the country also introduced a prioritisation system for student visa processing, which allocates a number of visas to each sponsor institution that will be prioritised in processing. Once an institution hits 80% of their indicative allocation, subsequent applications will be treated as a standard priority (Department of Home Affairs, 2025[27]).
In Canada, where higher education falls under the jurisdiction of provinces and territories and where admission to Canada for study falls under the purview of the federal government, inter-governmental dynamics have added complexity to these measures. The federal government introduced caps on issuance of new and extensions of existing study permits from 2024, as well as a series of additional changes throughout 2024 and 2025, including increasing the threshold of financial resources needed to obtain study visa and eligibility for the post‑graduation work permit. These have resulted in a significant decrease of both applications and approvals for study permits. Furthermore, federal, provincial and territorial governments have taken steps to strengthen the integrity of the International Students Program through more robust verification process of letters of acceptance, legislative, regulatory, and policy amendments to oversight and compliance mechanisms, and closer monitoring of trends and institutional data. Provinces and territories have strengthened their policies for designating learning institutions. These institutions are now required to verify all letters of acceptance.
All six comparator countries covered in this report experienced an increase in the number of newly granted study visas/permits between 2014 and 2019 (Figure 1.6), with numbers subsequently falling significantly during the COVID-19 pandemic (2020-2021). All countries then experienced a recovery in the number of international students admitted each year, with a surge in the number of international students in Australia, Canada and the United Kingdom being one of the main drivers for changes to immigration policy. The increase in the United Kingdom could also be partially attributed to EEA students needing a visa to study in the United Kingdom from 2021 onwards, following the end of the Brexit transition period. Nevertheless, the recent policy changes in Australia, Canada and the United Kingdom are already reflected in the decline of newly granted study visas/permits between 2023 and 2024. France, Germany and the Netherlands saw more modest growth in the number of newly granted study visas/permits in the period following the pandemic. In their cases, however, data only captures non-EEA international students who require study visas/permits. Recent growth in the numbers of these students can be also attributed to the post COVID-19 pandemic recovery.
Note: These are estimates of annual temporary migration flows to selected countries based on the number of newly granted visas/permits issued to foreign citizens (international students newly registered in a tertiary education programme), provided to the OECD by relevant statistical services.
Source: OECD (2025[28]), Standardised inflows of temporary migrants, https://data-explorer.oecd.org/s/3jv.
Preliminary national data for 2025 suggest further declines in the number of newly issued study visas/permits in Australia, Canada and the Netherlands, and a slight increase in France and the United Kingdom (Table 1.2). The largest decrease is seen in Canada, where the number of new temporary residents with study permits fell by 61% between 2024 and 2025 (Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada, 2026[29]). The Netherlands and Australia have seen a rather modest decreases of 4% and 2% respectively, in the number of study visas/permits granted in 2025 compared to 2024, but for both this is the second year-to-year decline (Department of Home Affairs, 2026[30]; Immigration and Naturalisation Service, 2026[31]). In the United Kingdom, the data for 2025 show a slight increase of 4% in the number of study visas issued compared to 2024, but that the number of new visas issued is still well below the number granted in the peak years of 2022 and 2023 (Home Office, 2026[32]). The largest, but still modest, growth was seen in France with about 6% increase of residence permits issued to students in 2025 compared to 2024 (DSED, 2026[33]).
Note: No data available for 2025 for DEU, data from previous years are already in figure
AUS: Visa granted to primary applicant within higher education sector. CAN: New study permit holder arrivals to Canada, which includes also students pursuing other than tertiary education. For 2022 and 2023, number of issued and confirmed study permits excluding extensions. FRA: Initial residence permits issued for students, data for all level of education. Data for 2025 are estimates. GBR: Sponsored study entry clearance visa issued to main applicants, which includes students pursuing other than tertiary education. NLD: Number of decisions on residence permits for study per year, data include students in any level of education. Positive decisions in 99% of cases.
Source: Compiled and calculated based on:
Department of Home Affairs (2026[30]), BP0015 Student visas granted at 2025-12-31, https://data.gov.au/data/dataset/student-visas/resource/338d7226-ea79-4dda-a8c7-8615a8a09e0f (accessed on 17 February 2026)
Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada (2026[29]), Understanding student and temporary worker numbers in Canada, https://www.canada.ca/en/immigration-refugees-citizenship/corporate/reports-statistics/statistics-open-data/immigration-stats/students-workers.html (accessed on 18 February 2026)
Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada (2024[34]), CIMM – International Students Data Dashboard: Intake, Output & Issued, https://www.canada.ca/en/immigration-refugees-citizenship/corporate/transparency/committees/cimm-feb-28-2024/intake-output-issued.html (accessed on 18 February 2026)
DSED (2026[33]), Les titres de séjour en 2025 : Les protections subsidiaires ont plus que doublé [Residence permits in 2025: Subsidiary protections have more than doubled], https://www.immigration.interieur.gouv.fr/Info-ressources/Etudes-et-statistiques/Les-chiffres-de-l-immigration-en-France/Sejour (accessed on 18 February 2026)
Home Office (2026[32]), Entry clearance visa applications and outcomes detailed datasets, year ending December 2025, https://www.gov.uk/government/statistical-data-sets/immigration-system-statistics-data-tables#entry-clearance-visas-granted-outside-the-uk (accessed on 27 February 2026)
Immigration and Naturalisation Service (2026[31]), Yearly figures – 2025, https://ind.nl/en/about-us/statistics-and-publications/annual-reports (accessed on 18 February 2026).
Policy changes to international-student policy were also partially introduced in the Netherlands. Between 2021 and 2023, international student numbers rose sharply, creating political concern about pressures on the housing market, English replacing Dutch as the main language of instruction, and fears that internationalisation was growing “out of balance”. Already at the end of 2022, the education minister called on higher education institutions to halt recruitment of international students and suggested that the government will consider a range of measures. In 2024, the “Balanced Internationalisation bill” (Wet internationalisering in balans, WIB) was introduced in parliament. The proposed law would regulate the offer of programmes with foreign-language instruction (Government of the Netherlands, 2024[35]). At the time of writing, the bill is still not adopted. In the Dutch system the general rule is that if a student qualifies for a study programme they must be admitted to that programme. There are a few exceptions, where selection is applied to the study programme.
In 2024, as part of budget discussion, the law on higher education was amended so that higher education institutions can also put a maximum number of students or apply selection criteria on study programmes offered in English or other foreign language. In response to the call by the minister and proposed law, higher education institutions in the Netherlands, as represented by the Universities of the Netherlands (UNL) and the Netherlands Association of Universities of Applied Sciences (Vereniging Hogescholen), have proposed their own set of self‑imposed measures to limit the intake of international students and to avert regulatory action from the government. These self-imposed measures included limits on students in selected large study programmes, while keeping bilingual and foreign-language courses in study fields and regions with specific labour shortages. Higher education institutions have also halted active recruitment in international fairs, reduced the offer of preparatory years, and committed to support international staff and students to learn Dutch, better inform international students about housing shortages and to work to raise the stay rates of international students after graduation (UNL, 2025[36]; Vereniging Hogescholen, 2024[37]). A coalition agreement of the new Dutch government, announced in January 2026, suggests that the new government will not to go ahead with restrictions on study programmes taught in other languages than Dutch (NL Times, 2026[38]).
At the time of writing, France and Germany have remained on a path of promoting a greater intake of international students. France is continuing with its national target to have half a million international students enrolled by 2027, in part to strengthen its global influence. As part of its strategy, France is taking steps to simplify arrival to the country. While in 2024, France has made changes to its immigration policy, most measures that would impact international students were deemed unconstitutional by the Constitutional Council (Campus France, 2024[39]). Remaining measures concerning international students only require greater transparency, more data collection and better protection for them. In Germany, international students are seen as a large opportunity to address labour shortages. The German international strategy 2024-2034 commits to further increasing the attractiveness of the country for international students, reducing obstacles to their recruitment, integration and retention (BMBF and KMK, 2024[40]).
One further approach to reduce the number of international students is by developing capacity to deliver education programmes in another country, through transnational education. Particularly, Australian and British higher education institutions have opened international branch campuses and expanded the offer of study programmes through various franchise or collaborative arrangements. The 2026 UK’s International Education Strategy places more emphasis on expanding the offer of transnational education as a way to increase the number of international students pursuing qualifications awarded by institutions in the United Kingdom, bringing additional income to institutions without students spending extended periods in the country (UK Government, 2026[26]). Transnational education is also present in French and German context, but there it is also oriented towards international development, promoting educational and cultural exchanges. Most notably, German higher education institutions are supporting various German binational universities operating in number of countries around the world. While France also has a few French institutions operating abroad. However, these German and French institutions are relatively limited in scale. Canadian and Dutch institutions are only involved in a few transnational education arrangements.
International students face a range of challenges throughout their journey as students (Figure 1.7.). The challenges faced by prospective international students may discourage many from even attempting to study abroad. Moreover, challenges remain after graduation. Different international students will face different challenges throughout their study journey, shaped notably by the cultural, linguistic and education-system “proximity” between the host country and the student’s country of origin. Similar challenges are, to various extents, also experienced by domestic students, although domestic students are often better placed to address the challenges in question, particularly because they have better knowledge of relevant systems and norms and pre-existing supportive social networks.
Note: Developed by the OECD Secretariat.
In terms of study adaptation and success, domestic students may face similar challenges to international students, particularly if they do come from less advantaged social backgrounds where the codes and expectations of academic life are less well known and understood. Domestic students, particularly from minority or disadvantaged groups, also tend to face challenges with identifying reliable information and social integration. One challenge unique to international students is study and post‑graduation visas/permits and related conditions, which determine when they can move to the country, ability to stay, the ability of family members to move with the student, the ability of students to work while studying and their ability to stay on in their country of study after graduation. A second challenge that can also be felt to a greater extent by international students than domestic students is access to financial support, notably as international students pay higher tuition fees in six countries analysed except in most higher education institutions in Germany.
International students not only face challenges in the country they arrive in, but often they move there because of challenges they faced in their previous country of residence or their country of origin. This report does not cover them, but they are an important part of understanding why people leave to study abroad.
Multiple policy areas and levels of policymaking are involved in shaping policies for international students (Figure 1.8). At the core are three policy areas. First, higher education policy shapes admission processes, public funding and tuition fees, regulates accredited or recognised education providers, supports collection of statistics, and provides information to prospective and current students. Often, it also shapes recruitment practices, language of instruction and what institutional support services are offered to students. A second area is international migration policy, which specifically regulates study visas/permits for primary applicants as well as anyone accompanying (e.g. partner, dependants), as well as subsequent opportunities to remain in the host country after graduation. Migration authorities are responsible for reviewing applications for study visas/permits and often establish criteria regarding the organisations that are eligible to sponsor study visas/permits and host international students. A third major area is foreign policy and diplomacy, which often plays an active role in recruitment of international students and country awareness campaigns, participates in migration processes through embassies, and in some cases also maintains contact with graduates, for example by supporting alumni networks. Foreign affairs may also seek to promote specific bilateral and multilateral relationships, offering special scholarship schemes and other offers to facilitate access to higher education. An important consideration for both migration policy and foreign affairs is how to balance concerns about brain drain from other countries, while attracting international talent to contribute to the development of the country of study, during their studies and especially after.
Note: Developed by the OECD Secretariat.
International students are also influenced by a range of other policies including research policy (e.g. research study programmes, eligibility for funding); employment policy or labour market policy (e.g. labour protections, access to work during studies and for anyone accompanying student, post-graduation pathways, addressing labour shortages, attracting highly-skilled labour); housing policy (e.g. student housing, housing assistance, tenant protection); health policy (e.g. access to health care, medical practice, professional recognition); social policy (e.g. social benefits/aid, welfare, social protection); fiscal policy (e.g. tax status, international transfers); security policy (e.g. access to sensitive research, espionage); international development policy (e.g. education, scholarships and research to support development of another country); trade policy (e.g. promoting country, international education as export); and industrial policy (e.g. research and labour talent, priority industries).
Policy making and implementation are not only shared across multiple policy areas but also exercised by policy and decision makers at various levels of governance (Figure 1.8). The national (or federal) level tends to have responsibility over migration and foreign affairs, as well as much of finance, security, international development and trade policy. However, responsibility for other policy areas may lie fully or partially with subnational and regional governments or even local and municipal governments. In all six countries covered in this report, higher education institutions also have a broad autonomy, so many decisions about the organisation of studies and research and, where relevant, student housing are taken by institutions.
International student mobility is not only the result of policies in host countries, but also, at least in part, an outcome of policies in countries of origin or prior residence. It is important to consider the various “push” factors – political, economic, social and environmental – that contribute to people moving elsewhere to study. Global student mobility tends to flow from less-developed countries towards more developed countries. In some cases the outward student mobility is also encouraged, whether as part of bilateral exchange, with the aim of strengthening ties between countries, or also as a means to develop skills of individuals who may later return and contribute to the development.
This division of responsibility for policymaking and implementation across policy areas and levels highlights the relevance of inter-governmental collaboration to effectively support international students. For example, promotional campaigns and recruitment need to be matched by capacity in the migration system to handle peak application periods and in the higher education system to support international students. Similarly, regional priorities in ensuring a demographically healthy, educated and economically prosperous society should inform migration policies and system capacity. All six countries have developed some degree of cross-governmental collaboration on policy for international students.
In 2000, Australia adopted the Education Services for Overseas Students Act, which provides a legal framework to govern the delivery of education to international students and outlines the split of responsibilities between public bodies (Department of Education, 2024[41]). In May 2025, Australia established a new role of Assistant Minister for International Education, which is a shared portfolio between the Department of Education and the Department of Home Affairs (Martin, 2025[42]). Additionally, collaboration takes place in relation to the Study in Australia portal. The portal is managed by the Australian Trade and Investment Commission (Austrade) in collaboration with all state and territory study destination agencies and with input from a number of governmental and public bodies (Austrade, 2025[43])
In Canada, where responsibilities for higher education fall under the jurisdiction of provinces and territories, standards and policies for international education delivery are overseen by the respective ministries responsible for post‑secondary education. Those ministries, for example, designate educational institutions that can enrol international students, oversee quality assurance and set policies to strengthen student protection for international education. In addition, provinces and territories, through the Council of Ministers of Education (CMEC), have collaborated with Global Affairs Canada to develop the EduCanada brand and platform. The former serves as a seal of quality for authorised institutions, while the latter provides reliable information to international students regarding the Canadian education system and program offerings (EduCanada, 2025[44]).
In France, an interministerial approach was established as part of the 2018 Bienvenue en France (Welcome to France) strategy. The collaboration primarily focused on facilitating applications and admissions and the visa and residence permit process, by connecting higher education institutions, embassies and migration authorities through the Études en France (Studying in France) platform (Cour des comptes, 2025[18]). Campus France, a public body jointly created by the Ministry for Europe and Foreign Affairs and the Ministry of Higher Education and Research, has a major role in implementing the policy and co-ordinating across different stakeholders.
In Germany, in 2024, the federal and state (Länder) ministers of science and culture have adopted a joint internationalisation strategy for 2024-2034 (BMBF and KMK, 2024[40]). Based on this strategy, a working group comprising representatives of the federal and state governments meets regularly to discuss various aspects of internationalisation, including conditions for international students. Much of the implementation and funding of internationalisation policies in Germany is done through the German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD), an association of higher education institutions and student bodies. To fulfil this role, the DAAD receives significant funding from the federal government for, for example, the Study in Germany portal and campaign. The DAAD also advises policymakers on issues related to internationalisation and includes representatives of key federal and state bodies in its governance (DAAD, 2025[45]). Additionally, higher education institutions in Germany have formed the GATE-Germany consortium, which offers services and expertise to support international marketing, such as participation in university fairs, presentation of study programmes online and development of marketing materials and strategies. The administrative office of the GATE-Germany consortium is located at the DAAD. GATE-Germany is funded by the Federal Ministry of Research, Technology and Space (BMFTR), but still governed by the member universities (GATE-Germany, 2024[46]).
In the Netherlands, in a similar way to Germany and France, much of the policy implementation is conducted through Nuffic1, an organisation tasked to provide information and generate knowledge about internationalisation of education. Furthermore, it also acts as the national agency for Erasmus+ and the Dutch ENIC-NARIC with duties in regard to qualification recognition. The work of Nuffic is supported by the Ministry of Education, Culture and Science, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the European Commission (in case of EU funded programmes) (Nuffic, 2025[47]). The overall internationalisation strategy and policy is developed, as well as co‑ordinated by the Ministry of Education, Culture and Science, with Nuffic playing an advisory role.
In the United Kingdom, the 2019 International Education Strategy established the role of Government International Education Champion and created the Education Sector Advisory Group (Department for International Trade and Department for Education, 2019[48]). The Group was co-chaired by two ministers from the Department for Business and Trade, and the Department for Education, with participation of various stakeholders, representatives of devolved administrations, the British Council, the Home Office and the Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office. The United Kingdom’s new International Education Strategy, published in January 2026, suggests creation of ministerially chaired Education Sector Action Group, with representatives from the Government, higher education sector and industry. The 2026 strategy maintains the role of International Education Champion (UK Government, 2026[26]). The British Council has a major role in promotion of the British higher education abroad, producing reports and shaping policy. Scotland has its own International Education Strategy (Scottish Government, 2024[49]), whose implementation is overseen by the International Education Strategy Governance Group, comprised of government and sector representatives.
In some of the comparison countries (DEU, FRA, GBR, NLD), public internationalisation bodies (i.e. DAAD, Campus France, British Council, Nuffic) have a significant role in facilitating co‑ordination on international-student policy and implementation, and in providing direct support to international students.
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← 1. Originally an acronym for Netherlands Universities Foundation for International Cooperation.