Romania’s education and training system is undergoing its most comprehensive reform agenda since the country’s transition to democracy. These efforts come at a critical juncture: while a minority of Romanian students reach levels of excellence comparable to their peers in other European and OECD countries, many students, particularly in rural and disadvantaged areas, leave school without mastering the basic competencies needed to participate fully in society. Strengthening education is crucial for equipping individuals with the skills required to sustain more inclusive growth and bring living standards closer to the OECD. This chapter provides context and background for the analysis and recommendations that follow. It offers a comparative overview of Romania’s education and skills system, focusing on its structure, governance, funding and objectives, and explaining how these relate to the wider socio-economic and political context. The final section examines the major trends in access, learning outcomes, and equity.
Education and Skills in Romania
Abstract
Since transitioning to democracy Romania has made impressive strides in raising its economic performance, lifting living standards and strengthening public institutions. The country’s GDP per capita has increased at a fast pace, while poverty levels have decreased across all regions. However, despite this progress, large parts of the population have not reaped the benefits of economic growth. One in three Romanians – and close to one in two Romanians living in rural areas – are at risk of poverty or social exclusion. While the income gap between the richest and poorest citizens has declined over the past decade, it remains high by international comparison. Developing a more inclusive economy will be essential for placing Romania on a more sustainable path to growth.
Enhancing educational outcomes through better policies and practices is central to this endeavour. New legislation issued in 2023, backed by an unprecedented level of national and EU funding, promises to transform the quality and the availability of education at all levels. This is crucial not only for improving learning outcomes for children and youth, which are currently low by OECD standards, but also for developing the skills base needed to sustain economic growth and bring living standards closer to OECD levels.
This review examines how Romania can learn from OECD evidence and experience to take forward these reforms. The next four chapters provide an overview of education and skills policies in Romania across the core domains of early childhood education and care (ECEC); schooling; tertiary education; and lifelong learning and skills, to show where the country stands today in relation to OECD Members, and where evidence and examples from across the OECD can help Romania come closer to OECD benchmarks of quality, equity and good governance. This introductory chapter provides context and background for the analysis and recommendations that follow. It offers a comparative overview of key features and trends of the country’s education and skills system and explains how these relate to the wider socio-economic and political context.
Socio-economic and political context
Romania is approaching the OECD average national income per capita, but still faces structural growth constraints
Romania has experienced remarkable economic growth over the last decades. The country’s GDP per capita has increased at a fast pace, converging towards the OECD average (see Figure 2.1).1 While the economy is still characterised by its relatively large agriculture and manufacturing sectors, the service sector is growing rapidly. For instance, the Information and Communications sector expanded from 5.1% of GDP in 2013 to 7.1% of GDP in 2023, surpassing the EU average of 4.8% (Eurostat, 2023[1]).
Despite this positive economic performance, there are prevailing constraints to productivity and growth. Romania has a dual economic structure, with a small number of large foreign-owned companies that coexist with a significant share of small, low-productivity domestic firms. Domestic firms tend to be informal, undercapitalised, and have a weak capacity to absorb technology (OECD, 2024[2]).
Source: OECD (2023[3]), Economic Outlook 115, Gross domestic product, volume, USD at 2015 Purchasing Power Parities, http://data-explorer.oecd.org/s/br
The benefits of economic growth are unequally distributed, with large and widening urban-rural disparities in living standards
Regional disparities in economic growth and living standards are significant and increasing (OECD, 2025[4]). While the Bucureşti-Ilfov region has reached levels of GDP per capita comparable to prosperous regions in other EU countries like Île-de-France in France, most other regions have witnessed much slower economic growth, and maintain high levels of poverty (see Figure 2.2). In 2023, five out of eight of Romania’s regions had over 30% of the population at risk of poverty or social exclusion, well above the EU average of 21%. In the Sud-Vest Oltenia and Sud-Est regions, this rate surpassed 40%, contributing to Romania having the highest levels of poverty in the EU (Eurostat, 2023[5]).
Note: Panel A ranked in descending order of regional GDP and Panel B ranked in ascending order of percentage of population at risk of poverty of social exclusion by region.
Source: Eurostat (2022[6]), Regional gross domestic product (PPS per inhabitant) by NUTS 2 regions, https://doi.org/10.2908/TGS00005; Eurostat (2023[5]), People at risk of poverty or social exclusion by NUTS 2 regions, https://doi.org/10.2908/TGS00107.
Poverty continues to be predominantly rural. In 2023, an estimated 45% of Romanians living in rural areas were at risk of poverty, compared to 19% of those living in cities (Eurostat, 2023[7]). These areas tend to rely heavily on agriculture, have high informality and inactivity rates, and struggle with depopulation. Compared to other OECD countries, Romania’s policy response to tackle inequality is limited, be this in the form of social protection or more progressive tax and benefit policies. For instance, the direct cash transfers provided to rural households are insufficient to offset the burden of indirect taxes, such as the value-added tax (VAT) of goods and services (OECD, 2022[8]).
The labour market shows low participation rates among youth, women and Roma, and high levels of informality
Romania’s labour market participation rate remains low by OECD standards (OECD, 2025[4]). A significant share of the working-age population remains inactive or occupied in low-productivity informal jobs. In 2023, 67% of the working-age population was employed or actively seeking employment, compared to an OECD average of 76% (OECD, 2023[9]). Women, older adults and youth are particularly detached from the labour market (see Figure 2.3).
Labour participation rate (15-64 year-olds), % of population, 2023
Note: Ranked in descending order of labour participation rate.
Source: OECD (2023[9]), Employment and unemployment by five-year age group and sex - indicators, http://data-explorer.oecd.org/s/bo
While Romania's youth unemployment remains higher than the EU average, the overall trend has improved in recent years. The youth unemployment rate for those aged 15-24 dropped from 29% in 2011 to around 22% in 2023 (Eurostat, 2023[10]). However, youth within this age group account for more than one in three (37%) of all inactive individuals (Eurostat, 2023[11]). This contributes to Romania having the highest share of 18- to 24-year-olds not in formal education, employment, or training (NEET) in the European Union. In 2023, 22% of youth were NEETs in Romania, compared to 12% on average in the EU (Eurostat, 2023[12]). Romania’s gender participation gap is also the largest among EU countries and 9 points higher than the OECD average (only 57% of women work or look for work, compared to 76% of men) (OECD, 2023[9]). The gap is particularly pronounced for older women aged between 55 and 64, and Roma women (OECD, 2024[2]).
In addition to low participation, informality is widespread, with estimates ranging from 14.5% to 30% of total employment (OECD, 2022[8]). This exceeds estimates for most OECD and Central and Eastern European (CEE) countries. Informality is particularly prevalent in rural areas, where approximately 72% of workers in the agricultural sector are employed in informal jobs (ILO, 2018[13]).
Romania has the largest Roma population in Europe
The majority of Romania’s population consists of Romanians, accounting for almost 90% of the total population of approximately 19 million (OECD, 2023[9]; Eurydice, 2023[14]). The country recognises 18 ethnic minorities, with Roma being the second largest minority after Hungarians (Eurydice, 2023[14]). While figures vary considerably, Romania is estimated to have the highest Roma population in Europe, ranging from 3 to 13% of the total population (or up to 2.5 million individuals) (European Commission, 2022[15]; Rutigliano, 2020[16]). The Roma are overrepresented among residents in marginalised rural areas, which struggle with limited access to infrastructure, education, housing and health services (European Commission, 2022[15]).
Romania’s population is ageing and declining at a much faster pace than many OECD and Central Eastern European countries
Romania has lost approximately 3.7 million people in the past 30 years and has experienced a more significant drop in the working-age population than OECD countries (see Figure 2.4). This is mainly a consequence of emigration, though the country’s birth rate has also fallen over this period and is now below the replacement level (OECD, 2023[17]; OECD, 2025[4]). Since 2008, around 3.2 million Romanians, including many young and skilled professionals, have emigrated to work abroad (Eurostat, 2022[18]). Demographic projections suggest the population will continue to decline, from 19 million to around 15 million by 2070 (OECD, 2022[8]). This trend is expected to be particularly steep among younger cohorts. Current projections foresee a 32% drop in the population under 20 by 2070, most likely leading to a further decline in the absolute number of students enrolling in education and training (Eurostat, 2023[19]).
Percentage change of working-age population (15-64 year-olds), 2002 to 2022
Note: Ranked in descending order of percentage change of working-age population.
Source: OECD (2022[20]), Historical population data, http://data-explorer.oecd.org/s/d9
Romania is a unitary state with a centralised government
In Romania, tax collection, and public spending on public services like education and health are largely centralised. While the country’s main administrative units – counties and municipalities – have revenue‑raising powers, their ability to generate revenues is limited. On average, they only generate 18.7% of revenue from their own tariffs, fees, and other sources (e.g. property income and social contributions) compared to the EU average of 56.8%. This makes them highly dependent on transfers from the central government (European Committee of the Regions, 2021[21]).
County and municipal governments have some responsibilities over the planning and delivery of social services. For instance, counties manage some public health units and specialised social services (such as services for the elderly), while municipalities are in charge of urban planning, local public transportation, specialised social services, and school infrastructure (including nurseries, kindergartens and schools). However, local capacity to fulfil these responsibilities varies significantly, partly due to the substantial differences in the economic and demographic characteristics of counties and municipalities (see Figure 2.3). For example, Constanţa County, with 34% of its population residing in rural areas, has a GDP per capita almost three times higher than Vaslui, which is predominantly rural (59%) (National Institute of Statistics, 2023[22]; National Institute of Statistics, 2022[23]; Eurostat, 2021[24]). Local revenue-raising capacities also vary significantly across local authorities. Between 2016 and 2019, a wealthy municipality like Brasov had a total income of 128.50 million lei (USD 78.9 million PPP), with nearly 24% generated from local revenues. This is almost six times the total income of Alexandria, which amounted to 21.25 million lei (USD 13.1 million PPP), with only 9.2% sourced locally (IMF, 2022[25]).2
While there have been proposals to group counties into regions, cross-county functions remain limited in Romania. The country currently has eight development regions, which are defined by law, but lack administrative or legal personality. These regions are primarily used for the administration and investment of EU funds and statistical reporting.
GDP at current market prices, purchasing power standard per inhabitant, 2021
Source: Eurostat (2021[24]), Gross domestic product (GDP) at current market prices by NUTS 3 regions, https://doi.org/10.2908/NAMA_10R_3GDP
Romania’s government programme highlights OECD accession and investments in education and skills as central to meeting growth and inclusion goals
The Government of Romania outlines its national priorities in the government programme approved by Parliament every four years. The current programme for 2021-2024 details the foreign and domestic policy priorities for this period. Romania’s top foreign policy priorities include accession to the OECD, entering the Schengen area, and strengthening its profile in NATO. Key domestic priorities include fostering the green transition, digital transformation, and inclusive growth, with a focus on the country’s disadvantaged rural regions. The government programme recognises that national investments in education and skills are crucial for equipping individuals with the knowledge needed to contribute to a more inclusive society. It highlights measures to modernise teaching, invest in initial teacher education, and make curricula more relevant to labour market needs through stronger partnerships with businesses (Government of Romania, 2021[26]).
Romania is taking steps to enhance integrity in the public sector, but corruption is still an issue
In Romania, corruption is perceived as a major issue. In the last Eurobarometer, 78% of individuals reported there is corruption in national, local or regional public institutions, and 54% considered it acceptable to give a gift to receive something from the public administration or a public service (European Commission, 2022[27]). The appointment of public servants is also prone to political interference, particularly at the highest levels. While these positions should be filled through open competition, there seems to be a widespread use of temporary appointments to sidestep the meritocratic selection process (OECD, 2023[28]; OECD, 2016[29]).
Romania’s new National Anti-Corruption Strategy 2021-2025 aims to address many of these challenges. Notable objectives include evaluating the effectiveness and efficiency of public policies and strengthening the civil service profession by developing performance evaluation and avoiding temporary appointments. Beyond these cross-cutting national measures, the strategy identifies education as one of eight priority sectors that require targeted action. Specific measures include introducing codes of ethics for teachers and school inspectors and strengthening the integrity of student high-stakes examinations and standardised tests (Government of Romania, 2021[30]).
Figure 2.6 illustrates how Romania’s education and skills system is organised and structured in relation to the main levels of the International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED). The system stands out for the long duration of compulsory education, which following recent reforms now spans from ages 4 to 18. In OECD countries, compulsory education typically begins with primary education at the age of 6 and ends with the completion or partial completion of upper secondary education at the age of 16 (OECD, 2024[31]).
Early childhood education and care is provided in nurseries (Creșă) for children aged 0-3 and in kindergartens (Grădiniță) for children aged 3-5. In most cases, the same school unit provides both primary education (Școală primară) and lower secondary education (Școală Gimnazială), while upper secondary education is generally provided in a separate unit (Liceu).
There are three main tracks in upper secondary education: theoretical, aptitude-based and technological upper secondary schools (Liceu filiera Teoretică, Liceu filiera Vocațională, Liceu filiera Tehnologică). Technological schools offer four-year initial vocational education and training programmes (IVET). As an alternative to traditional upper secondary tracks, students have the option to pursue a three-year IVET programme, which is also offered in a “dual” format where schools partner with local companies to design the programme and provide practical training contracts to students (Școala Profesională / Școala Profesională în Sistem Dual).
Tertiary education institutions in Romania include universities (Universitate) that offer bachelor’s, master’s, and doctoral study programmes (ISCED 6-8), and colleges (Colegiu), which are located in accredited tertiary education institutions and provide a relatively unusual offer of post-secondary, non-tertiary ISCED 4 qualifications. While Romania currently does not provide short-cycle undergraduate education (ISCED 5), recent reforms foresee the development of such programmes. Post-secondary non-tertiary education and adult training are relatively underdeveloped: only 3% of adults (25-64 years) have completed post‑secondary non-tertiary education, compared to 6% on average in OECD and 5% in the OECD-EU countries3 (OECD, 2024[31]).
Structure of education
Romania’s Constitution states that all individuals have the right to education and that public education should be free-of-charge. In 2020, Romania expanded compulsory education to include two years of pre‑school, and the whole upper secondary cycle. As a result, compulsory education comprises the last two years of pre-school, a primary education cycle (Grades 0-4), a lower secondary cycle (Grades 5-8) and four years of upper secondary education (Grades 9-12).
Note: Compulsory education in blue.
Source: Ministry of Education (2023[32]), Accession candidate country's self-assessment of policies and practices in the area of education and skills: Guidelines and questionnaire Romania.
Public provision of education and training dominates at all levels, with the private sector representing only 5% of the total enrolment
In Romania, the provision of both compulsory and non-compulsory education is largely public (see Figure 2.7). The distribution of enrolment between public and private institutions has remained practically unchanged in the last decade for all education levels (OECD, 2022[33]). Notably, the share of enrolment in private institutions at pre-school and tertiary levels is low when compared to most OECD and EU countries. Many countries in the OECD and the EU have allowed the private sector to expand in pre-school and tertiary education to address demand that the public sector cannot meet.
Students enrolled in public educational institutions by education level, 2022
Note: Ranked in order of level of education.
Source: OECD (2022[33]), Distribution of enrolled students and graduates by type of institution, http://data-explorer.oecd.org/s/bm
The school system is highly segregated by achievement and socio-economic background
Students in Romania are first selected into different education tracks around the age of 14, through the national Grade 8 examination (Evaluarea Națională). This is a similar age and grade for selection as in other OECD countries offering diverse pathways in upper secondary education. The Grade 8 examination carries high stakes for students in Romania, as there is strong competition to enrol in the most prestigious theoretical high schools and avoid vocational programmes that are generally perceived to be of low quality (OECD, 2020[34]).
PISA provides comparative data for 15-year-old students, the majority of whom are in upper secondary school. Here, grouping by ability within schools and classes is pronounced. While the percentage of 15‑year-old Romanian students grouped by ability for all subjects fell by almost 15 points between 2018 and 2022 (standing at 13.5% in 2022), it remains almost double the OECD average (see Figure 2.8). This likely reflects the fact that by age 15, many students are enrolled upper secondary education, where student orientation is closely linked to their academic performance.
Percentage of students in schools where students were grouped by ability into different classes for all subjects based on principals’ reports, 2022
Note: Ranked in descending order of percentage of students where students were grouped by ability into different classes for all subjects.
Source: OECD (2023[35]), PISA 2022 Results (Volume II): Learning During – and From – Disruption, PISA, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/a97db61c-en.
Education and training provision varies markedly between urban and rural areas
Educational institutions, particularly those offering early childhood educational development and post-secondary education and training, are largely concentrated in urban areas. The vast majority of nurseries are located in cities and towns, with only 10% located in rural areas (Ministry of Education of Romania, 2023[32]). Opportunities to complete secondary education and enrol in further education are also limited in rural areas. For instance, while early school leaving is particularly high among rural students, second chance programmes are underdeveloped in these areas. Similarly, of the 83 tertiary education institutions in the country, 29 are located in București, and the remainder are mainly located in the cities of Cluj-Napoca, Iaşi and Timişoara (National Institute of Statistics, 2023[36]). The scarcity of educational and training opportunities in the more rural parts of the country is a significant challenge, considering the economic imperative to develop and dynamise these areas, and the very low levels of education attainment and skills among the rural population.
Primary and secondary provision is universal, but rural schools have some distinctive features. They are often small, satellite schools managed by the leadership team of a larger school (with which they form a legal entity). These schools tend to enrol fewer students and organise teaching in multi-grade classrooms where students from different grade levels are taught together by a single teacher. In contrast, urban schools are typically larger, and many operate on multiple shifts to accommodate their growing student population (Ministry of Education of Romania, 2023[32]).
While most students follow a vocational education and training pathway in upper secondary education, opportunities for progression in further education, training or employment are limited
Romania directs most students (57%) into vocational tracks from the start of upper secondary education (see Figure 2.9). However, these programmes provide limited opportunities for further education, training or employment. A single national examination in Grade 12 (the baccalaureate) determines whether students can enrol in tertiary education. There are plans to review the baccalaureate to better align it with the diverse upper secondary pathways. Starting in the 2025-2026 school year, students in aptitude-based and technological streams will be assessed on disciplines relevant to their profile (Ministry of Education of Romania, 2023[37]; European Commission, 2023[38]).
Upper secondary vocational programmes are also insufficiently aligned with employers’ needs. One reason is their relatively low emphasis on work-based learning. Learning often occurs in classroom settings or school workshops and laboratories, limiting students' exposure to employers' practices and expectations and reducing their opportunities to develop the specialised knowledge required in the labour market, (CEDEPOF, 2021[39]).
Ongoing reforms aim to address this challenge. By 2029-2030, the aim is to deliver all secondary vocational education in a dual format. New legislation also introduces a new dual model of vocational bachelor’s degrees to provide a coherent pathway from dual vocational upper secondary education to tertiary education (see Chapters 3 and 4).
Percentage of students by programme orientation in upper secondary, 2022
Note: Ranked in descending order of percentage of students in upper secondary vocational education.
Source: OECD (2022[40]), Upper secondary students enrolled in vocational programmes (%), http://data-explorer.oecd.org/s/bs
Governance of the education and skills system
The Ministry of Education is responsible for setting the education system’s overall strategy and policy, and receives technical support from specialised bodies
The Ministry of Education is responsible for developing education policy and regulations as well as coordinating and overseeing the system, from the early years, pre-school and compulsory education through to tertiary education (Eurydice, 2022[41]). It receives technical support from several specialised bodies covering areas such as curriculum development, national assessments and examinations, quality assurance, vocational education and educational research (see Figure 2.10). These bodies, most of which are subordinate to the Ministry of Education, have a specific and complementary mandate to that of the Ministry, and employ staff with relevant technical expertise. However, they have been weakened by low and unstable funding, declining staffing levels, and a lack of procedures to ensure the data and evidence they produce are used by the Ministry of Education to inform policies.
Ongoing reforms aim to strengthen existing bodies and develop new specialised professional functions. For instance, school evaluation responsibilities will be consolidated under a single agency (the Agency for Quality Assurance and Inspection in Pre-University Education, ARACIIP) and two new national centres will be established focusing on inclusive education and on developing the teaching profession.
Note: The figure does not cover all government bodies involved in education and skills policies. It focuses on key bodies discussed in the analysis and recommendations.
Counties and education institutions have autonomy in specific areas, yet they do not always have the capacity or support to exercise it effectively
In the pre-university system, County School Inspectorates (CSIs) represent the Ministry of Education at the county level. They oversee the implementation of national policies in schools, appoint school principals, provide continuous professional development through their affiliated teacher training houses, and together with local authorities (municipalities, which include communes, towns and cities) are primarily responsible for planning the school network (see Figure 2.10 above). Until recently, they also conducted individual teacher appraisals and school inspections. However, ongoing reforms reorganise CSIs into County Directorates for Pre-university Education, and strip away most of their inspection responsibilities to focus more on school support.
There have been efforts in the last decade to grant schools more autonomy, especially more flexibility to adapt the curriculum. Many of these efforts are backed by the National Recovery and Resilience Plan (NRRP), which funds initiatives to support schools in areas like curriculum innovation, and student assessment. However, schools still need to build the capacity to do so effectively. They receive little guidance and continue to face a high administrative workload that takes their time and attention away from these instructional tasks. Similarly, while universities naturally enjoy a degree of autonomy, they are still subject to strong bureaucratic control in most areas of their organisation, and have limited internal capacity for research, innovation, entrepreneurship and engagement with external stakeholders (Dobbins, 2017[42]; OECD/European Union, 2019[43]). Ongoing reforms aim to strengthen educational institutions’ capacity to exercise their responsibilities. For example, in the case of tertiary education institutions (TEIs), they shift quality assurance processes from compliance to enhancement, giving TEIs greater responsibility for their own improvement.
The Ministry of Education shares responsibility for skills and adult learning with the Ministry of Labour and other bodies
The governance of skills and adult learning – defined in this report as education and training targeting adults, or youth who are out of the formal education system – is primarily split between the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Labour and Social Solidarity (Ministry of Labour hereafter), who work alongside several specialised agencies. While many OECD countries have similar governance arrangements, in Romania coordination between ministries could be strengthened, since in some instances there is duplication and fragmented policy interventions. Romania has taken some steps to improve inter-ministerial collaboration, especially in data collection, analysis, and use related to skills needs and vocational training programmes (see Chapter 5). In addition, in 2020 the Ministry of Labour established a National Coordination Group to streamline consultation on skills policy. The group brings together representatives from line ministries, the education and training sector—including vocational training providers—NGOs, industry and social partners.
Systemic issues related to public governance in Romania are apparent in the education and skills sector
Some of the challenges in Romania’s public governance are also present in the education and skills sector. As in other Central and Eastern European (CEE) countries, the sector has a legalistic culture characterised by an emphasis on the role of legal instruments in policymaking, and frequent legal amendments. This has often directed the focus of policymakers and educators towards compliance with legal requirements, with less attention paid to important aspects of policy implementation, monitoring and evaluation (Deca and Santa, 2022[44]).
Frequent turnover among both high-ranking political officials and civil servants as well as capacity constraints within the Ministry of Education create additional barriers for effective policy planning and implementation. The Ministry of Education faces challenges in attracting and retaining enough qualified public servants, and appointments and career progression are often influenced by political affiliations (OECD, 2016[29]). As a result, the Ministry has not sufficiently developed important capacities for strategic budgeting and planning, nor for monitoring and evaluating programme implementation (OECD, 2024[45]; OECD, 2024[2]). Romania’s National Recovery and Resilience Plan (NRRP) includes measures to strengthen line ministries’ capacity for strategic budgeting, planning, and procurement (OECD, 2024[2]; OECD, 2024[45]).
Romania is taking measures to develop its education data infrastructure, but capacity and resources to analyse and report data need strengthening
Romania has many of the building blocks of system-monitoring and evaluation in place. Dedicated professional institutions conduct education policy research and evaluations, and a range of education databases for ECEC, school education and tertiary education are already in place. Additionally, the country conducts national student assessments to collect information on learning outcomes in primary and lower secondary education, as well as studies to assess student outcomes in tertiary education and anticipate the skills needed in the labour market.
While ongoing reforms introduce positive measures to strengthen the data infrastructure and promote greater data use, noticeable gaps remain. For instance, with EU funding support, Romania is integrating its data platforms for pre-tertiary and vocational education and training and has further plans to invest in schools’ digital skills. However, the Ministry of Education needs more specialised teams to maintain and develop its education databases, conduct statistical analysis, and report data in a way that is useful to national and county authorities, educational institutions, and the broader public. Such investments are important if the education data is to inform policy and practice.
Funding of the education and skills system
The education and skills system relies predominantly on public funding, which is low but set to increase
The bulk of total expenditure in education stems from public sources (96% of total), whereas the private sector contributes only a minimal share (see Figure 2.11) (OECD, 2024[31]). Private spending in early childhood education and care, as well as tertiary education is low compared to other OECD and CEE countries.
Government spending on education has remained relatively stable at very low levels (see Figure 2.11). In the last 10 years, expenditure on primary to tertiary education has averaged 6.8% of total government expenditure, and 10% or less when considering total funding for the entire education sector (Eurostat, 2022[46]; OECD, 2021[47]). This is well below public spending across OECD countries, and the lowest among Central and Eastern European countries (OECD, 2021[47]). Positively, the new legislative package aims to increase the share of public expenditure on education to at least 15% of total government expenditure by 2027. Achieving this increase would mark a step change in total funding for the sector.
Percentage of total government expenditure in education, 2012-2021
Note: Total expenditure in education includes general government, private sector (households and other non-educational private entities) and rest of the world (international sources).
Source: OECD (2021[47]), Share of total government expenditure on education, http://data-explorer.oecd.org/s/cs
The overall low levels of government spending in the education sector result in low public spending per‑student. Romania's average public expenditure per student from primary to tertiary education is USD 6 030, less than half the OECD average (USD 12 163) and the lowest among CEE countries (OECD, 2021[48]). Public per-student expenditure is particularly low in primary and post-secondary non-tertiary education (see Figure 2.12). While larger education budgets do not automatically translate into better student outcomes, when spending is below a certain threshold it is hard to ensure quality outcomes for all children (OECD, 2017[49]).
Government expenditure on educational institutions per full-time equivalent student, 2021
Note: Ranked by educational level.
Source: OECD (2021[48]), Expenditure on educational institutions per full-time equivalent student, http://data-explorer.oecd.org/s/cx
Most public spending for education and training comes from the central government budget
Public funding for education comes primarily from the state budget. In 2021, central funding constituted as much as 71% of total government expenditure on ECEC, 76% on primary, secondary and post-secondary non-tertiary education and 100% on tertiary education (OECD, 2024[31]). The remaining public funding was provided by county and municipal budgets.
Central funding to public education institutions is mainly allocated through a per-capita funding formula, which has been recently revised to better reflect need. These funds are mainly used for staff salaries and administrative costs. Consequently, education institutions rely on other funding streams such as local authorities in the case of schools, kindergartens and nurseries, or performance-based funding from the Ministry of Education in the case of tertiary education institutions (TEIs) to cover other expenses. This may lead to disparities, as schools in socio-economically deprived areas, or TEIs with lower internal capacity may be less likely to receive funding outside of the funding formula (World Bank, 2022[50]; CNFIS, 2022[51]). Positively, and similar to many OECD countries, the pre-university education law plans to supplement the funding formula with targeted funds to disadvantaged schools.
Objectives of the education and skills system and major reforms
The 2023 laws on pre-university education and higher education represent the most recent in a series of waves of education reform and modernisation
Since its transition to democracy, Romania has undergone three major waves of education reform, with major legislation passed in 2005, 2011, and, most recently, in 2023. New legislation maintains many of the organisational and operational structures of the education system. For example, the new laws preserve the same educational stages, national assessments and examinations, and career progression steps for teachers as the provisions that have been in place since 2011. However, there are notable changes to the organisation of nurseries, school leadership and funding, and upper secondary and tertiary pathways, highlighted in Box 2.1.
The 2023 law on pre-university education covers ECEC, primary and secondary education. Notable goals include:
Integrating nurseries into the national education system: The law reaffirms the unitary system in early childhood education and care (ECEC) introduced in 2021-2022, where the Ministry of Education oversees kindergartens (for children aged 3-6) and nurseries (for children under 3) that were previously managed by municipalities. It also introduces, for the first time, a standard cost per child enrolled in nursery, establishing the basis for funding these services from the national budget.
Raising the standards and status of teachers and principals. The law includes plans to develop professional standards, with differentiated roles and responsibilities for teachers and principals, to guide initial teacher education, certification and career development. It raises teacher salaries and introduces structured mentorship and professional development opportunities in schools.
Providing more equitable funding. The per-student funding formula for ECEC and schools will include a new equity weighting for learners with special educational needs (SEN), disadvantaged facilities, and school consortia involving rural and urban schools. Schools in priority investment areas will receive targeted resources and support, while vulnerable and academically outstanding students will benefit from larger scholarships.
Expanding dual secondary education. The law aims to transition all upper secondary vocational education and training programmes (referred to as initial vocational education and training, IVET) into the dual system by 2029-2030. The main vehicle for achieving this objective is the establishment of dual education clusters which are intended to co-locate vocational secondary, post-secondary and tertiary education within the same physical campus.
The 2023 law on higher education covers bachelor, master and doctorate programmes, as well adult training. Notable goals include:
Aligning programmes with the labour market. Romania plans to diversify tertiary education to improve labour market relevance by developing a new "dual" model of vocational bachelor’s degrees, combining classroom and work-based learning. These new tertiary programmes will provide a full pathway for students transitioning from vocational upper secondary to tertiary education. The Educated Romania plan also envisages the future introduction of ISCED 5 level education, which is currently not offered in Romania.
Reducing university dropout. The law introduces a national programme to reduce university dropout, including measures to support transitions to tertiary education, provide career counselling and guidance, and roll out second chance programmes.
Increasing university enrolment of vulnerable students and in STEM fields: The law continues to reserve a number of university places for students from rural upper secondary schools and Roma background, and adds two new categories: students with disabilities, and students under the social protection system. The law also defines a minimum amount for university scholarships and increases the share of scholarships for students in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) fields.
Source: Ministry of Education of Romania (2023[37]), Legea învăţământului preuniversitar nr. 198/2023 [Pre-university education law no. 198/2023], https://lege5.ro/Gratuit/geztqmjtgq2tm/legea-invatamantului-preuniversitar-nr-198-2023/3; Ministry of Education of Romania (2023[52]), Legea învățământului superior nr. 199/2023 [Higher education law no 199/2023], https://edu.ro/sites/default/files/_fi%C8%99iere/Minister/2023/Legi_educatie_Romania_educata/legi_monitor/Legea_invatamantului_superior_nr_199.pdf
The 2023 laws mark a break with past waves of reform in two other major ways. First, they are the first to be grounded in a long-term vision, set out in the “Educated Romania” report. The report, coordinated by the Presidential administration, is considered to provide the most comprehensive reform vision for the sector, and the first to systematically diagnose issues, draw on international evidence, and adopt a timeframe extending beyond electoral cycles. Wide consultation took place to build both societal and cross‑party support and reach a shared understanding of the system’s goals for 2030 (President of Romania, 2021[53]). The report also drew on international evidence to identify ways in which Romania could work towards achieving its goals. Second, ongoing reforms are distinct for their strategic use of EU funding. Several measures outlined in Educated Romania and included in the new laws, were integrated into the National Recovery and Resilience Plan (NRRP), securing significant funding for their implementation over the period 2021-2026.
EU funding will have a significant impact on whether and how the national reform agenda gets implemented
In Romania, EU funding for education is substantial and increasing. Notably, the EU-funded National Recovery and Resilience Plan 2021-2026 (NRRP) has recently allocated EUR 3 515 million for education and training, which represents the highest sectoral allocation after sustainable transport (European Parliament, 2023[54]). NRRP funds will be instrumental to advance the implementation of planned measures, as previous reform efforts have often been held back by a lack of resources.
However, in the past, Romania has faced challenges to spend EU funds effectively (see Figure 2.13) (OECD, 2022[8]). To address this, the NRRP includes measures aimed at enhancing line ministries' strategic planning and budgeting capacities, and simplified mechanisms for implementing investments. These efforts are essential to improve the absorption of EU funds and align resources with national policy goals. A 2024 report by the European Commission has noted recent progress in the absorption of Recovery and Resilience Facility (RRF) grants and other EU funds, particularly in fostering the green and digital transitions (European Commission, 2024[55]).
Cumulative execution of EU funds (% of total allocations) for the 2014-2020 period, as of end 2020
Note: Ranked in descending order of the percentage of cumulative execution of EU funds.
Source: OECD (2022[8]), OECD Economic Surveys: Romania 2022, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/e2174606-en.
Access and participation
Romania is working to expand participation in early childhood education and care
Ongoing reforms aim to improve participation in ECEC from low baseline levels, most notably by making the two years of pre-primary education mandatory and expanding the network of pre-schools and nurseries throughout the country. Overall participation in ECEC is low at all ages (see Figure 2.14). In 2022, 75%, of children aged 3-5 were enrolled in pre-primary, compared to the OECD average of 84%, representing the lowest rate among the Central and Eastern European countries (OECD, 2022[56]). Notably, the participation rate for children aged 3-5 has also dropped by about 9% since 2013, making Romania one of the few countries in the region experiencing a decrease in participation in pre-primary, together with Bulgaria (OECD, 2024[31]).
Enrolment is particularly low for children under the age of 3, with only 8% of this group participating in formal childcare, compared to an average of 24% in the OECD (OECD, 2022[56]). Informal care is widespread, with estimates showing that in 2019 more than 50% of Romanian children aged 0-5 were cared by relatives, friends or neighbours (OECD, 2024[2]).
Enrolment rates in early childhood education and care (ECEC) and primary education by age, 2022
Note: Ranked in descending order of the enrolment rate at age 3.
Source: OECD (2024[31]), Education at a Glance 2024: OECD Indicators, https://doi.org/10.1787/c00cad36-en.
In contrast to most OECD countries, Romania has not yet achieved universal participation in primary education and still has low enrolment in secondary education
In Romania, participation in school education is low compared with OECD standards. The latest comparable data from 2022 shows net enrolment rates (reflecting students of the appropriate age) stood at 84% in primary (compared to 98% OECD average), 84% in lower secondary (98% OECD average) and 75% in upper secondary education (93% OECD average) (UIS, 2022[57]). These low participation rates have remained relatively stable over the past decade.
Low participation rates in secondary education are largely the result of high dropout. Transitions from lower to upper secondary, and then into tertiary education are particular weak points of the education system. Romania has the highest rate of early school leaving in the EU (see Figure 2.15), and in 2022, around 21% of 15-year-olds and 22% of 16-year-olds were out-of-school (Eurostat, 2022[58]). A national programme for reducing school dropout, along with the recent extension of compulsory education until Grade 12 aim to retain students in the system and signal the importance of upper secondary education in providing opportunities to progress to further education and in the labour market.
Note: Panel B ranked in descending order of the percentage of early leavers from education and training in 2023.
Source: UIS (2022[57]), Total net enrolment rate by level of education, https://data.uis.unesco.org/#, and Eurostat (2023[59]), Early leavers from education and training by sex and degree of urbanisation, https://doi.org/10.2908/EDAT_LFSE_30
Despite a significant increase, Romania has the lowest tertiary attainment rate compared to OECD countries
The tertiary attainment rate in Romania has experienced a remarkable increase in recent decades. In 2023, 19% of Romanians aged 25-64 had a university degree, compared to only 10% in 2002 (Eurostat, 2023[60]). However, tertiary attainment rates remain well below the average attainment rate in the OECD (41%) and the OECD-EU (37%) (OECD, 2024[31]). According to a recent entry cohort study, approximately 52% of Romanian students who enrolled in a bachelor programme in 2015-16 graduated with a degree two years after the theoretical duration of the programme (Herteliu et al., 2022[61]).
Percentage of adults (25-64 year-olds) with a given level of education as the highest level attained, 2023
Note: Ranked in descending order of the percentage of 25-64 year-olds with tertiary attainment.
Source: OECD (2024[31]), Education at a Glance 2024: OECD Indicators, https://doi.org/10.1787/c00cad36-en.
Participation in adult education and training is comparatively low, but has improved in recent years
While expanding, participation in adult education and training is low. In 2022, 26% of adults aged 25-64 had participated in learning within the last 12 months of being surveyed, a stark improvement relative to previous years (e.g. in 2016, this figure stood at 7%) but still well below the EU average (47%) (Eurostat, 2022[62]). Individuals with lower levels of education are much less likely to take part in adult education and training than more educated individuals. Nationally, only 7% of adults with lower secondary education or less participated in education or training, compared to 25% of individuals with upper secondary and post‑secondary education, and 46% of individuals with tertiary education (Eurostat, 2022[62]).
Quality and outcomes
Many young Romanians do not meet minimum proficiency levels in science, reading and mathematics
In the 2022 survey of the OECD Programme of International Student Assessment (PISA), Romania's 15‑year-old students performed below most EU peers in science, reading and mathematics, outperforming only Bulgaria and Cyprus. This is largely explained by the high share of students who score below the baseline level of proficiency (level 2) and the low share that reach level 5 or 6 (OECD, 2023[63]). An estimated 49% of students did not meet minimum proficiency in mathematics, 44% in science and 42% in reading (see Figure 2.17). Since 2006, the share of students scoring below level 2 has remained stable at these high levels.
However, while low by overall OECD standards, Romania’s performance is above that of many other PISA participants with similar expenditure levels. In mathematics, for example, Romania performs better than Colombia and Uruguay, despite relatively similar levels of expenditure. Moreover, between 2006 and 2022, the national coverage of the PISA test increased significantly. In 2006, 72% of all 15-year-olds in Romania (5 118 participants) took the test, while in 2022, this rose to 76% (more than 7 300 participants). Maintaining relatively stable levels of performance with a larger cohort is itself an indicator of progress (OECD, 2023[64]).
Percentage of low and top performers in PISA 2022
Note: Below level 2 is less than 420.07 score points in mathematics, less than 407.47 score points in reading and less than 409.54 score points in science. Level 5 or above is at or above 606.99 score points in mathematics, at or above 625.61 score points in reading and at or above 633.33 score points in science.
Source: OECD (2023[63]), PISA 2022 Results (Volume I): The State of Learning and Equity in Education, PISA, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/53f23881-en.
As in all OECD countries, Romanian students who experience lower levels of anxiety and exhibit a growth mindset are more likely to achieve higher academic scores
PISA assesses a range of student attitudes, emotions and behaviours that can influence academic achievement (Lee and Stankov, 2018[65]; OECD, 2023[35]). In Romania, learning anxiety, and a growth mindset appear to have the largest influence on students' mathematics achievement in PISA, after accounting for students’ and schools’ socio-economic background.
Mathematics anxiety captures negative emotions towards learning, such as feeling powerless or stressed. Overall, Romania’s 15-year-old students witness similar levels of mathematics anxiety as their peers in the OECD. For instance, about six out of ten Romanian students reported often worrying that math classes will be difficult for them or that they will obtain poor marks (the same that the OECD average of 60%) (OECD, 2023[63]). A one-point increase in the index of mathematics anxiety was associated with a nine-point decrease in Romanian students’ mathematics scores (OECD, 2023[63]).
Students with a growth mindset believe their intelligence can be developed through effort, good strategies, and support from others. In Romania, around 43% of 15-year-old Romanian students consider their intelligence is something they can change, below the OECD average of 58% (OECD, 2023[63]). In Romania, these students had lower levels of anxiety, and scored on average 12 points higher in mathematics than their peers who believe their abilities and intelligence are fixed traits (OECD, 2023[63]).
The returns of tertiary education are high, reflected in better employment prospects and higher salaries for university graduates
In Romania, obtaining a university degree yields substantial benefits in the labour market. Some 91% of 25–64-year-olds with a tertiary degree are employed, slightly above the OECD average for similarly educated individuals (see Figure 2.18). Close to one in three tertiary students graduate from in-demand STEM programmes (28%) a larger share than in most countries in the OECD (24% on average) and the OECD-EU (25%) (OECD, 2022[66]).
Percentage of employed 25-64 year-olds by educational attainment, 2023
Note: Ranked in descending order of the employment rate of population with tertiary education.
Source: OECD (2024[31]), Education at a Glance 2024: OECD Indicators, https://doi.org/10.1787/c00cad36-en.
Tertiary graduates have much better employment prospects than less educated workers in the country: 75% of upper secondary graduates (vocational and general) are employed against 48% of those with less than upper secondary education (see Figure 2.18). Romanian tertiary education graduates also enjoy substantial salary premium over those with lower levels of education. Compared to upper secondary graduates, workers with a tertiary degree earn on average 43% more (OECD, 2024[31]).
Equity
Social inequality has contributed to deep and widening disparities in access to education and achievement between rural and urban students
Rural students face overlapping barriers to learning and participation, largely based on their socio‑economic background. In PISA 2022, students in rural schools scored on average 119 points lower in mathematics compared to students in urban schools before accounting for students’ and schools’ socio-economic outcomes (OECD, 2023[64]). After accounting student and school profile differences are no longer significant, suggesting that the concentration of disadvantage within the school has a meaningful influence on learning outcomes. Disadvantaged students are disproportionately represented in rural areas, where 45% of the population is at risk of poverty and around 27% are self-identified Roma (Eurostat, 2023[7]; European Commission, 2022[15]). The difference in PISA performance between rural and urban students is the highest among OECD and CEE countries (see Figure 2.19).
Change in mathematics performance when students report living in urban area compared to those living in rural area, 2022
Note: Empty triangles/diamonds show the change in mathematics performance is not statistically significant. Ranked in descending order of the difference in mathematics score before accounting for students’ and schools’ socio-economic performance.
Source: OECD (2023[64]), PISA database 2022, https ://www.oecd.org/pisa/data/
The rural-urban gap in learning outcomes is shaped by disparities in earlier education opportunities that persist as students progress through the education system
Rural-urban disparities in participation emerge early on and persist as students progress through the education system. Children living in rural areas are far less likely to participate in early childhood education and care, compared to children living in cities (see Figure 2.20). Rural students are also more likely to be absent, and to drop out from primary and secondary school (OECD, 2023[64]). While in 2023 3% of 18- to 24-year-olds in cities left school before completing upper secondary education, this rate stood at 28% in rural areas (Eurostat, 2023[67]).
Low academic achievement and attainment and significant socio-economic barriers, combined with a limited offer of second chance and post-secondary education programmes in rural areas, make it difficult for rural students to pursue education beyond the secondary level or to successfully transition into the labour market. In rural areas, only 61% of secondary students graduate from upper secondary education, compared to 90% in urban areas (Ministry of Education of Romania, 2023[68]). This disparity partly explains why only 5% of 15-64-year-olds living in rural parts of the country have completed tertiary education, compared to 32% in cities (Eurostat, 2023[69]). Romania also has the highest share of youth in rural areas who are neither in employment nor in education or training (NEET) in the EU, and the second largest rural-urban gap (see Figure 2.21).
Gross enrolment rate by education level
Source: Ministry of Education of Romania (2023[68]), Raport privind starea învățământului preuniversitar din România 2022 – 2023 [Report on the state of pre-university education in Romania 2022-2023], https://www.edu.ro/sites/default/files/_fi%C8%99iere/Minister/2023/Transparenta/Rapoarte_sistem/Raport-Starea-invatamantului-preuniversitar-2022-2023.pdf
Percentage of 18 to 24 years-old neither in employment nor in education and training, 2023
Note: Ranked in descending order of the urban-rural difference in the percentage of 18 to 24 years-old neither in employment nor in education and training.
Source: Eurostat (2023[70]), Young people neither in employment nor in education and training by sex, age and degree of urbanisation (NEET rates), https://doi.org/10.2908/EDAT_LFSE_29
Ongoing efforts aim to support the participation and achievement of Roma children and youth, as they are particularly vulnerable in the education system
Estimates suggest that many Roma students remain out of school or drop out before completing compulsory education. According to a 2021 survey by the EU Agency for Fundamental Rights, 27% of Roma children aged 3-5 in Romania attended pre-school, below the average participation of the general population (see Access and participation above) (European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights, 2023[71]). Estimates suggest that close to eight out of every ten of out-of-school children and youth in Romania are Roma (Rotaru, 2019[72]).
Roma students face high levels of segregation in schools. This contributes to low academic achievement and dropout and leads to low labour market participation for Roma. In 2021, only around one in five Roma aged 20-24 reported completing at least upper secondary education, and just 1% of those aged 30-34 had completed tertiary education. This partly explains very low labour market participation, with only around 41% of Roma declared being in paid work. Education and labour market outcomes remain well below those of the general population (European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights, 2023[71]).
Romania is implementing several measures to increase Roma children's and youth's participation in education and enhance their chances of success in school and later in life. These initiatives include summer kindergartens to ease the transition into primary education. They also provide community and school mediators to facilitate schools’ communication and involvement with Roma families, and reserved places in tertiary education (Ministry of Education of Romania, 2023[68]). In addition to measures to increase funding for disadvantaged students and schools (described above), the Ministry of Education has recently received technical assistance from the EU to systematically monitor school segregation and develop policies to promote integration and diversity in schools.
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← 1. CEE average comprises the following Central and Eastern European countries: Bulgaria, Czechia, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Romania, Slovenia, and Slovak Republic.
← 2. National currency values have been converted using purchasing power parity (PPP) rates.
← 3. OECD-EU (or EU-25) refers to the 25 countries that are Members or accession countries of both the European Union members. The 25 countries are Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia, the Czechia, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Romania, the Slovak Republic, Slovenia, Spain and Sweden.