This chapter summarises the main recommendations resulting from applying the systems innovation methodology to avoid carbon lock-in and promote well-being in Nakuru, Kiambu, Beira and Quelimane. It begins by outlining how these cities can benefit from the different steps resulting from this methodology: envisioning desired urban futures, understanding system dynamics, identifying structural drivers of current patterns, and co-designing elements of potential pathways forward. The chapter then offers guidance for addressing the high-leverage points identified through this process. Areas of focus include the design and allocation of public space, the relationship between infrastructure investment and urban development, the organisation and provision of mobility systems, and the institutional and governance frameworks that influence planning and decision-making. Drawing on lessons across the four cities, the chapter discusses a range of policy directions that could support more integrated and adaptive approaches. It also considers how monitoring tools, participatory processes, and public narratives can contribute to more inclusive and systemic urban transformation.
Climate Mitigation in Intermediary Cities
Abstract
One of the main objectives of the case studies was to support a shift in the policy process in Kiambu and Nakuru (Kenya), as well as in Beira and Quelimane (Mozambique). Through its activities and workshops, the project opened a valuable and necessary space for dialogue. Several participants noted it was the first time they had engaged across departments, and key stakeholders such as paratransit operators appreciated being invited to the table to discuss their role in shaping a more sustainable urban future. Replicating such spaces for co-creation and joint policy reflection would be a meaningful step forward. While this process focused primarily on policymakers and key stakeholders, organising activities and events for involving the public would also be an important next step.
A central aim of the case studies was to spark new thinking and introduce alternative decision-making tools into everyday practice. A key shift promoted by the project was the adoption of a vision-led approach – encouraging cities to move away from “predict and provide” planning, which has often contributed to unsustainable development patterns. The four-step process developed – envision, understand, identify and co-design – offers a practical way to operationalise this shift. The outputs from each step can guide future work and be integrated into formal planning and policy processes.
Envision: The 2050 visions co-developed during the workshops offer a long-term reference for policy. This was the first such visioning exercise in the four cities. As highlighted in the “Envision” section, the visions present a more detailed and people-centred picture than current planning documents, particularly in relation to the use of public space and competition for that space between different modes of transport. The exercise revealed the tensions and trade-offs that participants had not fully appreciated. The visions provide a basis for updating existing strategies and testing future decisions against a shared long-term direction.
Understand: The system mappings generated in the workshops provide a new narrative about the root causes of persistent challenges in each city. Participants found them useful in revealing the links between land use and transport decisions and issues such as congestion, air pollution, traffic accidents, and shrinking green space. The maps also help frame climate action as part of a broader development strategy, challenging the perceived inevitability of car dependency and carbon lock-in.
Identify: The high-leverage points identified through the analysis can help decision makers and partners – including development agencies and investors – focus on interventions with real potential to transform urban systems. Mainstreaming these leverage points into planning discussions could help prioritise actions that align with long-term visions. Indicators identified when discussing each leverage point can also help guide action. If incorporated in key decision-making processes and tools, they can help to set targets and monitor that the key changes identified are happening.
Co-design: The policies and indicators proposed during the workshops offer an initial platform for shaping a more integrated transport and land-use strategy. Importantly the platform represents a shared vision developed jointly by stakeholders. Together with the recommendations in this report, they form a practical starting point for transformative action. As discussed further below, the indicators also lay the foundation for a monitoring framework that can track progress and guide mid-course corrections over time.
Rethinking planning and investment in terms of critical stocks and the desired future system
Nakuru and Kiambu still have a window of opportunity to rethink their planning and investment priorities to avoid locking in urban structures that have proven unsustainable elsewhere – notably car-dependent systems. The way cities grow and invest today will shape their long-term accessibility, liveability and environmental footprint. A central challenge is to develop a physical urban structure that makes sustainable modes – such as walking, cycling and public transport – the most attractive and convenient options. This also means ensuring a balanced allocation of space between transport infrastructure and other key urban functions, including housing, green and recreational areas, and social services.
As discussed in previous work from the OECD (2021[1]), physical systems such as the vehicle fleet, public transport infrastructure, road capacity, and public space evolve through inflows and outflows – decisions about what to build, upgrade or remove. These flows gradually shape the long-term “stocks” of infrastructure, which once established, are difficult and costly to reverse. The earlier investments are aligned with sustainable goals, the greater their impact will be – especially in cities like Kiambu and Nakuru, where much of the infrastructure has yet to be built.
In many OECD countries, sustained investment in car-oriented infrastructure created oversized road systems, limited space for sustainable modes, and persistent gaps in accessibility between private cars and other transport options (OECD, 2021[1]). These gaps have proven difficult to close, even with increased support for public transport and active modes. Avoiding similar patterns in Kiambu and Nakuru requires a deliberate focus on directing future investment flows in the right direction from the outset.
In both Kiambu and Nakuru, stakeholders highlighted the potential of electric vehicles (EVs) to support climate and air quality goals. While electrification is a key tool for decarbonising transport, international experience – particularly from OECD countries – shows that the large-scale electrification of private vehicle fleets is costly, resource-intensive, and slow to scale. It also requires substantial infrastructure investment and typically delivers limited benefits in the short term, particularly in car-dependent systems. For cities like Kiambu and Nakuru, which are still shaping the structure of their transport systems, there is an opportunity to pursue a more strategic approach. Rather than replicating models centred on private vehicles, efforts can focus on electrifying public transport fleets as part of the development of an integrated and inclusive mobility system. This pathway is more efficient, supports mode shift, and can deliver broader sustainability and equity benefits. Electrifying buses and other high-capacity vehicles can significantly reduce emissions and improve air quality, especially in areas with high passenger volumes. When combined with investments in reliable service, this strategy can also help attract users away from private cars, reducing congestion and improving accessibility. At the same time, both cities should explore the potential of electric micro-mobility solutions – such as e-bikes, scooters, and other small electric vehicles. These modes are less resource- and space-intensive than private cars and can play a central role in short-distance trips and first- and last-mile connections to mass transit. With appropriate infrastructure and regulation, micro-mobility can expand low-emission travel options and improve access for a wide range of users.
In both Kiambu and Nakuru, decisions made today on infrastructure investment will shape the urban systems of tomorrow. These choices are critical to avoid the costly mistakes of the past. The four leverage points identified in the project offer a focused lens to guide decision-making in line with this objective – namely, by building future assets that support inclusive and low-carbon mobility patterns.
Planning for roads as part of public space
Shifting the focus from expanding road infrastructure to improving connections and creating proximity (HP 1) is critical to ensure that economic development does not come at the expense of environmental sustainability. As in many cities around the world, road infrastructure in Kiambu and Nakuru is largely developed without allocating dedicated, safe space for walking, cycling, or mass transit and other shared sustainable services (e.g. micro-mobility). As shown in Figure A A.1 in Annex A, as road capacity expands, not only is the physical structure tailored to accommodate more motorised vehicles, but the share of space available for sustainable modes declines. Public transport infrastructure also lags behind. This contributes to reproducing a car-dependent system and widening the accessibility gap between private vehicles and more sustainable, higher-capacity transport options. Moreover, prioritising road expansion as a strategy to reduce congestion often comes at the expense of urban space needed for other functions – many of which could make cities more attractive for walking and cycling. Workshop exercises revealed a strong interest among participants in improving urban amenities, from drinking fountains and street furniture to green and recreational spaces – both in central and peripheral areas under development.
For Kiambu and Nakuru, rethinking how public space is allocated and designed – particularly streets – at this early stage of development could play a decisive role in shaping a more sustainable system and avoiding long-term car dependency. Early action will reduce the need for more disruptive and politically challenging measures in the future. This shift would create a different urban dynamic: instead of building road connections at the expense of space for sustainable modes and essential urban functions (such as parks and public amenities), these connections would be designed to prioritise them. As a result, instead of inducing traffic, these investments could enable sustainable access by favouring low-emission, space-efficient transport modes, while also creating vibrant, accessible public spaces that support local commerce, recreation, and well-being.
In both Kiambu and Nakuru, despite the high use of walking and cycling, poor infrastructure and unsafe road conditions discourage non-motorised travel. Investing in safe, continuous, and well-integrated pedestrian and cycling infrastructure should be a priority. Adopting complete streets policies can ensure that all new road projects accommodate all users. Dedicated cycling lanes, footpaths, and improved crossings – particularly in high-density areas and near schools and markets – would enhance safety and encourage active mobility. Expanding car-free zones, traffic calming measures, and green corridors can further reduce reliance on cars and boda bodas while improving urban liveability. Integrating active mobility with public transport is essential to promote inclusive and integrated, low-carbon travel. These improvements not only support better air quality and reduced congestion but also contribute to healthier and more vibrant urban environments.
Investment decisions over different types of transport infrastructure have been determinant in producing and locking in car dependency. Why? Because the physical structure resulting from decisions in many places creates a systemic gap between the attractiveness of cars and other (more sustainable) types of transport.
The development of two key stocks is to a great extent behind this problem. On the one hand, a stock of car-purposed capacity which tends to be over-dimensioned (i.e. constructed to support a large fleet and increasingly being expanded); and, on the other hand, a stock of public (and collective) transport capacity that lags behind development (OECD, 2021[1]).
In many parts of the world governments are now trying to change the ways in which they invest to reverse the car-dependence phenomenon and thus shift towards more sustainable mobility patterns. For example, following recommendations from a citizen’s assembly, the Irish government introduced a 2:1 investment allocation ratio with the aim that for every euro spent on new road infrastructure, two are spent on public transport infrastructure. Along with this ratio the Government earmarked EUR 3.6 billion (11% of the transport budget) to active travel. The Government has also created a number of programmes to enhance and increase infrastructure in support of sustainable transport for both cities and rural areas (OECD, 2022[2]).
Despite the important efforts that are being carried out, bridging the gap between the large road capacity (mostly dedicated to cars) and the lagging public transport infrastructure is proving very difficult (proving Meadows’ point) as current infrastructure stocks are the results of years of having invested in the opposite way: historical data shows that Ireland invested 2.3 times and 1.7 times more in new car infrastructure compared to public transport infrastructure between 2006-12 and 2013-19 respectively (OECD, 2022[2]).
Reallocating road space and redesigning streets is gaining traction in a number of cities that aim at reversing car-dependency. For example, some cities such as Lisbon, London and Budapest are confronting the challenge of transforming streets to serve not just as thoroughfares but as multifunctional public spaces.
Lisbon's approach includes comprehensive active travel plans and adaptive redesign strategies to cater to diverse urban zones and mobility demands. London's ULEZ expansion underscores the importance of stakeholder engagement in reimagining roadways, with a strong emphasis on sustainable transport. Budapest participates in testing new design concepts, reflecting the shift towards streets that support both transportation and community activities.
By integrating such innovative and tailored redesign processes, cities aim to pre-emptively craft urban environments that balance immediate user needs with long-term sustainability and inclusivity goals. But even if not as costly (in terms of investment) as hard changes to the physical structure, implementation can pose important challenges (more in terms of project implementation) as changing rules on who has the access and priority to a scarce resource, and even changing engrained mindsets around the purpose of the existing infrastructure (from maximising vehicle movement to creating streets that have both link and place functions) is still not straightforward.
Source: OECD (2021[1]).
Ensuring new development and infrastructure enable the delivery of sustainable accessibility
Rapid urban expansion in Kiambu and Nakuru has led to increasingly dispersed development patterns, creating longer travel distances, greater car dependency, and growing pressure on infrastructure and the environment. In Kiambu, proximity to Nairobi has fuelled uncontrolled land-use changes. In Nakuru, growth has followed the highway, resulting in a scattered, linear urban form (this linear growth pattern is also constrained by geophysical factors, i.e. the Menengai crater to the north and Lake Nakuru to the south, and active fault lines). Without intervention, continued sprawl will make it harder to deliver inclusive, accessible and sustainable urban mobility. To reverse this trend, both counties need to better integrate land-use and transport planning. A core objective should be to promote proximity (HP 2) – bringing people closer to jobs, services, and public spaces – so that walking, cycling, and public transport become viable and attractive options. Private and public spaces should be planned as a continuum, guided by a shared vision of accessibility and quality of life.
Mixed-use zoning is central to this approach. Locating residential, commercial, and industrial areas in close proximity can reduce the need for long commutes. However, many fast-growing cities, including Kiambu and Nakuru, risk allowing private development to outpace the planning of public space. This creates fragmentation and limits connectivity. Both counties must ensure that new development is accompanied by well-designed public spaces – such as streets, parks and squares – that link people and places safely and efficiently. The viability of non-motorised transport and mass public transit also depends on adequate proximity and population density. Without these, walking and cycling remain limited to short distances, and Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) systems may struggle to attract sufficient ridership. Planning for density and accessibility is therefore a prerequisite for successful investments in public transport infrastructure.
As highlighted during the workshops, current streets in both cities host many informal activities, such as street vending, which are essential for livelihoods but often occur in unsafe or contested spaces. These uses must be integrated into planning through thoughtful allocation of indoor and outdoor space to reduce tensions and support inclusive urban economies.
Allocating space for mass transit infrastructure – such as BRT corridors – should not be an afterthought. Poorly planned cities often face physical constraints that force these systems into suboptimal routes. Instead, infrastructure development should be used proactively to shape urban form. By applying transit-oriented development (TOD) principles – promoting density, mixed uses, and walkability around key corridors – Kiambu and Nakuru can guide growth more strategically. Equally important is to ensure connectivity across the territory through active modes, micromobility, and well-placed public services that support a compact and accessible urban future.
Finally, while the development of mass transit is essential – and can play a key role in reducing car dependency – it is critical that such infrastructure and services are not planned solely from a mobility perspective. Mass transit should not be used to compensate for poor urban form or increasing distances as cities expand. Instead, it should serve as a lever to rethink and reorient urban development, guiding growth around mass transit corridors such as BRT and commuter rail, while promoting mixed-use development and proximity as core principles. This approach requires creating a well-connected network for sustainable access, where safe, high-quality infrastructure for active modes and micromobility plays a central role.
Bogota, Colombia, offers valuable lessons for cities aiming to achieve more sustainable and inclusive mobility systems. Over the past two decades, Bogota has implemented an integrated strategy combining public transport reform, cycling infrastructure, street safety, and gender-sensitive planning. Its TransMilenio Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) system, launched in 2000, set global benchmarks for high-capacity, low-cost public transport, later integrated with other modes through the city’s broader Integrated Public Transport System (SITP). Recognising the importance of non-motorised transport, Bogota invested heavily in cycling networks, pop-up lanes during the COVID-19 pandemic, and supportive policies like secure bike parking and wayfinding. These efforts now support over 900 000 daily bike trips.
Bogota’s shift towards electric mobility also offers replicable insights. The city restructured its bus procurement model to facilitate the adoption of electric buses, aligning financial incentives with sustainability goals. Today, Bogota operates one of the largest municipal e-bus fleets in the world. Key enablers included cross-sectoral co-ordination, continuous public engagement, and flexible implementation strategies that allowed for real-time adjustments.
To ensure financial sustainability, Bogota implemented a fare system set near cost-recovery levels. To avoid excluding low-income residents, the city introduced a targeted subsidy using Colombia’s national SISBEN registry. Beneficiaries with a score below 40 receive discounted fares of up to 53% for feeder services, capped at 40 trips per month. The programme is managed through smartcards equipped with fraud-prevention features and has proven effective in boosting ridership and improving mobility for informal workers without compromising system finances.
Cities like Beira, Quelimane, Kiambu and Nakuru can draw on Bogota’s experience to prioritise inclusive mobility early in their development paths. Success depends not only on infrastructure but also on institutional innovation, community co-design, and placing equity, health, and sustainability at the centre of transport and land-use planning.
Rethinking Nakuru’s budget for addressing leverage points
Nakuru’s long-term development strategy provides a unique opportunity to shape a more sustainable and inclusive urban future. Figure 4.1 shows that, between 2014 and 2034, the county has allocated a significant share of its strategic budget to housing and transport – together accounting for approximately 84% of planned expenditures. This prioritisation places both sectors at the centre of Nakuru’s urban transformation and gives the county a powerful lever to influence land use, mobility, and social outcomes. The housing sector receives the largest share, with 81% of the strategic budget dedicated to addressing growing demand – estimated at over 288 000 new units by 2034. This investment, largely intended to serve low-income households, can have far-reaching impacts on the city’s spatial layout and environmental footprint. To maximise these benefits, future housing development should prioritise compact, mixed-use areas that promote proximity between homes, jobs and services. When supported by effective land regulation, these developments can limit sprawl, reduce infrastructure costs, and support the shift away from car dependency.
In contrast, only 3% of the planned budget is currently allocated to the transport sector, with most of these funds directed towards expanding and upgrading road infrastructure. More than 80% of the transport budget is earmarked for the construction and tarmacking of roads, while only a small fraction – around 8% – is set aside for measures that support active mobility, such as traffic lights, pedestrian infrastructure or street lighting.
There are, however, different ways in which cities like Nakuru and Kiambu could adopt regulatory measures to ensure that new housing contributes to accessibility, supports non-motorised transport, and aligns with broader goals for sustainable and inclusive urban development. For instance, the experience of the municipality of La Paz (Mexico) demonstrates how housing development regulation can support more accessible and sustainable urban growth. Through the Programa Parcial de Desarrollo Urbano, authorities reduced standard road widths in new developments while increasing pavement dimensions. This approach promoted more efficient land use, prioritised pedestrian movement, and constrained car-oriented growth (Municipality of La Paz, 2023[5]). Embedding such standards in development authorisations guided private investment towards compact, walkable communities.
This focus on road expansion risks reinforcing unsustainable travel patterns and locking the city into car dependency. Without complementary investments in public and active transport, greater road capacity will likely induce more private vehicle use, contributing to congestion, emissions, and land consumption. This trajectory runs counter to the 2050 vision developed during the workshop, which emphasises compact growth, accessibility, and inclusive mobility.
To align with these long-term objectives, Nakuru should adopt a more integrated and foresighted approach to housing and transport planning. Road investments should be designed in co-ordination with public and active transport strategies, helping to ensure that new infrastructure supports a multimodal system. This would allow road space to be shared effectively, rather than dominated by cars, and encourage development patterns that reduce the need for long commutes. By linking investment decisions to spatial planning goals, Nakuru can make meaningful progress towards a more efficient, inclusive, and climate-resilient urban future.
Note: Other transport projects include the installation of traffic lights and signals at major junctions in the town, construction of streetlights, construction of high mast floodlights, and construction of boda boda sheds.
Source: Nakury Town (2022[6]).
By focusing on the identified high-leverage points, Nakuru can guide future investments to direct financial resources towards building the public goods needed to enhance accessibility. Aligning road development with the broader goals of reducing car dependency and promoting sustainable transport modes is essential. New infrastructure investments – whether in public roads or private housing and commercial spaces – should support a more compact urban form and be planned with sustainable accessibility as a shared objective. This means designing road networks that complement public transit and active mobility corridors, while encouraging mixed-use and inclusive development. Such an approach would improve connectivity without contributing to urban sprawl. Ultimately, today’s investment decisions in housing and road infrastructure hold transformational potential: they could either lock the city into a high-carbon path or lay the foundation for a more sustainable and accessible urban future, in line with the 2050 vision outlined in this study.
Rethinking Kiambu’s budget for addressing leverage points
Kiambu’s investment for the period 2023-27 highlights its keen interest in developing infrastructure. Figure 4.2 shows the shares of the expenditure planned for 2023-27 according to Kiambu’s County Integrated Development Plan for this period. Expenditure associated to land management and urban planning and development account for 13% of the budget. It is followed by road transport, public works and utilities, which account for 9% of the planned expenditure. These areas of expenditure will be key for addressing the leverage points that can shift Kiambu’s systems towards an equilibrium in line with Kiambu’s vision (developed as part of this work).
Note: To simplify the figure, some expenditure areas that represent small shares of the budget are not presented. All these remaining areas account for 24.2% of the budget, and include the following: County Assembly, County Executive, County Public Service Board, Administration & Public Service, Agriculture, Livestock and Cooperative Development, Youth Affair Sports and Communication, Lands, Physical Planning Housing Urban Development and Administration, and Trade Industrialization Tourism and Investment.
Source: County Government of Kiambu (2022[7]).
Building new road infrastructure is a priority within current transport programmes. Figure 4.3 presents in more detail the areas of expenditure associated to roads, transport, and public works. The figure shows that – within the budget area associated to road transport, public works and utilities – infrastructure development accounts for 64% (Panel A). Although most of this expenditure focuses on upgrading (to bituminous standards) and rehabilitating roads, it also considers the design and construction of non-motorised traffic infrastructure, the construction and rehabilitation of bus parks, as well as the installation of solar streetlights and flood masts. Financial services, which considers personal and operational costs, and infrastructure maintenance account for approximately 18% and 17% of the planned expenditure for the period, respectively. It is not clear, however, whether the investment in building new roads incorporates certain features that could benefit non-motorised transport (NMT), while accounting for the future deployment of public mass transport. Moreover, Kiambu’s strategy does not clarify whether the expenditure on transport infrastructure is in line with the investment in developing new housing facilities. An adequate co-ordination between transport-associated programmes and urban/land development ones will be key for limiting the negatives effects of sprawl already present in Kiambu county.
Period 2023-27
Note: In Panel A, an additional 1.43% of the budget is allocated to Administration services, Fire rescue services, and Personal services. In this figure, infrastructure development includes the roads upgraded, footbridges designed and constructed, rural bridges constructed, km of non-motorised traffic designed and constructed, bus park designed and constructed, as well as solar light installed. Infrastructure maintenance includes roads, bridges, non-motorised traffic, and solar streetlights maintained. Panel B presents sub-programmes grouped within the programme of “Urban Development and Administration”. This programme is comprised within the budget assigned to the sector “4.2.1.11 Lands, physical planning, urban development and administration” (the data presented in Panel A concerns the whole sector).
Source: County Government of Kiambu (2022[7]).
Developing and upgrading infrastructure is at the centre of the urban development and administration sub-programme. As shown in Figure 4.3 (Panel B), the sub-programmes associated to the development of construction and upgrading urban infrastructure account for 85% of the budget. The latter is mostly allocated to developing and equipping administration office blocks (almost 70% of the budget for this sub-programme). The remaining budget is dedicated to developing or improving roads (inside 13 urban areas), sewer lines, solar streetlights, bus parks, market sheds, stadia, waste management stations, NMT and parking lots, recreational activities, fires stations, and storm and water drains.
Investment in actions that can enhance public space and limit intensive use of motorised vehicles is, however, very limited. Sub-programmes that develop urban features such as solar streetlights, bus parks, and NMT facilities do not account for more than 3% of the budget. It is without a doubt critical to invest in facilities and equipment that allow an adequate urban governance of Kiambu. Nevertheless, addressing the leverage points in Kiambu’s urban system will require reconsidering the priority of certain investment areas. In particular, investing in urban features that are conducive for the future adoption of mass public transport and reduce the costs of using NMT can move Kiambu towards the expected outcomes portrayed in its long-term vision.
Housing and community development is also an important part of Kiambu’s strategic plan. There are keen intentions in promoting land tenure regularisation and informal settlement upgrading. Sub-programmes that promote affordable housing and urban renewal are, however, left to be funded by development assistance. It would be important that future housing development takes place in a way that promotes mixed development to curb the expansion of Kiambu’s catchment area. The latter should be factored in during the grant allocation process with bilateral co-operation institutions and development banks. Moreover, future housing projects could be designed in such a way that can be financed through green funds. The latter could not only include high insulation standards and green infrastructure, but also consider mixed-use development and the location of housing facilities that hinder sprawl.
Kiambu has already identified a series of actions that are in line with addressing the leverage points discussed in this report and the recommendations featured in this section. These actions are featured in a mobility plan for Ruiru Town, drafted in 2017, in partnership with UN-Habitat and the Institute for Transportation and Development Policy (ITDP) (UN-Habitat, 2017[8]). Overall, the policy has a forward-looking approach to urban transport and land-use planning. It has strong focus on sustainability and recognises the critical role of transport in shaping urban development. It is important to note that some of the actions brought forward by the mobility policy have been considered in Kiambu’s strategic plan. Some of these include the development of bus stops and sheds, streetlighting, parking lots, and storm drainage. Moreover, it aims to create an environment that supports increased accessibility and reduces dependence on private motor vehicles.
In 2017, Ruiru Town developed a Sustainable Urban Mobility Plan (SUMP) – in partnership with UN-Habitat – to enhance accessibility and promote safe, sustainable transportation. The plan emphasised integrating non-motorised transport (NMT) infrastructure, such as dedicated pedestrian walkways and cycling paths, to encourage walking and cycling within the town. Additionally, the SUMP proposed upgrading key urban roads to bitumen standards, improving drainage systems, and installing solar street lighting to enhance safety and mobility. The plan also advocated for the expansion of public transport services and the development of intermodal facilities to ensure seamless connectivity between different transport modes. Community engagement was a cornerstone of the SUMP, ensuring that the mobility solutions addressed the specific needs of Ruiru’s residents. These initiatives aimed to create a more efficient, safe, and environmentally friendly urban transport system in Ruiru. These are the key strategies brought forward by the plan:
Enhancing non-motorised transport: The policy emphasises the importance of walking and cycling as fundamental modes of transport. It proposes the development of infrastructure such as footpaths, cycle tracks, and greenways to make NMT safe, attractive, and convenient, thereby reducing the demand for travel by personal motor vehicles (PMVs).
Improving public transport: The policy aims to provide high-quality, reliable, and efficient public transport services. This includes the development of Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) systems, upgrading existing public transport facilities, and ensuring that public transport is accessible to the majority of the population within a reasonable distance.
Travel demand management: Measures such as reducing parking supply, implementing demand-based parking pricing, and other mechanisms will be employed to manage and reduce the use of PMVs.
Land-use and transport integration: The policy advocates for the integration of transport planning with land-use planning. This involves channelling future growth around public transport, walking, and cycling corridors and prioritising development near existing infrastructure to minimise the need for travel and facilitate the use of sustainable transport modes.
Regulation and enforcement: Strengthening the legal and regulatory framework to support the implementation of transport policies, including the enforcement of traffic laws and regulations to improve road safety and reduce congestion.
Complete streets: Designing streets that cater to all users, including pedestrians, cyclists, public transport users, and motorists. This involves creating safe, accessible, and inclusive public spaces that promote a balance between different modes of transport.
Universal access: Ensuring that the transport system is accessible to everyone, regardless of age, gender, ability, or socio-economic status. This includes making public transport, NMT facilities, and public spaces universally accessible.
Sustainable financing: Developing mechanisms for sustainable financing of transport infrastructure and services, including exploring options for generating revenue from transport-related activities and leveraging public-private partnerships.
Capacity building and outreach: Engaging stakeholders and the public in the transport planning process, building capacity among local officials and practitioners, and raising awareness about sustainable transport options.
Monitoring and evaluation: Establishing systems for monitoring the implementation of the transport policy and evaluating its impact on mobility, accessibility, safety, and environmental sustainability.
Source: UN-Habitat (2017[8]).
Working towards a new governance arrangement for inclusive and efficient public transport
Introducing a Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) system in Kiambu and Nakuru offers a chance to deliver more efficient and inclusive public transport. But BRT is not only a technical solution – it requires a fundamental change in how public transport is managed and governed. Moving from a system based on informal paratransit services to a structured, high-capacity network involves new roles for both the public and private sectors.
Currently, public transport in both cities relies heavily on matatus and boda bodas. While these services fill a critical gap, they often operate with little co-ordination and limited oversight. This arrangement does not provide the quality, safety or reliability needed for long-term urban development and traps public transport into a low-quality equilibrium that is increasingly hard to overcome (as shown in the “understand” section). Developing a BRT is an opportunity for introducing a new model – one based on professionalised service providers, clear performance standards, and public regulation to ensure quality provision of a good that, as has been widely and increasingly discussed, is a public good (Cervero, 2013[9]). Making this shift requires rethinking the rules, institutions, and financial arrangements that underpin public transport, with special emphasis on how the new system could remain a source of jobs and incomes, and how it could contribute to improving conditions for those working as part of it at the same time as the services for the population.
Before moving forward, both counties should engage in extensive dialogue with key stakeholders and incumbent operators to explore key areas:
Institutional design: Both cities should consider whether a dedicated regulatory body – with the authority to plan, manage, and oversee BRT and feeder services – will be essential. Experience from countries like Mexico and Colombia suggest that this type of organism can play a key role to co-ordinate service delivery and set and oversee quality standards.
Negotiating with existing operators: One of the most complex tasks will be integrating incumbent paratransit providers into the new system. The process should seek to avoid disruption while ensuring that operators meet new standards and that the financial model remains sustainable. A plausible schedule should be established, catering for a transition period as well as a date for opening the system to competitive tendering.
Reducing discretion in key decisions: The process for granting concessions, setting tariffs, and adjusting payments must be transparent and based on clear rules. Moving away from ad hoc or discretionary decisions will build trust and improve long-term planning.
Designing sustainable financing mechanisms: Fare policies should reflect a realistic understanding of operational costs and affordability. This requires technical assessments and reliable data collection. Where subsidies are needed to ensure access, counties will need to clearly define how they are financed and targeted.
Reframing transport as a public service: Public transport may not always be profitable, but it plays a vital role in ensuring equitable access to jobs, services, and opportunities. Recognising transport as a public service – rather than solely as a market-based activity – requires a shift in mindset. It must be treated as a shared responsibility that supports broader goals for social inclusion, economic development, and environmental sustainability. This reframing also implies the need for a balanced approach to subsidies and funding. Regulators must have access to clear and reliable data on operating costs to design effective and transparent subsidy schemes. At the same time, cities must explore and develop diversified sources of revenue to finance the development, maintenance, and continuous improvement of an integrated, accessible, and sustainable transport system. International experience offers useful guidance. For example, cities such as Bogota have implemented targeted subsidies to support low-income users, while a growing body of evidence from international organisations documents innovative approaches to funding public transport – ranging from land value capture to congestion pricing and employer contributions (OECD/ITF, 2024[10]). Drawing on these experiences can help Kiambu and Nakuru design financing strategies that are both equitable and financially sustainable over the long term.
The shift to BRT is ultimately a governance reform. Success will depend on clear institutional roles, informed negotiations, and inclusive planning. While local municipalities can play a key role, world experience shows that national level support is also key (e.g. rethinking public budgets, creating tax frameworks and mechanisms to support public transport). Getting this right will not only improve mobility, but also build a stronger foundation for sustainable urban growth.
Introducing criteria and monitoring transformative change
Introducing criteria to ensure policies and investment are geared towards systemic change would be important. In addition, moving forward, monitoring that prioritised actions and investments that are effectively shifting the system in the right direction would also be crucial to assess and revisit strategies.
Participants in both cities developed initial ideas on the type of indicators that could help set criteria and monitor change in line with the four high-leverage points identified. For example, making sure that infrastructure planning and investment (in particular for roads), is aligned with the goal of creating the future stocks of infrastructure that can avoid car dependency and create healthy and sustainable mobility and living spaces. Discussions emphasised that measures that could monitor accessibility would be especially needed. Participants in both cities also discussed targets that would be important to attain regarding some of the key future stocks for the system. For instance, in Kiambu, proposed targets included reducing travel time from Naka Estate to the CBD from 30 minutes to 10 minutes, and increasing space allocated to green and recreational use to 30%. In Nakuru, these targets included accessing basic services and recreational amenities within 15 minutes, as well as reducing the number of road accidents by 50%. Further discussion and integration of agreed measures into planning documents such as Nakuru town integrated strategic urban development plan, and Kiambu’s Climate Change Action Plan, as well as appraisal procedures would be a game changer. This criterion would also provide crucial guidance for funding institutions such as development banks supporting investment in these cities.
Building support for transformative change through communication and participation
Transformative change in urban and transport systems requires more than technical solutions, it also depends on changing how people think about mobility. In both Kiambu and Nakuru, promoting alternatives to car-centric development will require a shift in expectations, behaviours and public narratives. Communication and participation are essential tools to support this transition.
Narratives play a powerful role in shaping how people understand transport systems. Over time, car use has been associated with freedom, convenience and status. In contrast, walking, cycling and public transport have often been viewed as second-best options. These perceptions do not reflect the broader social, environmental and health benefits of sustainable mobility. As seen in countries such as Ireland and the Netherlands, as well as cities like Pontevedra (Spain), changing dominant narratives can help build public support for policies that prioritise space for people over cars (OECD, 2021[1]; OECD, 2022[2]).
Communication strategies should therefore do more than share information. They should create a new story about what a well-functioning, inclusive city looks like. This includes highlighting the benefits of alternatives to car use, such as improved safety, lower transport costs, cleaner air and healthier lifestyles. It also means being transparent about the trade-offs involved in reallocating road space or introducing regulatory changes, and helping people understand the long-term goals behind these decisions.
Participation complements communication by allowing people to express their needs, concerns and ideas. It creates opportunities to test new approaches, generate local ownership and strengthen trust. Participatory methods – such as co-design workshops, local pilots or street experiments – can also help decision-makers better understand the lived experience of residents, especially women, youth and vulnerable groups.
The Spanish city of Pontevedra (Galicia region), with a population of 83 000, offers a compelling example of how small and medium-sized cities can implement ambitious urban mobility and public space reforms. Through a bold vision rooted in place-making and the Complete Streets approach, Pontevedra has demonstrated that reversing car dependency and restoring proximity are not exclusive to large metropolises.
A core principle of the city’s strategy was to improve liveability by reshaping mobility around people, not cars. This involved banning traffic and pedestrianising 6.7 km² of central streets, limiting speed to 20‑30 km/h, eliminating on-street parking, and reallocating street space to pedestrians. In wider streets, half the space was assigned to walking, while narrower streets became fully pedestrian. Parking time was capped at 15‑30 minutes, supported by strict enforcement.
Beyond physical interventions, Pontevedra’s success was underpinned by a clear communication strategy aimed at changing public perceptions. The city launched visual tools like Metrominuto – a metro-style walking map – and the Pasominuto programme, which highlights health benefits of walking itineraries. These helped promote walking and local commerce, while reinforcing a narrative of accessibility, safety, and community life.
The outcomes have been striking: a 70% drop in CO₂ emissions, a 69% reduction in city-centre traffic, and zero traffic fatalities since 2009. Pontevedra’s experience shows how effective public communication, integrated urban planning, and regulatory consistency can reshape mobility patterns and development choices, offering lessons for other cities seeking low-carbon, inclusive urban futures.
Source: OECD (2021[1]).
Both Kiambu and Nakuru would benefit from developing locally grounded communication strategies and institutionalising participation and co-creation in planning processes. These efforts should be aligned with long-term accessibility goals and integrated into broader urban development strategies.
Ultimately, promoting sustainable transport requires a cultural shift. Communications and participation are not secondary to infrastructure, they are central to building the collective mindset and political support needed to deliver change. A more inclusive, people-centred approach can help ensure that policies not only succeed technically, but also resonate socially and contribute to a better quality of life for all.
Beira and Quelimane are experiencing rapid urbanisation, presenting both significant challenges and unprecedented opportunities for sustainable development. If left unmanaged, however, urban expansion risks entrenching car dependency, inefficient land use, and environmental degradation, leading to long-term carbon lock-in and exacerbating socio-economic inequalities. However, both cities stand at a critical juncture, both being at an earlier stage in their urbanisation process and infrastructure roll-out, compared to the Kenyan cities considered in this study. Thus, proactive policies can shape their urban trajectories before unsustainable patterns become irreversible.
The increasing frequency and severity of climate shocks underscore the urgency of a holistic, forward-thinking urbanisation strategy for both cities. Beira and Quelimane are already facing rising sea levels, extreme weather events, and infrastructural vulnerabilities that threaten both lives and livelihoods. Without strategic adaptation, climate impacts will further strain urban services and deepen inequalities. Therefore, future urban development must integrate both mitigation and adaptation efforts, ensuring that resilience-building measures are embedded in every stage of planning and governance.
To seize this opportunity, urbanisation policies must align with a long-term vision that prioritises accessibility over mobility, fosters inclusive economic development, and enhances climate resilience. This approach will enable Beira and Quelimane to create cities that are not only well-connected but also equitable, liveable, and prepared for the climate challenges ahead.
Beira: Making use of underutilised public and private space to design a different system
Beira’s Master Plan is the city’s main framework for guiding urban development through to 2035. It responds to key challenges, including widespread poverty, limited access to basic services, and unregulated growth in flood-prone areas. The plan anticipates significant population growth – up to 1.42 million people – and proposes a spatial strategy based on concentric urban expansion, aimed at reducing travel distances and congestion through the development of central hubs and radial transport corridors.
Climate resilience is a central priority. The plan calls for restricting urban growth in low-lying areas, expanding drainage infrastructure, and restoring natural assets such as the Chiveve River to serve as green infrastructure and flood mitigation. According to the plan, future residential development should be directed towards safer, elevated zones east of Manga, while vulnerable neighbourhoods are to be upgraded with improved infrastructure and services. The revitalisation of the city centre is also a key objective, including the rehabilitation of historic buildings and the creation of a new service hub.
While the plan includes measures to limit sprawl, its road-based growth model may reinforce car dependency, undermining efforts towards compact urban development. Moreover, it falls short of promoting densification within Beira’s existing urban core, where available and underutilised spaces remain untapped.
Allocating well the still underutilised stock of public space
As highlighted in previous sections, Beira’s first high-leverage point lies in its ability to reallocate and redesign public space in the city centre to prevent congestion. This is particularly important given Beira’s spatial development pattern, where informal settlements surround the CBD. Once congestion becomes embedded in the CBD, it will become extremely difficult and costly to reverse it. However, the legacy of Portuguese urban design has led to a significant amount of public space that, even if today is labelled as roads for vehicle traffic, can be used for promoting sustainable mobility.
Beira has a unique opportunity to rethink spatial policy before congestion becomes a problem and car dependency is locked-in. As discussed throughout this report, a key feature of Beira’s CBD is the large road capacity that is currently underutilised but increasingly being occupied by primarily private vehicles (especially SUVs). To capitalise on this, the city could begin reallocating road space to ensure that relevant shares of this space is developed as a network of safe and dedicated infrastructure for buses, cycling, and pedestrian movement. Timing will be critical. Beira should act promptly, reallocating public space before motorisation rates rise and road space becomes labelled and thought of as car-dedicated infrastructure. By acting early, the city can avoid the high financial and political costs typically associated with retrofitting transport systems and reconfiguring urban spaces in already congested environments. It can also sidestep the institutional inertia that often makes such changes difficult to implement. Beira’s master plan already recognises the importance of non-motorised transport infrastructure, providing both the scope and mandate to act in this direction.
Road space reallocation should be strategically planned in conjunction with future investments in public transport. The city’s master plan already proposes the development of a public transport system, and these ambitions should be tightly aligned with efforts to reallocate space currently allocated de facto to private vehicles. As discussed in the case of Kiambu and Nakuru, developing the soft infrastructure for public transport is equally essential. This includes formalising bus routes, introducing integrated ticketing systems, and enforcing licensing and safety regulations to improve service quality. Beira may need to consider the development of more specific policy instruments to guide this transition, such as dedicated mobility policy that provides more flexibility and addresses more specific issues than the master plan. Beyond regulation, Beira should also start exploring mechanisms to integrate paratransit – which is at present in an early stage of development – with mass public transport. Doing so at this stage will not only imply a lower cost, but also allow to make the development of an integrated transport system a pillar for a wider urban redesign that prioritises sustainable accessibility. This will be crucial for promoting social development, especially if it considers the needs of the population residing in informal settlements, which could be offered a combination of first/last-mile solutions that can be adapted to the narrow streets in their areas, as well as modes providing good access towards and within central areas.
While these actions represent critical steps toward sustainable urban mobility, their success in avoiding carbon lock-in and widespread car dependency requires strong political will, sustained institutional capacity, and effective enforcement. Without careful implementation and consistent public communication that addresses car-centric aspirations, these measures could face resistance, especially if they are perceived to reduce convenience for car users. Moreover, if not supported by complementary policies – such as land-use regulations that promote compact urban form, parking management, etc. – tensions for reallocation of road space towards motorised traffic could grow over time. The sequencing of interventions will also matter: if investment in public transport lags behind road reallocation, the transition may lose momentum and public support.
Rethinking spatial planning and addressing vacancy in the city centre before leapfrogging
Beira needs to explore alternatives to densify its city centre as a priority and plan well any necessary development in its periphery. This is key to controlling sprawl. The current master plan is already considering key policy actions – such as strengthening zoning regulations and upgrading informal settlements – to limit urban expansion. However, it would be important that the plan further considers facilitating housing investments in central areas, while granting priority to social housing. Currently, as discussed in the workshops, a significant number of buildings in the city centre are empty or abandoned. Beira should explore possible alternatives to turn some of these buildings into social housing as well as into places where services and commercial or recreational activities could be hosted. Exploring diverse ways of working with investors and the private sector needs to be explored for this; as well as ways of establishing mechanisms to ensure that surplus value is not only captured by the private sector. International experience – from both developed and developing countries – demonstrates that well-designed mechanisms and partnerships between government and the private sector can generate virtuous cycles of urban transformation. These arrangements can help ensure that the added value generated through urban renewal and accessibility improvements also benefits the wider public and contributes to the financial feasibility of public transport development. This is a key moment for Beira to explore alternative models that align spatial transformation with inclusive growth. Approaches such as London’s Opportunity Areas framework or Bogota’s Metrovivienda initiative offer valuable lessons (ITF, 2017[4]). In Beira’s case, the combination of vacant buildings and underutilised public space presents a unique opportunity to reimagine the relationship between public and private space. If well managed, this could lead to a major transformation of the central business district, with positive ripple effects across the wider urban area.
A critical first step for city authorities would be to conduct a comprehensive mapping exercise to identify which buildings within the city centre can be renewed, which should be demolished, and which plots of land and infrastructure are suitable for new housing and mixed-use development. This assessment would help clarify investment needs and priorities, providing essential information for both municipal and national authorities in the allocation of public resources. It would also serve as a valuable reference for engaging development banks and international funding institutions. Moreover, such a mapping effort could form the basis for identifying priority zones for initiating dialogue with private developers. Densifying the city centre should be considered a strategic priority. While densification is critical in many urban contexts, it is particularly urgent in Beira, where informal settlements have formed a belt around the central business district. If this pattern continues unchecked, leapfrogging will likely remain the default urban expansion model, further entrenching sprawl, increasing infrastructure costs, and reducing accessibility.
In cases where new development outside the CBD is necessary, city officials must ensure that expansion occurs only in low-risk areas and is accompanied by sustainable transport options. This includes the early provision of public transport, non-motorised transport infrastructure, and potentially micro-mobility services that connect new residential areas with the CBD and other key destinations. As in the case of the city centre, it will be essential to implement mechanisms that capture the surplus value generated by new development and improved transport connections, so that benefits are shared with the wider public and help finance further infrastructure investments. Producing transport and land-use plans in isolation risks reinforcing car dependency, particularly if new development increases travel distances without adequate public transport. In the short term, this could also lead to the rapid growth of informal paratransit services, an outcome Beira has so far largely avoided, in contrast to cities like Kiambu and Nakuru. Experience from these cities shows the long-term difficulty of transitioning to high-quality, consolidated public transport once unregulated paratransit becomes entrenched, often accompanied by fragmented and inefficient governance arrangements. Beira has an opportunity to chart a different course by proactively planning for integrated and sustainable urban expansion. However, ensuring that sprawl is addressed will be fundamental to making this transport vision both viable and cost-effective.
Although Beira’s plan highlights the need to upgrade informal settlements, it is not clear whether their residents are involved in the design and development of these plans. As such, Beira should explore alternatives to open a constructive dialogue with informal settlement associations. Moreover, these groups should further be considered in discussions concerning the revitalisation of Beira’s central business district to explore the extent to which relocation to these areas could be a good option for parts of this population. This dialogue will bring valuable local knowledge and community-driven insights, ensuring that interventions are not only technically sound but also socially inclusive and reflective of real needs. Their involvement will be key to fostering sustainable and participatory urban regeneration.
Beira should consider embedding nature-based solutions as a central component of its urban development strategy. Given the city’s heightened exposure to climate risks, urban planning must integrate both mitigation and adaptation policies to enhance long-term resilience. The rehabilitation of the Chiveve River offers a valuable example of the benefits – and challenges – associated with nature-based approaches. According to an assessment by the World Bank (2023[11]), the project not only improved drainage and reduced flood risk, but also contributed to enhanced well-being through better security, cleanliness, recreational spaces, and a more vibrant local economy. However, the project also underscores key limitations. In particular, the financial sustainability model – based in part on restricted access and entry fees – has limited the potential for Chiveve to function as a true public good. While such arrangements may be necessary for revenue generation, they restrict access for lower-income residents and constrain the project's ability to serve as an inclusive urban renewal initiative. Moreover, the predominance of closed-off areas weakens its potential as a demonstrative model for broader city-wide implementation. To build on this experience, Beira should strengthen its capacity to attract climate and infrastructure financing, including through multi-donor platforms, and develop new projects that integrate nature-based solutions within the CBD and other priority areas. Crucially, future initiatives should be designed with inclusive financial mechanisms that ensure free or low-cost access, enabling nature-based urban infrastructure to serve all segments of the population and reinforce the city’s broader goals of equity, resilience, and sustainability.
Even in its current form, the Chiveve River rehabilitation project offers an important opportunity to support participatory envisioning activities. These could bring together local authorities and residents to refine and concretise the city’s long-term vision, ensuring it reflects shared aspirations. The Chiveve project demonstrates how nature-based solutions can be meaningfully combined with cultural and social assets – such as the murals created by local artists – to reimagine public space as a platform for inclusion, recreation, and creativity. This integration can help broaden the narrative around urban transformation, positioning it not only as a response to climate risks, but also as a means of promoting culture, social cohesion, and community pride. Moreover, the project has generated positive economic spillovers, with artists and entrepreneurs developing small businesses in the surrounding areas. This illustrates the potential of public space improvements – particularly those rooted in local identity and creativity – to stimulate economic activity and livelihoods. Future initiatives could build on this dynamic, using participatory approaches to co-design inclusive and multifunctional spaces that align environmental goals with cultural expression and economic opportunity.
From assessment to action: Building robust urban and transport systems
In 2019, following the hurricane Idai, the municipality of Beira prepared a recovery strategy (Municipality of Beira, 2020[12]). It emphasised Building Back Better (BBB) by focusing on resilient housing and settlements. Reconstruction efforts prioritise enhancing the quality of housing through material and technical assistance, ensuring that rebuilt homes are more resistant to future disasters. The plan includes the relocation of 300 families from high-risk, flood-prone areas to safer locations, following international standards for resettlement. Community engagement was considered central, with technical support for local builders and enterprises to improve housing and public infrastructure, such as drainage systems.
The 2020 Annual Performance Assessment of Beira also highlights critical challenges in urban development, transport, and climate resilience (Zhang, Eichenauer and Ryll, 2020[13]). The city faces significant vulnerabilities due to poorly maintained infrastructure, particularly in flood management and drainage systems, exacerbated by rapid urban expansion and unregulated settlements in flood-prone areas. At the time of the assessment, Beira lacked an updated Urban Structure Plan, limiting effective land‑use planning. The report also highlighted some issues related to transport infrastructure, including inadequate road maintenance and the lack of a public transport system. Not surprisingly, climate change was considered a major challenge for the city, which is characterised by outdated coastal defences and inadequate stormwater drainage. The report stresses the need for improved urban planning, stronger governance, and enhanced climate adaptation measures to address these challenges and build resilience against future environmental shocks.
Beira needs to act now, before the window of opportunity for transformative change begins to close. The city has already built a critical mass of knowledge and experience that can inform concrete policy actions to address some of its most pressing challenges. The resources and recommendations presented in this report offer practical guidance to ensure that Beira’s recovery strategy is not only about rebuilding, but about setting the foundation for long-term transformation. This includes creating safe, well-connected, and healthy living environments for all residents. Decisions around how and where families are relocated will be particularly important, as they will shape future access to services, livelihoods, and transport, and ultimately influence the success of efforts to reduce inequality and prevent further sprawl.
The city can build on all existing assessments, the leverage points, and the recommendations identified in this project to guide and prioritise policy actions, drawing on the policies discussed during the workshop. This will require the creation of spaces for policy dialogue with key stakeholders, including development partners, supporting agencies, and – critically – local communities and citizens. Establishing new criteria for decision-making to align actions and investment is essential, as is the development of measurable targets and mechanisms to monitor progress. Beira can build on the indicators discussed during the workshop, which provide a foundation for tracking success across the high-leverage points. These indicators could be integrated into official planning documents and used to evaluate the impact of interventions over time. To achieve this, the city will need to strengthen its capacity to collect and analyse data, an important consideration when discussing potential institutional arrangements for implementation.
Moreover, although Beira’s master plan provides a broad framework for urban and transport development, more targeted planning instruments are needed to guide effective implementation. For example, a sustainable mobility plan could be developed to ensure that future actions enhance accessibility, redefine the public transport model, and explore new ways of regulating and integrating paratransit services, while laying the groundwork for a mass public transport system. In parallel, a land-use development plan, aligned with the mobility strategy, could offer a structured yet flexible roadmap for managing urban expansion. Co‑ordinating spatial and transport planning will be critical to avoiding fragmented development and ensuring that future growth supports Beira’s goals of accessibility, sustainability, and resilience.
The 2020 Annual Performance Assessment of the Municipality of Beira provides a comprehensive evaluation of the city's performance in several critical areas, including urban infrastructure, public services, financial management, and resilience to natural disasters. Conducted under the Urban and Local Development Project (PDUL), the assessment aimed to verify the municipality’s compliance with the minimum conditions required to access resources and assess its performance indicators.
The report highlights significant deficiencies in Beira's infrastructure, particularly in flood management, drainage systems, and road maintenance. Due to Beira’s location in a low-lying delta, the city is highly vulnerable to flooding, exacerbated by poor drainage systems that struggle to handle heavy rainfall and storm surges. Although some improvements have been made in solid waste management and the rehabilitation of roads, much of the infrastructure is still inadequate. In 2020, the municipal efforts focused on responding to the immediate impacts of COVID-19, which diverted attention from long-term infrastructural upgrades.
Urban planning is another critical area of concern. The city lacks an up-to-date Urban Structure Plan (PEU), with the previous plan dating back to 1999. While a new plan was being drafted in 2020, it had not yet been ratified. Moreover, detailed plans covering certain key urban areas are limited, and informal settlements continue to grow in flood-prone regions. These unregulated settlements lack proper infrastructure, heightening the city's vulnerability to natural disasters. The municipality has made some strides with localised urbanisation plans, but comprehensive urban planning remains insufficient.
The assessment found that access to basic services, including potable water, sewage, and electricity, remains limited for large portions of Beira's population. Efforts to improve solid waste management were noted, but access to municipal markets and public spaces has not significantly improved. Additionally, only a small percentage of the population lives in areas with effective flood and erosion control systems.
The assessment stresses the need for urgent action in climate adaptation. Coastal protection measures are either outdated or insufficient to address rising sea levels and storm surges. The city also requires significant investments in drainage systems to mitigate the effects of flooding, which continues to be a major risk. Despite some progress in planning for solid waste management, the overall resilience of the city to environmental shocks remains low, especially in densely populated informal settlements.
To address these challenges, the report recommends that Beira focus on:
Strengthening urban planning by ratifying and implementing a new Urban Structure Plan.
Expanding and upgrading drainage systems and coastal defences to improve flood resilience.
Increasing efforts to regulate land use and prevent further settlement in vulnerable areas.
Enhancing access to public services such as water, sewage, and markets for underserved populations.
Source: Zhang, Eichenauer and Ryll (2020[13]).
Quelimane: Building on and expanding success in replacing vicious dynamics
Consolidating cycling and taxi bikes as the foundation of mobility
Quelimane has a rare opportunity to define its urban mobility system around non-motorised transport before car dependency becomes entrenched. Unlike many cities already shaped by paratransit and private vehicles, Quelimane’s streets are still dominated by taxi bikes and cyclists, resulting in naturally low speeds, limited congestion, and relatively equitable access to transport. As in the case of Beira, the city benefitted from a significant amount of road space developed during the Portuguese colonial period. However, Quelimane has opted to use this space in a more sustainable way. Indeed, as discussed earlier, this is the result of having developed and embraced – early in its urban growth – a taxi bike system that has so far proven effective in avoiding the paratransit-driven dynamics seen in the Kenyan case studies, and, to a lesser extent, in Beira. However, this balance is beginning to shift. As private vehicle ownership increases, competition over street space intensifies. Without deliberate and immediate action, the city risks shifting towards a car-centric model that will be costly and difficult to reverse. To prevent this, Quelimane must urgently institutionalise the role of active modes and taxi bikes as the foundation of its transport system. This means formalising existing practices through dedicated infrastructure, supportive regulation, and governance frameworks that ensure continuity beyond individual political mandates.
A central challenge lies in operationalising the space already occupied by non-motorised transport. Existing bike lanes in Quelimane are often narrower than the space taxi bikes use in practice, creating friction between formal planning and daily reality. Rather than formalising constrained infrastructure, the city should work with taxi bike associations to co-design wider, safer corridors that reflect actual demand. Moreover, this process presents a timely opportunity to integrate NMT investments with greening and beautification projects, areas where Quelimane has already demonstrated capacity and creativity. With co‑ordinated support, the city could develop high-quality model corridors that combine wide cycle lanes, landscaping, pedestrian areas, and traffic-calming measures, reinforcing the liveability and identity of the city.
Moreover, repurposing parts of the public space currently designated as roads into recreational and leisure areas – with space for local commerce – should be a priority. Some neighbourhoods in Quelimane already demonstrate a strong, place-making capacity that reflects local identity and community needs. These examples should be expanded and mainstreamed to become a defining feature of the city’s urban character. In parallel, the institutionalisation of low traffic speeds, especially on local roads, should be pursued in line with international best practice. At present, relatively low travel speeds – particularly in comparison to cities like Beira – are maintained largely due to the dominance of cycling and taxi bikes. Embedding these conditions into formal policy can help preserve this advantage and reinforce the city’s commitment to safe, people-centred urban development.
Embedding safe, high-quality pedestrian and cycling infrastructure within a broader urban transformation strategy – focused on greening and improving public spaces – could be key to engaging higher-income groups. Resistance from these groups has, to some extent, influenced decisions such as the implementation of narrower bike lanes. Developing projects through co-created visions, where diverse segments of the population – including middle- and higher-income residents – are meaningfully involved, will be essential to secure broader support and long-term buy-in. In parallel, strategies aimed at addressing car-centric mindsets, particularly among wealthier groups, will be necessary (see further discussion below). Development partners working in the region should prioritise supporting such initiatives, as they offer a unique opportunity for Quelimane to reinforce its virtuous cycle of sustainable mobility. If successful, the city could serve as a regional and global reference, demonstrating that car-dominated urban futures are not inevitable.
One of the most important governance tools in Quelimane is the Plano de Estrutura Urbana do Município da Cidade de Quelimane (PEUMCQ). The PEUMCQ is the city’s main planning instrument for guiding urban development over the next ten years. It introduces a zoning framework to better organise land use, with categories for residential, commercial, industrial, ecological reserves, and recreational spaces (Municipality of Quelimane, 2023[14]). The plan identifies areas for requalification, densification, and expansion, with the aim of improving living conditions, managing population growth, and protecting the natural environment. It also seeks to balance land uses while ensuring the integration of infrastructure and social services. In doing so, the PEUMCQ sets a strategic foundation for a more organised and sustainable urban future.
Quelimane should build on the PEUMCQ to ensure that Quelimane’s success is sustainable. It is important to consider that Quelimane’s success in promoting sustainable mobility has largely been driven by strong political will. To ensure long-term sustainability, these efforts must be anchored through both hard and soft infrastructure. That is, through the development of dedicated cycling infrastructure and the establishment of policies and regulations that allow NMT services to evolve independently of changing political leadership. Although the PEUMCQ is a significant step forward that addresses several key dimensions of urban development, further steps are needed to fully realise the city’s potential for NMT-based mobility. The plan does not necessarily translate Quelimane’s existing cycling and taxi bike culture into a structured and long-term mobility vision. To address this, it will be important to define priority NMT corridors, align zoning and infrastructure investment with accessibility goals, and integrate NMT considerations into all requalification and expansion plans. Beyond physical infrastructure, soft measures such as regulatory frameworks for taxi bike operations, data collection, and public engagement campaigns should be developed to support system-wide co-ordination and continuous improvement.
Enhancing taxi bike services and preparing for a multimodal future
Taxi bikes are a defining feature of Quelimane’s transport system and play a central role in ensuring affordable, accessible, and low-carbon mobility. Unlike many cities where informal paratransit services have filled the gap left by weak public transport, Quelimane has developed a sustainable alternative built around cycling and taxi bikes. This model has supported compact growth and helped limit car dependency. Moreover, it demonstrates that a different urban mobility system is not only possible, but already functioning. However, this equilibrium remains fragile. Without proactive measures to improve the quality, safety, and economic viability of taxi bike services, the system could falter under the pressures of urban expansion and rising motorisation.
Improving taxi bikes is therefore not only about better services, it is also critical to preserving the city’s current path and preventing sprawl. Upgrading vehicles, including the introduction of safer, more comfortable, and possibly electric models, would expand their operational range, improve working conditions for riders, and enhance user experience. Electric options, in particular, could support longer trips and broaden the scope of services, such as small cargo delivery, and put less strain on drivers who range from all ages. To ensure inclusive access to such upgrades, Quelimane could explore innovative financial schemes and training programmes, allowing operators to benefit from new technologies while improving service quality.
In terms of electric mobility, the city could also draw lessons from successful e-bike initiatives across Africa. For example, Ebikes 4 Africa, a social enterprise in Namibia, offers electric cargo and passenger bikes with off-grid charging solutions (Ebikes 4 Africa, 2025[15]). Similarly, eBee in Kenya provides electric bicycles for both personal mobility and last-mile delivery across East Africa (Ebee, 2025[16]). Given Quelimane’s growing international recognition as a reference for sustainable mobility in Africa, the city is well-positioned to seek support from donors and partners to pilot the use of e-bikes as a sustainable alternative to motorcycle taxis. Such a pilot could generate valuable insights on the potential benefits and limitations of scaling e-mobility in intermediary cities.
At the same time, preparing for a multimodal future will be essential. As Quelimane expands, the city will eventually require a public transport system to connect longer distances. Although a mass public transport network may not yet be financially feasible, urban and transport planning should begin laying the foundations for its integration with existing active mobility networks. Public transport corridors should be planned in co-ordination with cycling infrastructure to ensure seamless connectivity and maintain high accessibility standards as the city grows. In this way, enhancing the role of taxi bikes today is not only a matter of improving transport options – it is a necessary investment in preserving Quelimane’s sustainable mobility model and shaping its future urban form. While e-bikes and other micro-mobility services may offer more competitive options for longer distances, it is essential to prevent urban sprawl – already contributing to the growing popularity of motorbikes in some areas.
Moreover, as seen in other cities, this is an opportune moment for Quelimane to rethink its institutional arrangements for the transport sector. The city could consider establishing a dedicated agency responsible for planning and regulating the cycling and taxi bike system, while also preparing for the introduction of additional modes such as Bus Rapid Transit (BRT). Such an agency would enable more coherent and forward-looking planning, ensuring that different modes function as part of a seamless and integrated network. It would also provide a platform to rethink budget structures and explore financing mechanisms that redirect revenues from private vehicle use – such as vehicle registration taxes, traffic fines, and other charges – towards the development of sustainable mobility systems. As the network expands to include micro-mobility, mass transit, and feeder services, such mechanisms could play a crucial role in ensuring financial viability and aligning incentives with the city’s broader mobility and climate goals.
Making cycling a contagious dynamic activity for private mobility
However, NMT infrastructure – both hard and soft – alone will not resolve one of the most persistent challenges for sustainable mobility in Quelimane. While cycling is widely used for public mobility, its adoption as a private transport mode among middle- and high-income groups remains extremely limited. In other words, although Quelimane has largely avoided the paratransit-driven dynamics seen in other cities, it has not yet managed to counter the aspirational pull of private car ownership. Redefining mobility aspirations is therefore one of the city’s key high-leverage points. To embed cycling more deeply into urban culture, targeted behavioural campaigns, public engagement, and government-backed initiatives must promote it as a modern, aspirational, and climate-smart mode of transport. Achieving this will require a stronger understanding of the mobility needs and values of different social groups, particularly the emerging middle class. Quelimane could form partnerships with research institutions and international organisations to collect data that supports the design of communication campaigns and innovative policy tools that incentivise cycling. In many high-income cities, the adoption of bicycles – particularly e-bikes – has been encouraged through subsidies, tax incentives, or rebate schemes. While such instruments may be difficult to implement in Quelimane’s current fiscal context, earmarking revenues from car-related taxes or fees could offer a more feasible alternative. Cycling can be a mode of choice for more affluent, trend setting social groups, as evidenced in many parts of the world, at the same time as the low-cost option for low-income users. Particular attention should be given to the needs of female cyclists, who tend to seek higher levels of safety and perceived safety and security in cycling spaces. The development of a local bicycle production industry (see below) could also contribute to reducing the overall cost of bicycles and e-bikes, making them more accessible and reducing the scale of financial incentives needed. Ultimately, as discussed earlier, the allocation of road and public space will remain a key determinant of the relative attractiveness of different transport modes. Without adequate, safe, and connected cycling infrastructure, other interventions are unlikely to shift long-standing transport preferences.
Promoting cycling while creating a local economy through the development of a local bicycle industry
To further position cycling as the foundation of urban mobility, Quelimane could explore the development of a local bicycle production industry. As discussed above, while the city already benefits from a strong cycling culture, bicycle use remains largely concentrated among lower-income groups via the delivery of public services. Promoting cycling as a practical and aspirational choice for all residents – especially middle- and higher-income segments – will be essential to preserve and expand NMT as the city grows.
With the right communication strategy, the development of a local bicycle industry could help reshape perceptions and position the bicycle as a modern, aspirational, and climate-smart mode of transport. At the same time, it would unlock significant opportunities for local economic development. In Quelimane, bicycles already support livelihoods, not only through taxi bike services, but also via informal repair workshops commonly seen across the city. However, there is considerable untapped potential to expand and professionalise this ecosystem, improving working conditions and generating broader economic benefits through a local bicycle manufacturing and maintenance industry. Unlike car-dependent models, which have produced economic benefits in many countries but also generated severe environmental and social trade-offs, Quelimane has the opportunity to pursue a more balanced path. By investing in a bicycle-centred economy, the city could create synergies between sustainability, equity, and local prosperity. A thriving bicycle industry would reduce dependency on imported vehicles – many of which are second-hand, environmentally inefficient, and fail to meet international safety standards – and instead promote the local production of affordable, high-quality bicycles. Such an industry would not only serve Quelimane, but could also extend to other cities across Mozambique, reinforcing national efforts toward green and inclusive growth.
Establishing a local bicycle industry would require a well-developed ecosystem. The first step for the municipality would be to support the preparation of a viable business plan that maps potential demand, identifies market gaps, and explores different models of production and distribution. This could include assembly plants, repair and customisation services, or small-scale manufacturing of parts. The city should also begin identifying potential partners – including private investors, social enterprises, and international donors and development agencies – who could provide seed funding or technical assistance to launch a pilot initiative. For instance, Giant Group, a bicycle manufacturer in Chinese Taipei, has significantly expanded its operations by investing an additional USD 120 million in Binh Duong province, Viet Nam, building upon an initial USD 60 million investment in 2021 (The Investor, 2024[17]). This strategic move, supported by local authorities, aims to enhance production capacity and integrate into the global supply chain. Cities like Quelimane can draw inspiration from this model by fostering partnerships with international manufacturers, creating favourable investment climates, and developing infrastructure to support bicycle production. Such initiatives can stimulate local economies, promote sustainable transportation, and position the city as a hub for the cycling industry.
To ensure the success of this initiative, several key issues must be considered. First, market viability: understanding local purchasing power and usage patterns will be critical to shaping the product range and pricing strategy. Second, access to finance: small enterprises may require concessional loans or start-up grants, which would necessitate advocacy and engagement with development finance institutions. Third, alignment with urban policy: the industry should be developed in parallel with investments in cycling infrastructure, goals set by the PEUMCQ and other policy tools, and public campaigns promoting sustainable mobility.
As a next step, Quelimane could launch a feasibility study in collaboration with local universities or regional innovation hubs, followed by a stakeholder roundtable to explore interest and define potential business models. If successful, this initiative could not only reinforce Quelimane’s position as a leader in sustainable mobility, but also generate long-term economic and social benefits for its residents.
Making the most of current planning tools to reshape urban growth, while enhancing accessibility and climate resilience
During the workshop and stakeholder interviews, a recurrent theme was the need to address urban sprawl in Quelimane by promoting compact urban growth and reinforcing accessibility. Unplanned expansion threatens to increase infrastructure costs, worsen service delivery, and create long-term dependence on private vehicles. A more strategic approach to spatial development will be essential to maintain Quelimane’s current path of low-carbon, inclusive urban mobility.
Quelimane’s PEUMCQ represents a critical step in this direction. As discussed above, the plan introduces a zoning framework that organises urban land into functional categories: residential, commercial, industrial, ecological reserves, and green recreational spaces. It also identifies zones for requalification, reordering, and expansion to guide where growth should be improved, intensified, or accommodated in the future. The plan aims to enhance living conditions, upgrade infrastructure in existing areas, and protect sensitive ecosystems such as mangroves and wetlands. By promoting multi-use zoning in key areas, the PEUMCQ aims to promote urban functionality and helps lay the groundwork for more integrated and efficient development.
Quelimane could build on the PEUMCQ and develop a digital platform that acts as an urban observatory to support real-time monitoring and decision-making. This platform would combine geospatial data, satellite imagery, and local inputs (e.g. via using citizens science) to track land-use changes, identify informal expansion, and monitor development in high-risk or environmentally sensitive areas. It would also allow planners to evaluate how well new developments align with zoning intentions and service provision targets. By embedding this tool within the city’s planning framework, municipal authorities could better co-ordinate land use and infrastructure investments, and adjust priorities based on current trends. Moreover, it could also act as a tool to interact and engage with the community by allowing to point out and map environmental issues, or unexpected consequences from the urbanisation process that affects their neighbourhoods. Ultimately, such a platform would make the PEUMCQ more responsive and enforceable, helping to maintain compact and well-serviced urban growth. Quelimane could learn from cities like Barcelona, which have used digital platforms to promote participatory methods that help policy actions to survive changes in government. Barcelona's Sustainable Urban Mobility Plan (SUMP) has maintained continuity across successive municipal administrations due to its strong foundation in participatory governance and broad-based consensus (Ajuntament de Barcelona, 2025[18]). The city's commitment to inclusive planning processes, such as those facilitated through the Decidim.Barcelona platform, has enabled citizens to actively engage in shaping mobility policies (Decidim Barcelona, 2025[19]). This collaborative approach has fostered a sense of ownership among stakeholders, making the SUMP resilient to political shifts. The plan's alignment with long-term urban development goals and its adaptability to emerging challenges have further contributed to its enduring support and implementation.
As Quelimane continues to expand, it will also need to anticipate and plan for the future development of mass public transport. While a full public transport system may not be immediately viable, early planning is key to ensuring that it supports compact development rather than encouraging sprawl. BRT, which has been explored in other fast-growing secondary cities such as Kiambu and Nakuru, could be a suitable long-term solution for Quelimane. However, if not carefully integrated with land-use planning, MPT systems risk stimulating low-density expansion along corridors and reinforcing car-oriented growth. To avoid this, the identification of transport corridors should be aligned with the zoning logic of the PEUMCQ, targeting areas that are already dense or planned for intensification, and prioritising investments that reinforce accessibility within the existing urban footprint.
The PEUMCQ addresses zoning and land-use management by categorising the municipality into distinct zones with defined uses and regulations. The plan sets clear guidelines for the use of different areas based on their current occupation and potential for development. These categories include:
Urbanised Residential Areas (1 233.33 ha): These are established neighbourhoods that require requalification to improve infrastructure and upgrade informal settlements. The plan encourages mixed-use development, including residential, commercial, industrial, and service activities, as long as they are compatible with residential use. Informal settlements in flood-prone areas will be resettled to safer zones with better living conditions.
Planned High- and Medium-Density Residential Areas (116.68 ha): These areas consist of single-family and multi-family homes with incomplete infrastructure. The plan proposes the legal regularisation of land tenure and the provision of basic services, such as energy, roads, and drainage.
Reordering of Dense Residential Areas (722.85 ha): The plan targets neighbourhoods with high population densities, many of which were formed during the civil war. It aims to restructure these areas by improving infrastructure and housing quality, while addressing the unplanned urban sprawl.
Industrial Expansion Areas (551.66 ha): To promote economic growth, the plan designates industrial zones and encourages the development of industries along strategic transport corridors. These areas are intended to support large-scale industry and related services, including storage, fuel stations, and heavy vehicle traffic.
Green Areas and Conservation Zones: The PEUMCQ emphasises the protection of green areas, including urban parks and mangrove forests. These areas are crucial for maintaining ecological balance, providing recreational spaces, and mitigating the impacts of climate change. The plan proposes the creation of new parks and green corridors in both urban and peri-urban areas.
Through these zoning measures, the PEUMCQ seeks to balance urban expansion with the need to protect natural resources, manage population density, and provide infrastructure that meets the needs of Quelimane’s growing population.
Source: Municipality of Quelimane (2023[14]).
References
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