Agricultural Policy Monitoring and Evaluation 2026

11. Egypt

Main findings

Support to agriculture

Egypt’s Producer Support Estimate (%PSE) decreased from 20.1% of gross farm receipts (GFR) in 2000‑02 to 12.6% in 2023-25, less than the OECD average (14.3%) but higher than the average of 7.7% for emerging economies. Most support to farmers is provided through domestic prices that are higher than international reference prices, reflecting the effects of guaranteed and administered prices, public procurement and stockholding operations, import tariffs and other border measures. These policies mainly benefit producers of grain, poultry, sugar and cotton. Fruits and vegetables are not supported, while livestock products are penalised by higher feed costs.

Direct support to farmers through budgetary transfers was only 1.7% of gross farm receipts in 2023-25. Input subsidies dominate the policy mix, including substantial subsidies for nitrogen fertiliser, preferential lending for crop production, support for on-farm investments in machinery, buildings and irrigation infrastructure, and support for on-farm services.

Budgetary transfers to consumers averaged EGP 141 billion (USD 3.5 billion) annually in 2023‑25, or 1.0% of GDP – significantly higher than the other countries covered in this report. These expenditures are primarily allocated to two key food subsidy programmes: the baladi bread subsidy and the ration card programme.

Support for general services (GSSE) amounted to 2.3% of the value of agricultural production in 2023-25, down from 3.4% in 2000-02. A major share of these expenditures is allocated to investments in irrigation infrastructure (72% of total GSSE expenditures), followed by agricultural R&D (17%).

Agricultural support policies place a significant burden on Egypt’s economy. Total support to the agricultural sector (%TSE) reached 2.8% of GDP in 2023-25, the highest among all 56 countries covered in this report.

Key policy changes in 2025-26

In March 2025, the government expanded the domestic wheat procurement system by authorising Mostakbal Misr Agency for Sustainable Development to purchase domestically produced wheat from farmers. This measure further expands the agency’s remit beyond the responsibility for imports of strategic commodities.

The regulated natural gas price for nitrogen fertiliser producers was increased to USD 5.50 per MMBtu in September 2025, in response to rising international fertiliser prices and fiscal pressures. The government also introduced domestic supply obligations and quota mechanisms requiring nitrogen fertiliser producers to reserve a significant share of output for the local market to alleviate domestic supply constraints.

In the context of large-scale land reclamation projects, the first phase of Egypt’s Future Industrial City was launched in May 2025. This project forms part of the broader New Delta land reclamation initiative, seeking to bring 800 000 feddans (336 000 ha) of reclaimed land into productive use by the end of 2025.

The Ministry of Finance increased funding for agricultural export promotion and introduced a new automated digital export system to reduce customs delays. In November 2025, the government temporarily banned white sugar imports for a period of three months to protect domestic producers after a major rise in sugar beet output.

Egypt’s free trade agreement with Mercosur reached its final stage, eliminating tariffs on several agricultural and food products.

Assessment and recommendations

• Strengthen whole-of-government co‑ordination and accountability among the network of government ministries, agencies, state-owned enterprises (SOEs) and military-owned enterprises (MOEs) responsible for agriculture policies. A co-ordination mechanism to oversee food systems and monitor their performance will help enable a participatory approach to food systems policy making.

• Improve the availability, transparency and quality of data to facilitate more informed and evidence-based policy analysis and design. Priorities include better data on agricultural public expenditures, transfers to SOEs and MOEs, market interventions, nutritional outcomes, and agri-environmental performance.

• Shift the focus of policy support towards nutrition targets and innovation, while gradually reducing support for staple crops. This will reduce the burden of agricultural support for the economy, which is aggravated by the current heavy focus on food availability, implemented via targets to increase self-sufficiency rates for strategic crops, minimum guaranteed prices, and large-scale domestic procurement of staple crops.

• Facilitate trade by reducing administrative and regulatory barriers at the border, promoting diversification of trade partners, and supporting private sector development in agri-food markets.

• Address the “double burden of malnutrition” where undernourishment and food insecurity exists simultaneously with one of the highest rates of overweight and obesity worldwide. Reform the food subsidy system to target those most in need: gradually focus support on vulnerable households, shift subsidies away from energy-dense foods toward a wider variety of micronutrient-rich foods, and reinvest savings from reforms into scaling up the school meals programme and promoting nutritional education.

• Strengthen water demand management through the use of alternative market-based, regulatory and voluntary mechanisms. Continue efforts to promote soil moisture conservation and efficient irrigation, and ensure that land reclamation programmes are environmentally sustainable and aligned with long-term resource constraints.

• Improve soil health and water quality by reducing subsidies for fertilisers and strengthening the enforcement of pesticides regulations, redirecting the savings from reformed fertiliser subsidies towards investments in agricultural R&D and the adoption of more environmentally sustainable farming practices.

Key indicators on agricultural support

Table 11.1. Egypt: Estimates of support to agriculture

Million USD

	2000-02	2023-25	2023	2024	2025p
Total value of production (at farm gate)	17 538	41 244	54 651	35 185	33 896
of which: share of MPS commodities (%)	66.70	66.67	70.07	65.20	64.73
Total value of consumption (at farm gate)	19 200	55 749	57 898	53 278	56 071
Producer Support Estimate (PSE)	3 724	5 047	5 162	4 162	5 816
Support based on commodity output	2 974	4 382	4 703	3 474	4 971
Market price support¹	2 974	4 382	4 703	3 474	4 971
Positive market price support	3 068	4 855	4 891	4 208	5 466
Negative market price support	-94	-473	-189	-734	-495
Payments based on output	0	0	0	0	0
Payments based on input use	749	664	460	689	845
Based on variable input use	734	655	450	681	835
with input constraints	0	0	0	0	0
Based on fixed capital formation	13	8	8	6	8
with input constraints	0	0	0	0	0
Based on on-farm services	3	1	2	1	1
with input constraints	0	0	0	0	0
Payments based on current A/An/R/I, production required	0	0	0	0	0
Based on Receipts / Income	0	0	0	0	0
Based on Area planted / Animal numbers	0	0	0	0	0
With input constraints	0	0	0	0	0
Payments based on non-current A/An/R/I, production required	0	0	0	0	0
Payments based on non-current A/An/R/I, production not required	0	0	0	0	0
With variable payment rates	0	0	0	0	0
with commodity exceptions	0	0	0	0	0
With fixed payment rates	0	0	0	0	0
with commodity exceptions	0	0	0	0	0
Payments based on non-commodity criteria	0	0	0	0	0
Based on long-term resource retirement	0	0	0	0	0
Based on a specific non-commodity output	0	0	0	0	0
Based on other non-commodity criteria	0	0	0	0	0
Miscellaneous payments	0	0	0	0	0
Percentage PSE (%)	20.10	12.60	9.37	11.60	16.74
Producer NPC (coeff.)	1.23	1.15	1.10	1.15	1.20
Producer NAC (coeff.)	1.25	1.14	1.10	1.13	1.20
General Services Support Estimate (GSSE)	626	975	2 019	489	415
Agricultural knowledge and innovation system	130	148	179	142	123
Inspection and control	10	10	11	9	11
Development and maintenance of infrastructure	448	794	1 797	320	264
Marketing and promotion	0	0	0	0	0
Cost of public stockholding	39	22	31	18	17
Miscellaneous	0	0	0	0	0
Percentage GSSE (% of TSE)	11.23	9.01	17.79	6.43	4.38
Consumer Support Estimate (CSE)	-2 828	-5 578	-4 215	-5 500	-7 019
Transfers to producers from consumers	-3 237	-5 161	-5 141	-4 589	-5 755
Other transfers from consumers	-1 140	-4 579	-3 652	-4 876	-5 210
Transfers to consumers from taxpayers	1 254	3 457	4 170	2 961	3 240
Excess feed cost	295	706	408	1 004	706
Percentage CSE (%)	-15.35	-11.09	-7.84	-10.93	-13.28
Consumer NPC (coeff.)	1.29	1.22	1.18	1.22	1.24
Consumer NAC (coeff.)	1.18	1.12	1.09	1.12	1.15
Total Support Estimate (TSE)	5 604	9 478	11 351	7 613	9 471
Transfers from consumers	4 377	9 741	8 793	9 465	10 965
Transfers from taxpayers	2 367	4 317	6 210	3 025	3 716
Budget revenues	-1 140	-4 579	-3 652	-4 876	-5 210
Percentage TSE (% of GDP)	6.12	2.80	3.42	2.48	2.69
Total Budgetary Support Estimate (TBSE)	2 630	5 096	6 648	4 140	4 500
Percentage TBSE (% of GDP)	2.87	1.48	2.01	1.35	1.28
GDP deflator (1986-88 = 100)	100	1 488	1 114	1 489	1 860
Exchange rate (national currency per USD)	3.98	41.77	30.63	45.30	49.38

Note: p: provisional. NPC: Nominal Protection Coefficient. NAC: Nominal Assistance Coefficient.

A/An/R/I: Area planted/Animal numbers/Receipts/Income.

1. Market Price Support (MPS) is net of producer levies and excess feed cost. MPS commodities for Egypt are: wheat, maize, rice, sugar, tomatoes, groundnuts, grapes, potatoes, mangoes, dates, bananas, oranges, onions, cotton, milk, beef and veal, sheep meat, eggs and poultry.

Source: OECD (2026), “Producer and Consumer Support Estimates”, OECD Agricultural policy monitoring (database), https://data-explorer.oecd.org/.

Policy landscape

Multiple ministries and government agencies share responsibility for agricultural policy design and implementation. The Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reclamation (MALR) is the main ministry overseeing the agricultural sector, and is responsible for fertiliser subsidies, credit programmes, agricultural R&D, extension services, and land reclamation projects. The Ministry of Supply and Internal Trade (MoSIT) administers the food subsidy system, oversees procurement of domestic wheat by the General Authority for Supply Commodities (GASC), and manages the government-owned silos and grain storage infrastructure. The Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation (MWRI) is responsible for developing and maintaining irrigation infrastructure, the Ministry of Planning, Economic Development and International Co-operation (MPEDIC) oversees rural development initiatives and implements the Decent Life (Haya Karima) initiative, and the Ministry of Investment and Foreign Trade (MIFT) is responsible for formulating and implementing trade measures.

Agricultural policies are guided by several major strategic documents, including MPEDIC’s National Agenda for Sustainable Development (Egypt’s Vision 2030) and National Structural Reforms Programme, and MALR’s 2030 Updated Sustainable Agriculture Development Strategy. As the main strategic document guiding the agricultural sector, the latter focuses on achieving food security and improved nutrition, enhancing sustainable agriculture, eradicating rural poverty, adapting to climate change, increasing agricultural competitiveness, and creating opportunities for youth and women. It outlines ambitious targets to increase self-sufficiency rates for strategic crops, and to increase agriculture’s share of GDP and employment by 2030. In addition, MWRI has developed several long-term strategies including the Second National Water Resources Plan 2017-2037, and the Water Resources Development and Management Strategy until 2050 (published in 2017).

The production of strategic crops such as wheat, maize and sugar cane is encouraged by government purchases at guaranteed minimum prices. Several state-owned enterprises are mandated to pay the government-set procurement price upon receipt of the crop, and then deliver it to the GASC. In the case of wheat, between one-third and half of domestic production is purchased at the government-set procurement price. In addition, tariffs and import requirements are applied to certain commodities to ensure high prices and protection for domestic farmers.

Support for inputs consists primarily of fertiliser subsidies and concessional credit. Fertiliser production is indirectly subsidised through the provision of discounted natural gas to fertiliser manufacturers and requirements to allocate 55% of fertiliser production to MALR, which then sells the fertilisers to farmers at a below-market subsidised price. Subsidised fertiliser is directed to producers of strategic crops – especially wheat farmers – with land holdings of up to 25 feddan (10.5 ha). The Agricultural Bank of Egypt (ABE) provides concessional loans for farmers, often at interest rates around 5%, which is significantly lower than prevailing market lending rates (about 25% in 2025). The ABE is compensated for the interest rate differential through the state budget.

These domestic support policies are complemented by large-scale, government-led imports of strategic commodities, and investments in a network of silos and storage infrastructure, managed by the Egyptian Holding Company for Silos and Storage, to ensure stability in the food supply. Since December 2024, Mostakbal Misr Agency for Sustainable Development, an agency under the Egyptian Armed Forces, has been responsible for imports of strategic commodities previously undertaken by GASC. In addition, numerous state- and military-owned enterprises operate across the entire agriculture and food value chain, including the Holding Company for Food Industries and the National Service Projects Organisation.

An extensive food subsidy system benefits nearly two-thirds of the population (about 60-70 million people annually) at a cost of EGP 141 billion (USD 3.5 billion or 1.0% of GDP) per year in 2023-25. Food subsidies consist of two main components: a subsidy for baladi bread, which allows citizens to purchase five loaves of bread per day for EGP 1 (USD 0.02), and an electronic ration card programme, with a monthly allowance of EGP 50 (USD 1) per person that can be used to purchase from a list of 33 subsidised essential commodities.

Large-scale land reclamation projects to transform desert land into agricultural production are a key focus of agricultural policy involving significant expenditures on infrastructure such as extending electricity networks, road construction, wastewater treatment, and the establishment of irrigation canals. Major land reclamation projects have increased total cultivated areas from 8.7 million feddans (3.7 million ha) in 2010 to 10.5 million feddans (4.4 million ha) in 2025 (MALR, 2020[1]). These include the New Delta Project, the South Valley Development Project (Toshka Al Khair), the one-and-a-half million feddans project and the 100 000 feddans of greenhouses project. Agricultural productivity in Egypt’s newly reclaimed lands remains below that of the Nile Valley and Delta, although the gap has narrowed significantly over time. Egypt’s cultivated area is likely to continue expanding in the medium term, given ongoing large-scale land reclamation projects. However, the pace of expansion is expected to slow over time due to structural constraints such as water scarcity, rising marginal costs of reclaiming desert land, and environmental and climate pressures.

Recent policy developments

Domestic policy developments in 2025-26

In March 2025, Mostakbal Misr Agency for Sustainable Development was added to the list of entities authorised by the Ministry of Supply and Internal Trade to purchase domestically produced wheat from farmers. Thus, for calendar year 2025, five government entities were mandated to pay the government-set procurement price upon receipt of the wheat crop and deliver it to the GASC. The other four are the Holding Company for Food Industries, the Egyptian Holding Company for Silos and Storage, the General Company for Silos and Storage, and the Egyptian Agricultural Bank. A total of 3.93 million tonnes of wheat were procured by the government between April and July 2025, which represents a 16% increase from the previous season (USDA GAIN, 2025[2]).

In May 2025, the first phase of Egypt’s Future Industrial City on the Sheikh Zayed Axis in Giza Governorate was completed. This project seeks to bring 800 000 feddans (336 000 ha) of reclaimed land into productive use by the end of 2025 (Presidency, 2025[3]). The project depends on capital-intensive irrigation systems, using recycled water for agriculture and water from deep fossil aquifers.

The regulated natural gas price for nitrogen fertiliser producers was increased to a minimum of USD 5.50 per MMBtu in September 2025, up from USD 4.50 per MMBtu (Egypt Business Directory, 2026[4]). This remains significantly below international market benchmarks, typically around USD 10-15 per MMBtu in Europe and higher in global LNG markets. In response to high international fertiliser prices and domestic supply constraints, the government imposed a requirement for nitrogen fertiliser manufacturers to sign binding protocols setting stringent quotas for producers to reserve sufficient supply for the domestic market, and establishing local auctions prior to export licensing (Ahram Online, 2025[5]).

Rice cultivation was restricted to nine governorates in the Nile Delta for the 2025/26 marketing year, limiting the total allowable area for rice cultivation at 1 074 200 million feddans (451 164 ha) (USDA GAIN, 2025[6]). This area has remained relatively stable over the past few years. Farmers found to be in breach of the restrictions can face financial penalties or may be required to pay charges reflecting the estimated value of irrigation water used in excess of permitted allocations.

Four new rice varieties with enhanced resistance to extreme climates and with early maturity dates were disseminated by the Agricultural Research Centre (Giza 83, Sakha Super 301, 302, and 303). These varieties were developed to withstand extreme heat and soil salinity while using 30% less water than regular rice varieties. The new decree continues MWRI’s continued its policy of controlling the cultivation of water-intensive crops.

The first EU-Egypt High-Level Dialogue on Water was launched at Cairo Water Week on 12 October 2025, building on the EU-Egypt Water Partnership established in 2023. The Dialogue resulted in the approval of a structured two-year work programme focused on integrated water resource management, circular economy solutions for water reuse and efficiency, climate adaptation and risk management for floods and droughts, safe reuse of treated wastewater in agriculture, and private sector investment and financing opportunities (European Union, 2025[7]).

A new state-owned enterprise (SOE) unit under the Prime Minister’s office, established in July 2025, was tasked with implementing the state ownership policy, identifying and maintaining a comprehensive database of all SOEs and state-owned assets, determining the optimal exit mechanism from SOEs, and strengthening the governance and management of public assets (Egypt Independent, 2025[8]). The new unit could facilitate the restructuring and privatisation of SOEs in the agriculture and food sectors, while increasing private sector participation and improving efficiency.

The National Food Safety Authority’s Decision No. 1/2025, published in January 2026, establishes a regulatory framework governing the handling and marketing of genetically modified foods and their components. The regulation introduces requirements relating to food handling, traceability, and labelling, and defines the responsibilities of food business operators throughout the supply chain. The decision aims to strengthen oversight, transparency and safety in the management and distribution of genetically modified foods. It provides for a six-month grace period for compliance by producers and importers (USDA GAIN, 2026[9]).

Trade policy developments in 2025-26

The draft budget for the 2026/27 financial year prepared by the Ministry of Finance provides for an increase in the allocation for agricultural export promotion to over EGP 50 billion (USD 1 billion), up from EGP 45 billion in FY 2025-26 (USD 911 million) (EnterpriseAM, 2026[10]). The revised budget also places greater emphasis on the export of value-added products. In parallel, the government began rolling out a fully automated digital export system via the Nafeza platform that reduces customs clearance times by 75‑90%, from around 8 days to 48 hours.

In November 2025, MIFT imposed a ban on imports of white sugar for a period of three months (with some exceptions made for special contractual requirements). The ban aimed to protect domestic producers from market saturation due to a 25% increase in sugar beet planting area to 750 000 feddans (315 000 ha) and a domestic production record of 2.6 million tonnes.

The free trade agreement between Egypt and Mercosur reached its final stage of import tariff reductions, and is expected to further facilitate imports of key agricultural commodities, particularly oilseeds and feed inputs such as soybeans and maize that are critical to Egypt’s livestock sector. Tariffs for products under basket “D”, including coconut and nut products, are being reduced gradually and are expected to be eliminated by September 2026 (Carrieri, 2026[11]).

Policy context

Key economic and agricultural statistics

As the second-largest economy and the third most populous country in Africa, Egypt benefits from a diversified economic structure, abundant land resources, and significant natural resource wealth. Agricultural land accounts for just 4.1% of Egypt’s total land area – among the lowest worldwide. Nonetheless, agriculture remains a strategically important sector, accounting for 14% of GDP and 18% of employment, significantly higher than in OECD countries (Table 11.2). Agriculture’s share in GDP and employment has been declining since 2000, reflecting the higher relative growth of other sectors in the economy, including services.

Real GDP growth has been positive since 2000 but has fluctuated considerably, declining to 2.4% in 2024. Inflation has been particularly volatile due to rising global food prices, and macroeconomic crises that have prompted successive devaluations of the Egyptian Pound. Inflation increased sharply in 2022 as a result of Russia’s war of aggression against Ukraine, and remained elevated at 28% in 2024. Unemployment has remained stable at just below 7% over the past three years (Figure 11.4).

Table 11.2. Egypt: Contextual indicators

	Egypt		International comparison
	2000*	2024*	2000*	2024*
Economic context			Share in total of all countries
GDP (billion USD in PPPs)	398	2 225	0.98%	1.32%
Population (million)	73	117	1.67%	2.13%
Land area (thousand km2)	995	995	1.19%	1.17%
Agricultural area (AA) (thousand ha)	3 291	4 058	0.11%	0.14%
			All countries1
Population density (inhabitants/km2)	73	117	52	64
GDP per capita (USD in PPPs)	5 452	19 094	9 508	31 740
Trade as % of GDP	9.6	22.7	12.3	15.0
Agriculture in the economy			All countries1
Agriculture in GDP (%)	15.5	13.7	3.0	3.6
Agriculture share in employment (%)	30.5	18.0	-	-
Agro-food exports (% of total exports)	13.1	22.9	6.4	8.3
Agro-food imports (% of total imports)	24.8	20.3	6.1	7.5
Characteristics of the agricultural sector			All countries1
Crop in total agricultural production (%)	62.7	72.1	62.1	60.4
Livestock in total agricultural production (%)	37.3	27.9	37.9	39.6
Share of arable land in AA (%)	85.1	76.5	33.0	34.0

Note: *or closest available year.

1. Average of all countries covered in this report.

Sources: OECD statistical databases; International Labour Organisation (ILO); UN Comtrade; World Bank, WDI; FAO database and national data.

Egypt’s agro-food imports have been systematically higher than exports and the agro-food trade deficit has grown over the past two decades, reaching USD 9 billion in 2024 (Figure 11.5). Egypt is highly dependent on imports of staple commodities like cereals and vegetable oils from a limited number of trade partners. Agro-food exports mostly consist of primary and processed goods for consumption (41% and 30%, respectively), while more than half of agro-food imports are primary goods destined for processing.

Over the 2014-23 period, agricultural output grew by 1.7% per year, compared to a 1.8% per year increase globally (Figure 11.6). Output growth has predominantly been driven by total factor productivity (TFP) growth, which reached 2.3% per year over the same period. Primary factor growth was 0.3% per year, while the use of intermediate inputs declined by 0.9% per year.

Agriculture’s contribution to Egypt’s GHG emissions has declined over the past two decades, from 18.5% in 2000 to 10.8% in 2024 – slightly above the OECD level (Table 11.3). The share of agriculture in total energy use increased to 1.7% in 2024 but remains below the OECD average of 2%.

Table 11.3. Egypt: Productivity and environmental indicators

	Egypt		International comparison
	1991-2000	2014-23	1991-2000	2014-23
			World
TFP annual growth rate (%)	0.8%	2.3%	1.8%	0.8%
			OECD average
Environmental indicators	2000*	2024*	2000*	2024*
Nitrogen balance, kg/ha	..	..	32.3	29.0
Phosphorus balance, kg/ha	..	..	3.3	2.3
Agriculture share of total energy use (%)	0.9	1.7	1.7	2.0
Agriculture share of GHG emissions (%)	18.5	10.8	8.7	10.3
Share of irrigated land in AA (%)	100.0	98.9
Share of agriculture in water abstractions (%)1	87.8	..	46.1	47.7
Water stress indicator	..	..

Note: * or closest available year.

Sources: USDA Economic Research Service, Agricultural Productivity database; OECD statistical databases; FAO database and national data.

Historical trends in agricultural policies

Following the Egyptian revolution of 1952, the government implemented a comprehensive agrarian reform programme, limiting individual ownership of agricultural land to a maximum of 200 feddan (84 ha), and introducing agricultural co-operatives as a mechanism for controlling crop rotations, output pricing, input supply, and marketing (Ikram, 2006[12]). Construction of the Aswan High Dam began in 1960 and was completed in 1970, providing a significant increase in storage capacity through Lake Nasser reservoir, along with the ability to control the annual flooding of the Nile. Land ownership remained highly concentrated, and reform was viewed as an important mechanism for redistributing wealth. The maximum farm size per family was further reduced to 100 feddan (42 ha) in 1961, and 50 feddan (21 ha) in 1969.

New economic reforms were introduced in the 1970s under the open-door policy (infitah), seeking to encourage domestic and foreign investment in the private sector. Spending on food subsidies, which had remained relatively restrained during the 1950s and 1960s, expanded rapidly as the government sought to protect Egyptian consumers from food price inflation. Attempts to moderate spending by increasing regulated food prices met strong opposition during the “bread riots” of 1977, but a series of gradual reforms implemented throughout the 1980s and 1990s ultimately succeeded in reducing the fiscal burden of food subsidies.

The Economic Reform and Structural Adjustment Programme, implemented in collaboration with the IMF and World Bank, supported two key agricultural policy reform programmes focused on reducing government interventions in markets. The Agricultural Production and Credit Project (1987-1995) involved reductions in subsidies for agricultural inputs, in controls on area allotments, and in price and marketing restrictions (Baffes and Gautam, 1996[13]; Cassing et al., 2009[14]). The Agricultural Policy Reform Programme (1996-2002) which followed was more extensive, encompassing the privatisation of state-owned enterprises and greater private sector involvement in the trading of agricultural commodities.

The Egyptian Constitution adopted in 2014 (subsequently amended in 2019) recognised agriculture’s importance in the national economy and committed the state to increasing land under cultivation, incriminating encroachments on agricultural land, and developing agricultural and rural areas. The constitution also committed the state to providing the requirements for agricultural production, and purchasing crops at appropriate prices to achieve a profit margin for farmers (Constitute, 2022[15]). Agriculture’s strategic importance was also recognised in the National Agenda for Sustainable Development (Egypt’s Vision 2030), the National Structural Reforms Programme, and the 2030 Updated Sustainable Agriculture Development Strategy.

In recent years the government has focused on ensuring food security and sustainability in the face of increasing climate change risks. This includes investing in water-saving technologies such as drip and sprinkler irrigation, upgrading the irrigation infrastructure, improving and expanding public grain storage infrastructure and implementing several large-scale land reclamation projects to incorporate new lands from the desert into agricultural production.

Table 11.4. Egypt: Agricultural policy trends

Period	Framework	Changes in agricultural policies
1952-1973	Agrarian reforms after the revolution	Agricultural land reform and redistribution, limiting individual ownership of agricultural land Agricultural co-operatives introduced to implement compulsory crop rotation schedules, output pricing, input supply and marketing Construction of the Aswan High Dam (1960-70)
1974-1986	The open-door policy (infitah)	Expansion of the food subsidy system Law 12 (1984) declared water as a public good provided to farms at no cost
1987-2013	Liberalisation and structural adjustment	Agricultural Production and Credit Project (1987-1995) involved reductions in input subsidies, in controls on area allotments, and in price and marketing restrictions Privatisation of state-owned enterprises under the Agricultural Policy Reform Programme (1996-2002) Accelerated market liberalisation and greater private sector involvement in trading agricultural commodities Establishment of a legal basis for water user associations (WUAs) in Law 213 (1994)
2014-Present	Focus on food security and sustainability	Article 29 of the Egyptian Constitution (2014) recognises agriculture’s strategic importance Integration of agriculture in Egypt’s structural reform agenda (Egypt’s Vision 2030; National Structural Reforms Programme) 2030 Updated Sustainable Agriculture Development Strategy developed by MALR (2020) Launch of large-scale land reclamation projects: New Delta Project (2015); South Valley Development Project “Toshka El Khair” (2014); 1.5 million feddans project (2014); 100 000 feddans of greenhouses project (2014).

References

[5] Ahram Online (2025), Natural gas price hike triggers new rules for Egypt fertilizers sector, https://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/3/14/553608/Business/Markets--Companies/Natural-gas-price-hike-triggers-new-rules-for-Egyp.aspx (accessed on 31 March 2026).

[13] Baffes, J. and M. Gautam (1996), “Price Responsiveness, Efficiency, and the Impact of Structural Adjustment on Egyptian Crop Producers”, World Development, Vol. 24/4, pp. 765-771, https://doi.org/10.1016/0305-750X(95)00164-8.

[11] Carrieri, M. (2026), “Mercosur–Egypt scraps final trade tariffs”, Brazil-Arab News Agency (ANBA), https://anba.com.br/en/mercosur-egypt-scraps-final-trade-tariffs/ (accessed on 10 March 2026).

[14] Cassing, J. et al. (2009), “Arab Republic of Egypt”, Distortions to Agricultural Incentives in Africa, World Bank.

[15] Constitute (2022), Egypt’s Constitution of 2014 with Amendments through 2019, https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Egypt_2019.pdf (accessed on 14 July 2025).

[4] Egypt Business Directory (2026), The new rules of survival for Egypt’s fertilizer industry giants, https://www.egypt-business.com/web/details/2609-the-new-rules-of-survival-for-egypts-fertilizer-industry-giants/439025.

[8] Egypt Independent (2025), PM reviews steps to establish central unit for state-owned companies, https://www.egyptindependent.com/pm-reviews-steps-to-establish-central-unit-for-state-owned-companies/ (accessed on 29 October 2025).

[10] EnterpriseAM (2026), Export subsidies to top EGP 50 bn in FY 2026-2027 budget, https://enterpriseam.com/egypt/2026/01/26/export-subsidies-to-top-egp-50-bn-in-fy-2026-2027-budget/ (accessed on 1 June 2026).

[7] European Union (2025), “EU and Egypt deepen cooperation on water issues at Cairo Water Week”, Directorate-General for Environment, https://environment.ec.europa.eu/news/eu-egypt-deepen-cooperation-water-cairo-water-week-2025-10-13_en (accessed on 10 March 2026).

[12] Ikram, K. (2006), The Egyptian Economy, 1952-2000. Performance, policies, and issues., Routeledge.

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[3] Presidency (2025), “President El-Sisi Witnesses Opening of Phase I of Egypt’s Future Industrial City”, Presidency of the Arab Republic of Egypt, https://www.presidency.eg/en/%D9%82%D8%B3%D9%85-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%AE%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B1/%D8%A3%D8%AE%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B1-%D8%B1%D8%A6%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%A9/news21052025/ (accessed on 10 March 2026).

[9] USDA GAIN (2026), “Egypt Publishes Regulations on Genetically Modified Foods or Their Components”, Global Agricultural Information Network (GAIN) report EG2026-0001, https://apps.fas.usda.gov/newgainapi/api/Report/DownloadReportByFileName?fileName=Egypt%20Publishes%20Regulations%20on%20Genetically%20Modified%20Foods%20or%20Their%20Components_Cairo_Egypt_EG2026-0001.pdf (accessed on 10 March 2026).

[2] USDA GAIN (2025), “Egypt’s Domestic Wheat Procurement -- 2025”, Global Agricultural Information Network (GAIN) report EG2025-0023, https://apps.fas.usda.gov/newgainapi/api/Report/DownloadReportByFileName?fileName=Egypt%27s%20Domestic%20Wheat%20Procurement%20--%202025_Cairo_Egypt_EG2025-0023 (accessed on 11 September 2025).

[6] USDA GAIN (2025), “Grain and Feed Annual”, Global Agricultural Information Network (GAIN) report EG2025-0009, https://apps.fas.usda.gov/newgainapi/api/Report/DownloadReportByFileName?fileName=Grain%20and%20Feed%20Annual_Cairo_Egypt_EG2025-0009.pdf (accessed on 3 September 2025).