Based on data from 14 countries and economies with available data, unfilled vacancies for fully qualified teachers at the start of the school year vary in absolute terms, but remain below 3% of all teaching posts in all cases except Austria and Sweden. In most countries, the share of unfilled posts is higher in secondary education than in primary, pointing to greater recruitment challenges at the upper levels.
Across 19 countries and economies with available data, an average of 6.5% of fully qualified teachers from pre-primary to upper secondary education left the profession in 2022/23, with wide variation – from under 3% in France, Greece, Ireland and Israel to over 10% in Denmark, Estonia and Lithuania. Attrition rates are slightly higher in pre-primary education (7.3%) and relatively similar in primary (5.8%) and secondary education (5.9%).
There is no single pattern behind teachers leaving the profession: in some countries, resignations dominate; in others, retirements are the main driver. On average, 51% of teachers who left resigned. Alarmingly, in five of the seventh countries with data on seniority (Austria, Estonia, Israel, Poland and the Slovak Republic), at least 30% of those resigning had been teaching for less than five years.
Education at a Glance 2025
Context
Teacher shortages have become a pressing policy concern in most OECD countries, particularly at the start of the school year. The attractiveness of the profession has declined in some countries, influenced by factors such as relatively low pay, high workloads, administrative burdens, and limited career progression, making it more difficult to attract and retain qualified teachers (OECD, 2020[1]). Adding to these challenges is the increasing diversity in teachers’ qualification levels, with some holding only upper secondary qualifications while others have bachelor’s or master’s degrees. Demographic pressures further compound the issue, with a growing share of the workforce nearing retirement. Shortages are often most acute in rural and disadvantaged areas, exacerbating inequalities in access to quality education (OECD, 2023[2]).
No single indicator can fully capture the scale or nature of teacher shortages, nor the ways in which teachers are distributed across schools. Shortages may manifest as vacant positions at the start of the academic year, high attrition rates – particularly among early-career teachers – or a growing reliance on teachers who do not meet national qualification standards. Each of these indicators reflects a different dimension of the problem and points to systemic weaknesses in teacher workforce planning, training and support. In response, many countries are planning to implement measures in the next few years to make teaching more attractive and to strengthen teacher recruitment and retention (Box D8.3). This chapter explores these interconnected issues to provide a clearer understanding of teacher supply dynamics and the policy strategies under development.
In per cent, full-time and part-time, public and private institutions
Note: the scope covers all classroom teachers, with no distinction between fully and non-fully qualified teachers.
1. Including post-secondary non-tertiary education.
2. Excluding upper secondary education in Slovenia. Excluding lower secondary education in Canada.
3. Year of reference differs from 2013.
4. Year of reference differs from 2023.
For data, see Table D8.1. For a link to download the data, see Tables and Notes section.
Other findings
In 2023, over one-third of teachers in primary and secondary education across OECD countries were aged 50 or older –a share that reflects the ageing of a workforce where teaching careers often span several decades. In secondary education, the share rose from 36% in 2013 to 38% in 2023, with increases of over 8 percentage points in about one-quarter of OECD countries, pointing to the need for long-term workforce planning.
In parallel, the pipeline of teachers under 30 remains low: 17% in pre-primary, 13% in primary and 9% in secondary education. This may reflect persistently low entry rates, partly because teachers are required to complete tertiary education before entering the profession, which challenges efforts to renew the workforce and attract new talent.
The proportion of non-fully qualified teachers is often used as an indicator of staffing pressures. On average across OECD countries, these teachers are more prevalent in secondary education (7.1%) than in primary education (5.6%), although the disparity is considerably wider in some countries, highlighting uneven recruitment challenges across education levels.
Over half of countries and economies with available data (16 out of 28) have introduced structured pathways to attract second-career teachers. These include employment-based routes, targeted academic training, recognition of prior experience and special certification processes.
Note
The process for entering the teaching profession varies across countries and affects how teacher shortages are measured. In about one-third of countries and economies, applicants must pass a competitive exam to fill a limited number of slots, after which successful candidates are assigned to schools. In the remaining systems, graduates receive a teaching diploma and apply directly to schools to fill available positions. As a result, countries and economies with competitive exams report unfilled vacancies based on the number of exam-authorised positions that remain vacant at the start of the school year, while in other systems, they are based on the number of advertised school-level vacancies still open at that time. This chapter uses the start of the year to assess recruitment pressures, while recognising that many of these vacancies are subsequently filled during the school year, either by fully or non-fully qualified teachers.
Teacher shortages in pre-primary, primary and secondary education are a complex and multifaceted challenge that cannot be captured by a single indicator. To provide a comprehensive understanding, this chapter draws on a set of complementary metrics that shed light on different dimensions of the issue. These include the share of teachers aged over 50, which assess upcoming retirement waves and the need for generational renewal; the proportion of teachers without required teaching qualifications or/and training, reflecting recruitment difficulties and potential risks to teaching quality; the number of vacant positions at the start of the school year, highlighting immediate gaps in staffing; and teacher attrition rates, which indicate challenges in retaining staff and sustaining the workforce.
Each of these indicators offers critical insights into current pressures, long-term risks and system responses. The chapter examines how countries perform across these different dimensions to inform more targeted and effective policy solutions.
Age of the teaching workforce
The age profile of the teaching workforce is a key indicator in assessing education systems’ capacity to ensure continuity, plan for future retirements and limit shortage by attracting new entrants into the profession. Across OECD countries, the teaching workforce is ageing, with particularly sharp increases between 2013 and 2023 in the share of teachers aged 50 and over in both primary and secondary education in Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland and Portugal. The ageing of the teaching profession is particularly evident in secondary education. Between 2013 and 2023, the share of teachers aged 50 and over increased from 36% to 38% on average across OECD countries, and from 39% to 42% across EU25 countries, reflecting a steady upward trend (Table D8.1).
Given that teaching careers often span several decades, a high share of teachers aged 50 or older is not unusual in itself. Overall, in about one-third of countries, more than 40% of secondary teachers are now aged 50 or older. However, in some countries the pace and scale of ageing are more concerning. In Lithuania, the share of older secondary teachers rose from 44% to 59%; similar trends were observed in Latvia (46% to 57%), Greece (39% to 56%), Portugal (31% to 56%) and Slovenia (33% to 49%). In countries where the share was already high – such as Estonia and Hungary – it has remained elevated. Only a few countries, such as Italy (where the share of older teachers fell from 69% to 52%) and Germany (where it fell from 49% to 39%), experienced significant declines, albeit from already high levels in 2013 (Figure D8.1). These figures highlight the need for strategic workforce renewal in these countries. Without stronger efforts to recruit and prepare new teachers – particularly in hard-to-staff subjects and regions (see Chapter D5 of Education at a Glance 2024 (OECD, 2024[3])) – future retirements could exacerbate existing shortages and strain the sustainability of the profession.
In parallel, the pipeline of teachers under the age of 30 reflects the profession’s age structure but tends to decline with increasing education levels – from 17% of teachers in pre-primary, to 13% in primary and just 9% in secondary education (Table D8.1). In many countries, early-career teachers may encounter challenging working conditions, relatively low starting salaries, and limited professional support, which can contribute to higher attrition rates ( (OECD, 2018[4]), Figure D8.6 and Table D8.4)). While the share of teachers under 30 has declined since 2013 in many countries, this reflects broader demographic changes, later retirement ages, and an influx of second-career teachers rather than solely reduced attractiveness of the profession. In Austria, Italy, Japan and Norway, the proportion of teachers under 30 in primary and secondary education has increased over the past decade by at least 5 percentage points. However, in others, such as Brazil, Chile and Poland, the share has declined significantly, including in pre-primary education where demographic shifts or/and lower enrolment have reduced demand for new teachers (Table D8.1).
The share of young teachers is important, and countries need to implement sustained policies to attract and support new entrants. At the same time, attracting individuals from other professions, including those later in their careers, can help expand the teaching workforce. Without such efforts, ageing and attrition could gradually erode the teaching workforce, increasing the risk of shortages and making it harder to maintain education quality over time.
Teachers who do not meet national qualification standards
Fully qualified teachers refer to teachers who have fulfilled all the training and administrative requirements for teaching at a given grade and subject, according to the formal policy of a country. In contrast, non-fully qualified teachers refer to teachers entering the profession through alternative pathways (see Definitions section). The share of non-fully qualified teachers is often used as an indicator of teacher shortages, as it reflects the extent to which education systems are unable to recruit or retain enough fully qualified staff. Although most countries and economies aim to ensure a fully qualified teaching workforce, many still rely on teachers who do not meet national qualification standards. Unlike fully qualified teachers – who satisfy all training and administrative requirements for teaching a given subject or level – non-fully qualified teachers enter the profession through alternative pathways – and for some, teaching represents a second career choice (Box D8.1). In most countries, these teachers might have the required academic qualifications but lack mandatory certification or pedagogical training, have completed training but lack the academic degree, or in some cases lack both. The term may also include fully qualified teachers who are teaching outside their area of specialisation.
The majority of countries and economies make some use of non-fully qualified teachers, with a few exceptions such as Hungary, Japan and Korea (Table D8.2). Notably, Japan and Korea also report no – or very few – vacancies not filled by fully qualified teachers, suggesting relatively stable teacher staffing situations that may reduce the need to rely on non-fully qualified teachers (Table D8.3). For the other countries and economies, the presence of non-fully qualified teachers often reflects recruitment challenges and efforts to maintain classroom coverage despite difficulties in attracting sufficient numbers of fully qualified teachers.
Data from 2022/23 show differences across education levels. On average, the share of non-fully qualified teachers is slightly higher in secondary education (7.1%) than in primary education (5.6%), although the gap is wider in some countries and economies. For example, in France (where data refer to 2021/22), only 1.3% of primary teachers are non-fully qualified, compared to 9.1% in secondary education. In Portugal, 5.0% of primary and 7.5% of secondary teachers are not fully qualified, while in Sweden the shares rise to 16.3% in primary and 21.6% in secondary education. In more than half of the 19 countries and economies with data, less than 5% of teachers in secondary education are non-fully qualified, but the share exceeds 15% in Denmark (for both primary and lower secondary levels), Estonia (primary and secondary), Iceland and Sweden, signalling more acute shortages. In Sweden, the high shares observed partly reflect the country’s strict definition of non-fully qualified teachers, which includes teachers who teach in other subjects or other grades than their certification allows. (Figure D8.2).
In several countries and economies, the share of non-fully qualified teachers has increased since 2014/15. For instance, in Estonia, the share in primary and secondary education grew from 7.6% in 2014/15 to 19.1% in 2022/23, and in Iceland, it rose from 4.5% to 16.9% in primary education. Similar upward trends were observed in Austria, Denmark, the French Community of Belgium and Portugal, reflecting growing pressures to fill teaching posts even when qualified candidates are lacking (Table D8.2). The reasons behind these patterns vary. In Denmark, many non-fully qualified teachers are university students taking a sabbatical year. They are often employed part time to help address staffing shortages within a flexible system. This may offer short-term relief, but it is important that teaching is carried out by trained teachers wherever possible to ensure that students receive education of sufficient quality. In Sweden, the rise in the share of non-fully qualified teachers stems from large-scale retirements and the need to draw from a broader pool, including substitute teachers, career changers and individuals with partial qualifications (NLS, 2023[5]).
In per cent, full-time and part-time, public institutions
1. Primary and secondary education combined
2. Primary and lower secondary education combined.
3. Reference year differs from 2022/23.
4. Expressed in full-time equivalents, as a large majority of teachers in the Netherlands and non-fully qualified teachers in Denmark are working part time.
5. Excluding upper secondary education in Israel and upper secondary vocational education in the Netherlands.
For data, see Table D8.2. For a link to download the data, see Tables and Notes section.
Another growing issue is the diversity of qualification levels within the qualified teaching workforce. In some countries and economies, some teachers may hold only an upper secondary qualification, while others have bachelor’s or master’s degrees (Box D8.2). This variety affects the consistency of teaching quality, particularly when less-qualified staff are concentrated in disadvantaged schools or hard-to-staff subjects (OECD, 2018[4]). Students in these schools may have reduced access to effective instruction, which can exacerbate existing inequalities and hinder social mobility.
Ultimately, the use of non-fully qualified or less-qualified teachers – whether as a temporary response to staffing shortages or as a systemic practice – has significant implications for both the quality and equity of education if not supported with appropriate policies and conditions. Ensuring that all students are taught by well-prepared educators, including supporting non-fully qualified teachers to develop their skills, is essential for promoting equitable learning opportunities and fostering long-term workforce sustainability (Box D8.1 and (OECD, 2022[6])).
Second-career teachers are individuals who transition into teaching from a different profession or career. They bring valuable skills and perspectives gained from their previous work experience, enriching the learning environment and offering students diverse insights. Given global teacher shortages and the need for experienced professionals in education, many countries have explored pathways to facilitate this career transition.
Among countries and economies with available data, over half (16 out of 28) have introduced structured pathways tailored to second-career teachers (Figure D8.3). These include employment-based routes, targeted academic training, recognition of prior experience and special certification processes.
More specifically, 7 of the 16 countries and economies with established pathways have adopted employment-based routes that allow professionals to hold teaching positions while completing teacher training. In Australia, the High Achieving Teachers (HAT) Program supports high-achieving professionals from diverse backgrounds to transition into teaching. Participants are employed in schools experiencing workforce shortages, where they receive structured support while completing an accredited teaching qualification (Australian Government, n.d.[7]). Latvia’s Teaching Power initiative, the Flemish Community of Belgium’s teacher-in-training (LIO) pathway and Switzerland’s formation par l’emploi route follow similar models, enabling candidates to teach while completing teacher education programmes.
Equally common (7 out of 16 countries and economies) is the recognition of prior professional experience, leading to accelerated or flexible pathways. In Denmark, the Merituddannelse programme offers part-time or accelerated teaching qualifications. In Switzerland, prior experience may allow shortened training or dossier-based admission. In the Flemish Community of Belgium, entrants from other sectors are given the option to validate up to 15 years of prior experience as pay scale seniority.
In addition, three countries offer special certifications routes. In Japan, experienced professionals may obtain a “Special Certificate” after passing the Teacher Competency Examination conducted by the prefectures. In the Netherlands, eligible candidates can gain a second-career teacher certificate, contingent on passing a suitability exam and concluding concurrent training. Austria’s lateral entry scheme includes a three-step aptitude process followed by employment-based training.
Specific academic and/or training routes are available for university graduates with no prior teaching qualification in almost one-third of countries with available pathways (5 out of 16). Lithuania and Sweden have fast-track programmes (i.e. shortened, intensive pedagogical study programmes of about 1-1.5 years), while Argentina, Finland and the Slovak Republic offer targeted pedagogical training for qualified graduates.
Despite increasing interest in attracting professionals from other fields into teaching, a significant number of countries and economies (12 out of 28) do not provide alternative routes for second-career teachers (Figure D8.3). However, a few of these offer limited initiatives. For example, Spain allows VET institutions to temporarily hire industry experts to meet specific skills needs, while England (United Kingdom) supports career changers with pastoral care and recruitment services.
France represents a notable exception, as all candidates (including career-changers) gain tenured teaching positions through one of three national competitive examinations. Although career changers and other teachers without full qualifications may be offered open-ended contracts after six years of service, they are still not considered fully qualified unless they pass the required national competitive examination for permanent civil servant status.
Despite the existence of alternative pathways in many countries and economies, 5 out of 28 countries and economies systematically identify second-career teachers in their education statistics. While some collect data on their qualifications and employment status, others do not distinguish them as a separate category in national data collections. In a context where the teaching profession faces declining attractiveness in many countries, it is crucial to offer clear and supportive pathways for second-career entrants – and to monitor their participation through robust data collection, so that their experiences can inform workforce planning and policy design.
For further contextual data on pathways available to second-career teachers, see the Excel file for Figure D8.3 (downloadable via the StatLink provided at the end of the chapter).
Existence of alternative pathways for second-career teachers, OECD and partner countries and other economies
For a link to download the data, see Tables and Notes section.
Unfilled teaching positions at the start of the school year
The lack of teachers at the start or during the school year is a growing concern in many countries. The 2022 Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) found that, in more than half of countries and economies surveyed, school principals were more likely to report teacher shortages in their schools in 2022 than their counterparts were in 2018. On average, the percentage of students in schools whose principals reported that instruction is hindered by a lack of teaching staff increased by 21 percentage points, from 26% in 2018 to 47% in 2022. In Australia, Belgium, Chile, France, Latvia, the Netherlands, Poland and Portugal, the increase exceeded 30 percentage points. However, it is important to note that these measures are based on principals' perceptions and are not objective measures of staff shortages. Principals in different countries may have different perceptions of what constitutes a shortage of teaching or support staff in their schools (see Figure II.5.3 in PISA Results Volume II (OECD, 2023[2])).
To complement these perception-based measures, administrative data on unfilled teaching vacancies offer another perspective on staffing challenges although the concept itself is complex due to cross-country differences in how teachers are recruited. In around two-thirds of countries and economies, graduates receive a teaching diploma or certification and apply directly to schools for employment. In contrast, roughly one-third – Brazil, France, Japan, Korea, Romania, Spain and the Republic of Türkiye – require candidates to pass a competitive examination at the end of their training (Table D8.3). These exams typically offer a limited number of positions, with successful candidates assigned to schools. These structural differences affect how teacher shortages are measured. Where competitive examinations are used, unfilled vacancies are defined as open positions in the exam process that remain unfilled by fully qualified candidates at the start of the school year. In the systems where schools recruit directly – often with significant local autonomy – shortages are estimated based on the number of advertised school-level vacancies that remain open at that same point in time. Despite these methodological differences, both approaches are used by countries and economies to monitor and report the lack of fully qualified teachers.
Based on the data available for 14 countries and economies, the number of unfilled teaching vacancies across pre-primary to upper secondary education varies considerably in absolute terms – from 0 in Korea and 320 in Bulgaria to 4 778 in Austria, 5 747 in Poland and 6 704 in Sweden. At first glance, these figures may appear alarming and are often cited in media coverage without reference to the total number of teaching positions, which can lead to the scale of the problem being overstated. Expressed as a share of all teaching posts, the proportion of unfilled vacancies remains relatively low in most education systems. In 12 out of the 14 countries and economies, unfilled positions at the start of the year account for less than 3% of the teaching workforce. Only Austria (4.6%) and Sweden (5.0%) report vacancy rates above 4%, while France (0.1%), Japan (0.2%), England (United Kingdom) (0.3%), Bulgaria (0.4%) show very low vacancy levels, and Korea reports no unfilled vacancies at all (Figure D8.4 and Table D8.3).
The data on unfilled teaching vacancies, expressed as a percentage of total teaching positions, reveal notable differences between countries and economies – across education levels, over time and when compared to the number of teacher training graduates from the previous year.
In a large majority of countries and economies, the percentage of unfilled vacancies is higher in secondary education than in primary, pointing to greater recruitment challenges at the upper levels of schooling. This pattern is visible in Austria (5.1% in secondary education compared to 3.8% in primary), the Flemish Community of Belgium (2.4% versus 1.3%), the French Community of Belgium (3.1% versus 1.8%), Romania (1.9% versus 0.7%) and Sweden (5.3% versus 4.7%). These differences may reflect subject-specific shortages – particularly in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) fields – as well as the difficulty of attracting and retaining teachers for older student cohorts (see the data on unfilled vacancies by fields of study in Chapter D5 of Education at a Glance 2024 (OECD, 2024[3])). Conversely, a few countries and economies report similar vacancy rates for both levels or even slightly lower shares of unfilled positions in secondary education. For instance 2.3% of teaching positions are vacant at the secondary level in the Netherlands, compared to 2.8% at primary level, while the rates are 0.2% at both primary and secondary levels in Japan. Bulgaria, France and Korea also report vacancy rates below 0.5% across both levels, suggesting more balanced staffing – though this may not fully capture regional or subject-specific imbalances. These cross-country differences underscore the need for tailored workforce policies that reflect the specific staffing challenges at each level of education (Table D8.3).
Beyond cross-sectional differences, longitudinal data indicate staffing pressures are growing. In five of the seven countries with available data, the percentage of unfilled vacancies relative to all teaching positions has increased between 2013/14 and 2022/23. This suggests that shortages may be worsening over time, requiring sustained attention from policy makers (Table D8.3).
A deeper understanding of teacher supply challenges emerges when unfilled vacancies are compared with the number of teacher training graduates from the previous year. For example, in Austria, the number of unfilled positions in 2022/23 was equivalent to 107% of the prior year’s graduates – meaning there were more unfilled vacancies in 2022/23 than the number of graduates who had gained a teaching diploma the year before. Other countries also face a similar shortfall: in Poland, unfilled positions amounted to 94% of the previous year’s graduates; in Sweden, 77%; in the French Community of Belgium, 72%; and in the Netherlands, 50%. Even in countries with relatively lower gaps, such as Romania (31%), Latvia (24%), and the Flemish Community of Belgium (41%), the figures suggest a persistent imbalance (Table D8.3). Although these comparisons do not account for all sources of recruitment (e.g. career changers or internationally trained teachers), they highlight the importance of aligning teacher education capacity with projected labour-market needs. Strengthening this alignment will help countries and economies better anticipate and respond to evolving staffing demands.
Taken together, these findings suggest that while shortages do exist, their magnitude is sometimes overstated when not contextualised. Still, they should not mask other pressing staffing issues – such as day-to-day teacher absenteeism, mid-year resignations or geographical disparities in teacher allocation – which are not captured by this indicator but may have an equally significant impact on teaching continuity and education quality. Continued monitoring is essential, particularly in systems or regions under increasing staffing pressure.
In per cent, full-time and part-time, public institutions, pre-primary to upper secondary education
Note: The number in parentheses refers to the number of vacancies not filled by fully qualified teachers in pre-primary, primary and secondary education in 2022/23.
1. Excluding pre-primary education in Austria and Japan. Excluding upper secondary vocational education in the Netherlands.
2. Expressed in full-time equivalents. Excluding hidden shortages, i.e. positions that were filled in undesired ways (6 781 positions in primary education and 2 230 in secondary education).
3. Reference year differs from 2022/23.
For data, see Table D8.3. For a link to download the data, see Tables and Notes section.
The teaching workforce is highly heterogeneous in terms of qualifications. Although the majority of countries require at least a bachelor’s degree for teaching at primary levels, the actual workforce composition includes a mix of attainment, ranging from upper secondary to master’s degrees and even doctoral or equivalent credentials (Figure D8.5). Similarly, in upper secondary education, a master’s degree is increasingly becoming the minimum qualification requirement, although significant cross-country differences remain. However, this variation may result in uneven qualification levels among teachers across schools and education levels.
In all countries and economies with available data except Korea, at least a small proportion of primary teachers do not even hold a bachelor’s degree. This share represents less than 5% of primary teachers in half (9 out of 18) but reaches over 14% of primary teachers in Brazil, Denmark, Israel, Norway and Sweden. In Estonia, Finland, Slovenia and Sweden, where a master’s degree is the minimum requirement for teaching at primary levels, more than 15% of the teaching workforce still only hold a bachelor’s degree or below. In Bulgaria, England (United Kingdom), Israel and Korea, where a bachelor’s degree is the legal requirement for primary teachers, a significant proportion of primary teachers, over 25%, nonetheless hold a master’s degree or higher (Figure D8.5).
The diversity in qualification levels can be attributed to several factors. In some countries and economies, qualification requirements have been gradually upgraded over time. For example, Norway transitioned from requiring a bachelor’s degree and practical experience to mandating a master’s degree for all teaching levels from 2017 onward (Government of Norway, 2018[8]). However, many teachers entered the profession under earlier qualification standards, contributing to the current variation in qualifications. In other cases, the presence of underqualified teachers may reflect efforts to fill vacancies, especially in hard-to-staff schools or regions, where temporary exceptions are made to qualification rules.
In per cent, full-time and part-time, public and private institutions
Note: the scope covers all classroom teachers, with no distinction between fully and non-fully qualified teachers.
1. Bachelor's or equivalent programmes includes both master's and doctoral or equivalent programmes.
For data, see Sources section. For a link to download the data, see Tables and Notes section.
To address the challenges posed by qualification disparities, continuous professional development programmes that provide opportunities for learning and upskilling can help promote greater equity in teaching, even within a workforce that continues to reflect mixed qualification levels.
Amid these trends, there is no clear international consensus on the optimal level of education for teachers. Whether a bachelor’s or master’s degree is required, or what specific content and competencies should be prioritised in teacher preparation, remains a subject of debate across countries.
Teachers leaving the profession
Like the other indicators, teacher attrition is closely linked to teacher shortages and poses a major challenge to the long-term sustainability of education systems. High attrition rates – defined as the permanent departure of fully qualified teachers from the profession within a given year, including both resignations and retirements – can undermine the stability of school staffing and disrupt continuity in instruction, and erode institutional knowledge (see Definitions section below).
Across 19 OECD countries and economies with available data, on average 6.5% of fully qualified teachers from pre-primary to upper secondary education left the profession in 2022/23. Attrition rates vary significantly, from below 3% in France, Greece, Ireland and Israel to over 10% in Denmark, Estonia and Lithuania (Figure D8.6). Attrition rates are slightly higher in pre-primary education (7.3%) and relatively similar in primary (5.8%) and secondary education (5.9%). Over the past decade, rates have remained relatively stable in most countries and economies. However, a few countries have seen notable changes. In Austria and Estonia, the share of fully qualified teachers leaving the profession increased by more than 2 percentage points between 2013/14 and 2022/23, raising growing concerns around workforce sustainability. In contrast, the attrition rate in Denmark declined by a similar margin over that period (Table D8.4).
In per cent, full-time and part-time, public institutions
1. Reference year differs from 2022/23.
2. Only primary education in Argentina. Excluding pre-primary education in Greece and Ireland. Excluding upper secondary education in Denmark and Israel. Excluding upper secondary vocational education in the Netherlands.
3. Includes non-fully qualified teachers.
4. Includes teachers who left the profession because they were appointed to other positions in the education sector.
Countries are ranked in descending order of the share of resignations among fully qualified teachers who left the profession in pre-primary, primary, and secondary education
For data, see Table D8.4. For a link to download the data, see Tables and Notes section.
The 2022/23 data reveal striking differences across countries and economies in the reasons for teachers leaving the profession. In several countries, attrition form pre-primary to upper secondary education is primarily driven by resignations rather than retirements, showing potential issues with working conditions, job satisfaction, or career progression. In Denmark, England (United Kingdom) and Estonia, over 80% of fully qualified teachers who left the profession in 2022/23 resigned rather than retired. These figures contrast sharply with Argentina (for primary education), France, the French Community of Belgium, Greece, Ireland and Israel, where retirements account for more than 50% of teacher departures. On average across OECD countries, about half (51%) of fully qualified teachers who left the profession resigned, underscoring the importance of policies focused not only on recruitment but also on improving teacher retention. However, although high attrition can strain education systems, very low turnover may also pose challenges, particularly if it limits renewal. These dynamics highlight the need for balanced policies that support the retention of teachers, while allowing for an appropriate degree of professional mobility (Figure D8.6 and Table D8.4).
It is also notable that a substantial share of teachers who resign are in the early stages of their careers. In the seven OECD countries that provided data on teacher seniority, between 16% and 68% of the fully qualified teachers who resigned in 2022/23 had less than five years of experience. The proportions are particularly high in Austria and in Israel, where nearly 58% and 68% of resigning teachers, respectively, were early-career, followed by the Slovak Republic (40%), Poland (32%) and Estonia (30%). Even in the countries with comparatively lower rates, Sweden (23%) and Denmark (16%), early-career attrition remains an important trend to monitor, although in most countries there are pathways for teachers to return to the profession if they wish. On average across these OECD countries, one in three resigning teachers (34%) had under five years of experience. This trend highlights the importance of reinforcing early-career support mechanisms – such as mentoring, induction programmes and professional development opportunities – to reduce early attrition, strengthen workforce stability and maximise the return on investment in initial teacher education (OECD, 2022[6]).
Cultural and structural differences in employment practices could help explain the variance in job tenure and associated turnover rates between countries and economies. For instance, in New Zealand, fewer than 25% of workers in all sectors remain in the same job for more than ten years, compared to over 50% in Greece. Similarly, Denmark and England (United Kingdom) exhibit high labour-market flexibility, with approximately 30% of employees changing jobs annually in the private sector – a notably higher rate than for instance in Sweden. This wider culture of greater career mobility can contribute to increased turnover in teaching and partly explain why the percentage of teachers leaving the profession is above the OECD average in these countries and economies. In contrast, Austria, France and Greece have more rigid labour markets, with longer job tenures and stronger employment protections, leading to lower turnover rates. On average across OECD countries, around 35% of workers stay in the same job for over ten years, while the EU25 average stands at approximately 40% (OECD, 2025[9]).
In response to growing concerns about teacher shortages and attrition, several OECD countries have adopted targeted policy measures aimed at improving recruitment and retention. New Zealand has launched a comprehensive Teacher Supply Package, which combines financial incentives, structured induction support and efforts to attract overseas teachers. As part of this initiative, eligible returning and international teachers can access an overseas relocation grant of up to NZD 10 000 to help cover the costs of relocation, including teacher registration, temporary accommodation and travel for immediate family members (Government of New Zealand, 2025[10]). Lithuania, facing an ageing teaching workforce and difficulty attracting new educators, has introduced the Education Development Programme 2021-30, which focuses on improving the attractiveness of the profession by enhancing working conditions, strengthening professional support and creating clearer career pathways to reduce attrition (Eurydice, 2023[11]). Box D8.3 details insights from the Education Policy Outlook into country policies to attract and retain teachers (OECD, 2024[12]).
Although resignation rates may appear moderate in some countries and economies, they do not capture the full extent of instability within the teaching workforce. High levels of absenteeism, even without a formal resignation, can disrupt instruction and increase reliance on temporary staff. Effective monitoring of both resignations and absences is essential for understanding the true scope of staffing challenges and their impact on student learning.
The Education Policy Outlook 2024: Reshaping Teaching Into a Thriving Profession (from ABCs to AI) (OECD, 2024[12]) looked at policies to attract and retain teachers, based on responses from 33 education systems to the Education Policy Outlook National Survey for Comparative Policy Analysis which were collected mainly between April and May 2024. This survey is part of the OECD's efforts to gather comparative data and insights on education policies across OECD and partner countries, facilitating analysis and dialogue on policy developments and challenges. The respondents were the education ministries or relevant government authorities of participating countries and jurisdictions. These entities provide official responses through designated national co-ordinators or representatives
The survey responses showed a stronger focus on attracting teachers than retaining them, with Brazil the only system prioritising teacher retention over attraction. At least 70% of respondents prioritised raising the profession's status, enhancing institutional leadership and diversifying pathways into teaching in order to attract new teachers. Attracting new types of candidate into teaching received less emphasis, considered important in 64% of systems (Figure D8.7).
Policy priorities also vary across education levels. For early childhood education and care, improving the societal value of the profession and offering more flexible entry routes are most frequently cited. In secondary education, where shortages are often more acute and subject specific, the need to attract candidates from more diverse backgrounds was given a greater emphasis. These differentiated approaches suggest that although teacher shortages are a common challenge, the solutions must be tailored to specific workforce needs across levels and contexts (OECD, 2024[12]).
Percentage of education systems specifying policy areas of “high” or “very high” importance in at least one level of education
Note: A policy area of “high importance” is considered a priority for the allocation of resources and strategic focus and is expected to have a notable impact on attracting teachers. A policy area of “very high importance” is considered an urgent priority requiring immediate attention and substantial resources, with significant potential to positively influence attracting teachers.
Source: OECD (2024), Education Policy Outlook National Survey for Comparative Policy Analysis 2024. Chapter 2 - Figure 2.1.
Centralised/decentralised system: Having a centralised system for certifying new teachers and assigning them to schools means that this process is managed at central (national) government level. In a centralised system, the national government is responsible for certifying teachers and assigning them to schools, whereas in a decentralised system, these responsibilities are assumed by regional authorities (lander, districts, states etc.) or local ones (schools, municipalities, etc.).
Competitive examinations refer to examinations organised by local, regional or national authorities in order to select the applicants with the best results to fill a limited and fixed number of places for student teachers and/or for teachers in the public education system.
Fully qualified teachers refer to teachers who have fulfilled all the training and administrative requirements for teaching at a given grade and subject, according to the formal policy of a country. The administrative requirements can include formal qualifications and attainment level, specific pedagogical training or practical experience, succeeding in competitive examinations, and the successful completion of a probation period or induction programme.
Non-fully qualified teachers refer to teachers entering the profession through alternative pathways. In most countries, they either have the required academic qualifications but lack mandatory certification or training, have completed training but lack the academic qualifications, or lack both. In a few cases, the term also includes fully qualified teachers teaching in a different subject or education level than they were trained for.
Fully qualified teachers who left the profession: A leaving teacher refers to any teacher who is leaving the profession in the reference year and who is not expected to come back the year after (i.e. someone who is permanently leaving the profession). Teachers who leave due to resignation or retirement are counted as leaving teachers. Teachers temporarily absent from work (e.g. due to illness, injury, maternity or parental leave, vacation, or early retirement leave) are not considered leaving teachers. In most countries, however, teachers who leave the profession may still return after more than one year.
Second-career teachers are individuals who transition into teaching from a different profession or career.
In Table D8.3, teacher shortages are estimated by the number of unfilled teaching vacancies at the start of the school year 2022/23. In countries with competitive examinations, unfilled vacancies refer to the number of open positions that remain vacant for the year 2022/23 due to a lack of successful applicants to the competitive examination conducted at the end of the 2021/22 academic year. In other countries, estimates are based on vacancies advertised – often directly by schools – that could not be filled with fully qualified teachers, leading institutions to hire non-fully qualified teachers or rely on temporary arrangements. In a few cases, unfilled vacancies are approximated by counting non-fully qualified teachers in the current year who were not listed in the teacher register the previous year. This chapter provides an international overview, but it is important to note that teacher shortages can be more pronounced in certain regions or in rural areas. Additionally, a shortage at the start of the year does not necessarily imply that the situation will not improve as the year progresses. In most countries, the majority of unfilled positions are filled shortly after the school year begins, often by non-fully qualified teachers. It should also be noted that this chapter does not cover teacher absenteeism, which is an important issue in many countries and can lead to shortages for part of the academic year.
Data on teachers by age (Table D8.1) refer to the academic year 2022/23 and are based on the UNESCO-UIS/OECD/EUROSTAT data collection on education statistics administered by the OECD in 2024. They cover both public and private institutions. Data included in Figure D8.5 come from the 2024 UNESCO-UIS/OECD/EUROSTAT TEACH Questionnaire, which was included as an ad hoc module in the 2024 UOE data collection.
Data included in Table D8.2, Table D8.3and Table D8.4 refer to the academic year 2022/23 and are based on the INES special data collection on teacher shortages administered by the OECD in 2024. Qualitative information from this ad hoc survey has been collected in an additional ad-hoc survey submitted to countries in 2025. These questionnaires cover public institutions from pre-primary to upper secondary education. The scope of the questionnaire is focused on initial education and does not include adult education (second chance education or any other form of lifelong learning activities) or special education programmes and schools for children with disabilities.
References
[7] Australian Government (n.d.), High Achieving Teachers (HAT) Program, Department of Education, https://www.education.gov.au/teaching-and-school-leadership/high-achieving-teachers-hat-program (accessed on 4 June 2025).
[11] Eurydice (2023), Lithuania: Conditions of service for teachers working in early childhood and school education, European Commission, https://eurydice.eacea.ec.europa.eu/eurypedia/lithuania/conditions-service-teachers-working-early-childhood-and-school-education.
[10] Government of New Zealand (2025), Overseas Relocation Grant, Education Workforce, https://workforce.education.govt.nz/becoming-teacher-new-zealand/overseas-trained-teachers/overseas-relocation-grant.
[8] Government of Norway (2018), Teacher Education 2025. National Strategy for Quality and Cooperation in Teacher Education, Ministry of Education and Research, https://www.regjeringen.no/en/dokumenter/larerutdanningene-2025.-nasjonal-strategi-for-kvalitet-og-samarbeid-i-larerutdanningene/id2555622/.
[5] NLS (2023), Teacher Shortage in the Nordic Countries: Comparing the Current Situation, Nordic Teachers’ Council (NLS), https://www.csee-etuce.org/images/Reports/Teacher_shortage_NLS-report_22.11.2023.pdf.
[9] OECD (2025), Employment by job tenure intervals - frequency, OECD Data Explorer, https://data-explorer.oecd.org/vis?df[ds]=DisseminateFinalDMZ&df[id]=DSD_TENURE%40DF_TENURE_FREQ&df[ag]=OECD.ELS.SAE&utm_source=chatgpt.com&dq=.TENURE_EMP.._T._T..A&pd=2015%2C&to[TIME_PERIOD]=false&vw=tb.
[3] OECD (2024), Education at a Glance 2024: OECD Indicators, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/c00cad36-en.
[12] OECD (2024), Education Policy Outlook 2024: Reshaping Teaching into a Thriving Profession from ABCs to AI, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/dd5140e4-en.
[2] OECD (2023), PISA 2022 Results (Volume II): Learning During – and From – Disruption, PISA, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/a97db61c-en.
[6] OECD (2022), Mending the Education Divide: Getting Strong Teachers to the Schools That Need Them Most, TALIS, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/92b75874-en.
[1] OECD (2020), TALIS 2018 Results (Volume II): Teachers and School Leaders as Valued Professionals, TALIS, TALIS, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/19cf08df-en.
[4] OECD (2018), Effective Teacher Policies: Insights from PISA, PISA, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264301603-en.
To download the data for the figures and tables in this chapter, click StatLink above.
To access further data and/or other education indicators, please visit the OECD Data Explorer: https://data-explorer.oecd.org/.
Data cut-off for the print publication 13 June 2025. Please note that the Data Explorer contains the most recent data.
Table D8.1 Trends in the age distribution of teachers, by level of education (2013 and 2023)
Note: The scope covers all classroom teachers, with no distinction between fully and non-fully qualified teachers.
1. 'Primary' includes pre-primary and lower secondary education, while 'secondary' refers only to upper secondary education.
2. Year of reference differs from 2013: 2014 for Bulgaria, Croatia, Denmark and Türkiye,; 2016 for Costa Rica and France; and 2018 for Colombia.
3. Year of reference differs from 2023: 2022 for Colombia and Peru.
4. Pre-primary education also includes early childhood education development programmes.
5. 'Secondary' includes post-secondary non-tertiary education.
6. 'Primary includes lower secondary education and 'Secondary' refers only to upper secondary education.
Table D8.2 Share of non-fully qualified teachers, by level of education (2014/15 and 2022/23)
Note: Unlike fully qualified teachers who meet all training and administrative requirements to teach a given subject, non-fully qualified teachers enter the profession through alternative pathways. In most countries, they either have the required academic qualifications but lack mandatory certification or training, have completed training but lack the academic qualifications, or lack both. In a few cases, the term also includes fully qualified teachers teaching in a different subject or education level than they were trained for.
1. Primary and lower secondary education combined in Denmark, Iceland and Slovenia. Data for pre-primary education (ISCED 02) include early childhood development programmes (ISCED 01) in Iceland. Total excludes upper secondary education in Denmark and Slovenia. Excluding upper secondary education in Israel and upper secondary vocational education in the Netherlands.
2. Reference year differs from 2022/23: academic year 2021/22 for Denmark, England (UK), France and Japan .
3. Expressed in full-time equivalents, as a large majority of teachers in the Netherlands and non-fully qualified teachers in Denmark are working part time.
4. Reference year differs from 2014/15: academic year 2015/16 for France; and 2018/19 for Lithuania and Sweden.
Table D8.3 Unfilled teaching vacancies at the start of the year and prior-year teaching graduates, by level of education (2014/15 and 2022/23)
Note: The methods for estimating the number of unfilled teaching vacancies at the start of the school year vary across countries. In countries with competitive examinations (Column 1), unfilled vacancies refer to open positions that remain vacant after the exam due to a lack of successful applicants. In other countries, estimates are based on vacancies advertised - often directly by schools - that could not be filled with fully qualified teachers, leading institutions to hire less-qualified staff or rely on temporary arrangements. In a few cases (e.g. the French Community of Belgium and Sweden), unfilled vacancies are approximated by counting non-fully qualified teachers in the current year who were not listed in the teacher register the previous year. In most countries, the majority of unfilled positions are filled shortly after the school year begins, often by non-fully qualified teachers.
1. In countries without a competitive examination, this refers to the share of students graduating with a teaching diploma at the end of 2021/22 as a percentage of those enrolled in the final year of teacher education programmes in 2021/22. In countries with a competitive examination, this refers to the share of successful applicants in 2021/22 as a percentage of all applicants who took the exam in 2021/22.
2. In countries without a competitive examination, prior-year teaching graduates refers to the students graduating with a teaching diploma in the reference year. In countries with a competitive examination, it refers to the successful candidates among all applicants who took the exam in the reference year.
3. Excluding pre-primary education in Austria and Japan. Pre-primary and primary education are combined in England (UK), Flemish Comm. (Belgium), France and the Netherlands. Excluding upper secondary education in Israel and upper secondary vocational education in the Netherlands.
4. Reference year: academic year 2021/22 for England (UK), France and Japan ; academic year 2023/2024 for secondary education in the Netherlands. Reference year for trends: academic year 2015/16 for France.
5. Expressed in full-time equivalents. Excluding hidden shortages, i.e. positions that were filled in undesired ways (6 781 positions in primary education and 2 230 in secondary education).
Table D8.4 Share of fully qualified teachers who left the profession by resigning or retiring, by level of education (2022/23)
Note: Columns with data on pre-primary education are available for consultation on line.
1. Primary and lower secondary education combined and excluding upper secondary education in Denmark. Excluding upper secondary education in Israel and upper secondary vocational education in the Netherlands. Data for pre-primary education (ISCED 02) include early childhood development programmes (ISCED 01) in Iceland.
2. Reference year differs from 2022/23: academic year 2021/22 for Denmark, France and England (UK) and New Zealand.
3. Reference year differs from 2014/15: academic year 2012/13 for the United States; 2015/16 for France; and 2018/19 for Lithuania.
4. Includes non-fully qualified teachers.
5. Includes teachers who left the profession because they were appointed to other positions in the education sector.
a – category not applicable; b – break in series; d – contains data from another column; m – missing data; x – contained in another column (indicated in brackets). For further control codes, see the Reader’s Guide.
For further methodological information, see Education at a Glance 2025: Sources, Methodologies and Technical Notes (https://doi.org/10.1787/fcfaf2d1-en).
Full-time and part-time, public and private institutions
Note: For notes on this table and a link to download the data, see Tables and Notes section above.
Full-time and part-time, public institutions
Note: For notes on this table and a link to download the data, see Tables and Notes section above.
Full-time and part-time, public institutions
Note: For notes on this table and a link to download the data, see Tables and Notes section above.
Full-time and part-time, public institutions
Note: For notes on this table and a link to download the data, see Tables and Notes section above.