Bachelor’s or equivalent programmes are the dominant entry point to tertiary education in most OECD countries; on average 78% of all new entrants to tertiary education enter a bachelor’s programme.
Pursuing doctoral studies is more common in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) fields than in other fields. More than two-fifths of all doctorate holders graduated from a STEM field on average – twice the share at bachelor’s level.
Students from Asia form the largest regional group of foreign or international students enrolled in tertiary education programmes in OECD countries, totalling 58% of all internationally mobile students across the OECD in 2023.
Education at a Glance 2025
OECD Indicators
Context
Tertiary education pathways play a key role in shaping individual futures and meeting national skills needs. As more students access higher levels of education, understanding who enters tertiary education, and what and where they study becomes critical for designing inclusive and forward‑looking education policies.
The characteristics of first‑time entrants into tertiary education provide valuable insights into access and equity. Choices made at this stage – such as the type of programme (short or long) and the age of entry – reflect both individual aspirations and the broader structures that guide educational pathways. These decisions not only shape students’ academic and professional prospects, but also reveal disparities that policy makers need to address to ensure equal opportunities for all (OECD, 2023[1]; OECD, 2024[2]).
The field of study chosen by graduates is another key dimension. The choice reflects a complex balance between personal interests, societal expectations and labour‑market needs. At the doctoral level, a particularly large share of graduates specialise in STEM fields, which play a critical role in building national innovation systems. Preparing for future challenges requires long-term investment in research, skills and infrastructure - capacities that are largely underpinned by doctoral-level STEM education. Understanding these enrolment patterns can help governments strengthen the strategic alignment between education systems and national development goals (OECD, 2023[3]; OECD, 2023[4]).
International mobility continues to expand, with ever larger numbers of students crossing borders to pursue tertiary education. Over the past decade, the growing number of such mobile students has reshaped global higher education. Trends in mobility – and changes in the distribution of students by country of origin – serve as important signals about the attractiveness of national education systems and their ability to integrate diverse student populations. These trends also carry strategic importance for countries, as international students can contribute significantly to the economy and innovation ecosystem, particularly if they remain after graduation (OECD, 2024[5]; OECD, 2025[6]).
Together, these dimensions provide a nuanced picture of access, participation and outcomes in tertiary education. They are essential for developing education policies that not only respond to immediate needs but also support long‑term equity, inclusion and economic development. Policies must ensure that the diversity of student profiles is fully taken into account, and that dedicated strategies are developed to support the participation and success of all under-represented or disadvantaged groups (Box B4.1).
For data, see Table B4.1. For a link to download the data, see Tables and Notes section.
Other findings
Across OECD countries, students enter tertiary education at an average age of 22, but most start before then, as older entrants skew the average upwards.
Women make up the majority of students who are first entering tertiary education. They represent 54% of first-time entrants on average, a share that has largely remained unchanged since 2013.
The share of internationally mobile students relative to all tertiary enrolments has risen in nearly all OECD and partner countries between 2013 and 2023.
More than 46% of all internationally mobile students in OECD and partner countries study in Australia, Canada, the United Kingdom or the United States.
Note
This chapter draws on data on first-time tertiary entrants by gender, age and mobility status; graduates by field of study, and enrolled students by mobility status and country of origin.
Profile of tertiary students
Students who have completed upper secondary education generally have three options if they wish to continue on to tertiary education: short-cycle tertiary programmes, bachelor’s programmes and long first degree master’s programmes (also known as integrated programmes). Although the structure and prevalence of these pathways vary across countries, they generally follow similar patterns.
Short-cycle tertiary programmes (ISCED level 5) typically last one to two years and are oriented towards the acquisition of technical or applied skills. They often require an upper secondary qualification, although some countries may impose additional criteria. Bachelor’s programmes (ISCED level 6) usually span three to four years, offering a mix of theoretical and practical learning. Entry requirements can vary, ranging from open access systems to selective admission based on grades or specific subjects. Long first degree master’s programmes (ISCED level 7), which integrate undergraduate and graduate study into a single programme of five to six years, are most commonly found in fields such as medicine, engineering and law. Admission to these programmes is typically more selective (see Chapter D6 for an in-depth analysis of tertiary admissions systems).
Bachelor’s programmes are available in all OECD and partner countries, but short-cycle tertiary and long first degree programmes are not universally offered. For example, Bulgaria, Estonia, Finland, Greece and Romania do not offer short-cycle tertiary programmes. However, professionally oriented bachelor’s programmes often fulfil a similar role in these systems. In Estonia, for instance, professional higher education programmes (rakenduskõrgharidusõpe) last between three and four and a half years, are closely aligned with labour-market needs, and allow access to master’s programmes.
Equally, long first degree programmes are not offered in a number of countries, including Belgium, Colombia, Greece, Israel, Mexico, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Switzerland and the United States. In these countries, students typically follow a sequential model. In the United States, for example, students aiming to become medical doctors usually complete a four-year bachelor’s degree followed by a separate four-year professional programme in medicine.
These different programme types tend to lead to different labour-market outcomes, although this varies by country and field of study. In some countries, graduates from short-cycle tertiary programmes report higher employment rates than those from bachelor’s programmes due to their strong alignment with specific labour-market needs. In other countries, bachelor’s or integrated master’s graduates have better outcomes. These differences are also closely linked to the fields of study pursued, which influence both employment opportunities and wage prospects (see Chapters A3 and A4).
Students’ ages when they first enter tertiary education.
The average age at which students enter tertiary education for the first time varies across OECD countries, reflecting a range of structural, cultural and policy-related factors. While delayed entry into tertiary education can increase public costs, by postponing labour-market participation and therefore reducing tax revenues, it can also support lifelong learning. Many individuals pursue a degree mid-career after gaining work experience, which can lead to more informed choices and greater workforce adaptability.
Across OECD countries, the average age for students first entering tertiary education is 22, but most start when they are younger than that, as older entrants skew the average. This average also conceals significant cross-country variation. In Denmark, for instance, the average age of entry is slightly above 25, the highest among OECD countries. At the other end of the scale, students in Belgium, Japan, the Netherlands and the United States typically begin tertiary education before the age of 20. In the United States, the relatively high share of students enrolling in short-cycle tertiary programmes – which often attract younger entrants – contributes to this lower average age (OECD, 2025[7]). These contrasts highlight the diversity of educational pathways and the dual role of tertiary education in supporting both initial education and lifelong learning (Table B4.1).
Delayed entry may also reflect barriers to access to tertiary education, such as selective admission systems or the implementation of numerus clausus policies that cap the number of students admitted to specific programmes. In Finland and Sweden, for example, restricted admissions in several fields result in more than 60% of applicants being rejected (see Chapter D6), leading some students to apply multiple times or seek alternative pathways before gaining admission. Mandatory military service may also contribute to higher average entry ages. In Israel, for example, national conscription delays entry for many students, and only around one-quarter of new entrants to bachelor's programmes enrol immediately after leaving upper secondary education (see Chapter B3).
Distribution of first-time entrants into tertiary education.
Bachelor’s or equivalent programmes are the dominant entry point into tertiary education in most OECD countries. More than half of first-time entrants to tertiary programmes are enrolled in bachelor’s programmes in all OECD and partner countries except Austria and Spain (Figure B4.1). The next commonest entry point is short-cycle tertiary. On average across OECD countries, first-time entrants in these programmes represent 16% of all new entrants. Long first degree master’s programmes are the least common entry point. Austria, Germany, Hungary and Sweden have the largest share of first-time entrants who are enrolled in long first-degree programmes, with the share in Sweden reaching 30% (Table B4.1).
This pattern of distribution has remained largely stable in the past decade, although some countries have experienced noticeable changes. On average across the OECD, the share of first-time tertiary entrants enrolled in bachelor’s programmes has remained stable between 2013 and 2023 at 76-77% (Table B4.1). In Sweden, the share has fallen by 17 percentage points while the share of first-time entrants going into short-cycle tertiary programmes rose by 12 percentage points over that period. Most students in short-cycle tertiary programmes in Sweden were enrolled in a vocational track in 2023 (OECD, 2025[7]). Over recent years, Sweden has launched a series of reforms to increase the involvement of social partners in vocational education and training (VET), to increase the provision of work-based learning in VET programmes and to promote apprenticeships. Sweden launched higher VET in 2002 and it has since been expanding (Kuczera and Jeon, 2019[8]).
Share of new entrants by gender
Gender disparities in tertiary participation have reversed over past decades, with women long since surpassing men. This trend has largely stabilised in the last decade: women made up 54% of first-time entrants to tertiary education in OECD countries on average in 2023, a share that has largely remained unchanged since 2013. Iceland and New Zealand have the largest share of female first-time entrants among OECD countries while Germany, Japan and Switzerland are the three OECD countries closest to gender parity (Table B4.1). Women are also more likely to complete their tertiary degree than men (see Chapter B5).
Box B4.1 discusses strategies implemented by countries to promote equity in tertiary education targeting under-represented or disadvantaged groups.
For data, see Table B4.2. For a link to download the data, see Tables and Notes section.
In recent years, many countries have introduced policies and regulatory measures aimed at making tertiary education more equitable for under-represented or disadvantaged groups. These initiatives generally fall into two broad categories: the use of quota or target-based admissions systems, and the provision of targeted support, whether that be financial support to reduce economic barriers to participation, or specific improvements to study infrastructure and housing.
Brazil and Norway, among other countries, employ quota systems or affirmative action policies to enhance equitable access to higher education. For example, Brazil's Quota Law ensures reserved spots for students from disadvantaged groups like black, indigenous and communities of formerly enslaved people (Leal, 2024[9]). Norway has introduced quotas to address gender imbalances, as well as reserving some places for students from the indigenous Sami population (Kifinfo, 2019[10]; Kifinfo, 2023[11]).
Many countries provide financial support to tertiary students and in some cases this is specifically targeted on disadvantaged students. Denmark provides grants and support for students with functional impairments or disabilities in the form of targeted guidance services, workshops on transitions to higher education and the development of inclusive learning tools through a dedicated research centre (Eurydice, 2024[12]). Ireland's National Access Plan includes funds like the Programme for Access to Higher Education (PATH), valued at over EUR 30 million, to support under-resourced groups in higher education, in particular Traveller and Roma students (Higher Education Authority, n.d.[13]). Latvia’s student honour scholarships support students from underprivileged backgrounds (Government of Latvia, 2023[14]). Japan has introduced a new financial support system offering tuition reductions and scholarships for low-income students from the year 2020 (Cabinet Decision, 2017[15]).
Australia and Ireland have introduced targeted policies to support tertiary students through improved study infrastructure and housing initiatives. Australia's Suburban and Regional University Study Hubs provide support to students living in regional, remote and outer metropolitan areas. These hubs offer dedicated study facilities like study spaces, break out areas, video conferencing, computer facilities and Internet access along with comprehensive support services (Australian Government, 2025[16]). In 2022, Ireland launched its first state-funded student accommodation policy to expand purpose-built housing and reduce strain on the private rental market. A dedicated unit oversees implementation, with added measures like tax credits, financial aid and rental protections for students (Irish Government, 2023[17]).
Distribution of graduates by field of study
The distribution of tertiary graduates by field of study shows clear patterns of specialisation that evolve as students progress to higher education levels.
At short‑cycle tertiary level, graduates tend to be concentrated in applied domains, although patterns vary considerably across countries depending on which programmes are offered at this level. On average across OECD countries, around one‑quarter earned their credentials in STEM fields, while about one‑fifth graduated from programmes in business, administration and law. Health and welfare accounts for roughly one‑sixth of graduates, a modest but still sizeable share that reflects the vocational orientation of many healthcare assistant and nursing associate programmes. Arts and humanities, social sciences, journalism and information attract a slightly smaller proportion, underscoring the strongly technical focus of short‑cycle provision (Table B4.2).
The distribution becomes more balanced at bachelor’s level where three of the four broad fields each claim a similar share of graduates (roughly one‑fifth to one‑quarter) with health and welfare slightly below at one-sixth, suggesting that bachelor’s programmes provide a broad platform for both general and professional learning. STEM fields represent the largest share at this level, accounting for 23% of bachelor’s graduates on average across OECD countries. Arts and humanities account for 22% of bachelor’s graduates on average across the OECD – more than at any other level – reflecting strong demand for broadly transferable skills at the initial degree stage. Business, administration and law also account for 23%, pointing to a role as a springboard into a wide range of occupations. (Table B4.2).
The distribution is also relatively balanced at master’s level. Similar to short-cycle tertiary and bachelor’s levels, health and welfare remain at one‑sixth of graduates on average across OECD countries. The share of STEM graduates dips slightly at master’s level (22% compared to 23% at bachelor’s level), but still suggests sustained interest in advanced scientific expertise. The most pronounced change occurs in business, administration and law: nearly three in ten master’s graduates hold a business‑related qualification, highlighting the popularity of professional programmes such as a Master of Business Administration (MBA) that helps mid‑career adults upgrade their management skills. Meanwhile, arts and humanities see a marked decline in relative terms, falling from more than one‑fifth at bachelor’s level to more than one‑sixth at master’s, signalling a shift towards more specialised or professionally focused fields in postgraduate study (Table B4.2).
As Figure B4.2 shows, doctoral studies are dominated by STEM fields, which account for more than two‑fifths of all PhDs on average – almost twice the share at bachelor’s level, signalling that research‑intensive activity is concentrated in scientific and technological disciplines. Health and welfare rises to just over one‑sixth of doctoral graduates, mirroring the growing importance of biomedical and public health research. Arts, humanities and the social sciences, while showing a relative decline, still account for a relevant share of around one-fifth of doctoral graduates, but business, administration and law represent only 8% of doctorates. Taken together, these patterns illustrate a progressive shift from immediate employability at lower tertiary levels towards advanced research and innovation capacity at the doctoral stage, highlighting the importance for policy makers of ensuring both breadth and depth in tertiary provision.
In most OECD and partner countries, around 80-90% of all doctoral graduates in 2023 earned their degrees in one of these four broad fields, reflecting the dominant role these disciplines play in national research strategies and talent development at the highest education level (Figure B4.2). However, there can be big differences across countries. For instance, Costa Rica, Indonesia and Mexico report notably lower shares of doctoral graduates in these fields. This is largely due to the high proportion of doctoral graduates in the field of education, which accounts for more than 25% of all doctorates in these countries (OECD, 2025[7]).
Among countries with concentrations closer to the OECD average, considerable differences emerge. STEM fields account for 43% of doctorates on average, but this figure rises to over 60% in France and Luxembourg, suggesting a deliberate investment in technical and scientific research capacity. Health and welfare is another area of divergence: while the OECD average is 17%, countries such as Denmark, Japan and the Netherlands channel a much larger share of doctoral training into this field (more than 35%), likely tied to national health research priorities and workforce planning (Figure B4.2).
Doctorates in art, humanities and social sciences range from 30% or more in Hungary, Iceland, Romania and Saudi Arabia, to 11% in Germany and Sweden. Meanwhile, Bulgaria, Indonesia, Mexico, Saudi Arabia and South Africa stand out with above-average shares of doctoral graduates in business, administration and law, at over 15% (Table B4.2). These variations illustrate how countries align doctoral education with different socio-economic objectives – from innovation-driven growth to social services and public sector development while also being shaped by individual preferences, cultural context, and institutional autonomy.
The International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED 2011) provides a definition of distinct vocational tracks for short-cycle tertiary programmes (ISCED 5), but does not do so for bachelor’s, master’s or doctoral programmes (ISCED 6-8). However, several countries have professional programmes that build on prior vocational qualifications at higher ISCED levels. These programmes typically have a strong labour-market focus and combine advanced theoretical knowledge with practical training. They are often designed to provide advanced upskilling opportunities for individuals with a background in vocational education and training (VET), enabling them to advance into highly skilled or supervisory roles.
As tertiary education systems evolve to accommodate more diverse learners and respond to the rising demand for advanced technical skills driven by digitalisation and the green transition, professional programmes are playing an increasingly important role. By offering advanced pathways for individuals to develop their skills, they expand access to tertiary education while strengthening the link between tertiary education and the labour market. In addition, they promote lifelong learning and ensure that graduates from vocational programmes have attractive career prospects (OECD, 2023[18]).
In response to this broad policy shift, many countries have expanded their tertiary professional programmes in recent years. Examples include:
In 2020, Germany amended its Vocational Training Act to introduce three higher qualification levels of further training with internationally understood qualification titles: the Certified Professional Specialist (aligned with ISCED level 5), the Bachelor Professional (ISCED level 6) and the Master Professional (ISCED level 7). These titles are meant to reflect the equivalence between vocational qualifications and university degrees in terms of complexity as well as responsibility levels and ensure their international comparability and visibility.
In recent years, several provinces and pan-Canadian post-secondary associations have explored and adopted micro-credentials to varying extents. In 2021, Colleges and Institutes Canada released a national framework, endorsed by all regional college bodies, defining micro-credentials as assessed certifications of discrete competencies that can complement formal qualifications. The provinces of Alberta, British Columbia, Manitoba, Ontario and Nova Scotia have also introduced frameworks, guides and funding to support short, skills-focused micro-credentials for rapid upskilling and reskilling. Although these initiatives have broadened technical training, most micro-credentials remain outside formal credit systems and provincial qualification frameworks. Ontario has also introduced regulatory mechanisms for new three- and four-year applied undergraduate degrees in key sectors, expanding qualification options beyond traditional university degrees.
In England (United Kingdom), degree apprenticeships combine on-the-job training with academic learning, aligned with occupational standards. Apprentices spend at least 20% of their time in training or studying and achieve an undergraduate or master’s degree over 3-6 years. Degree apprenticeships are popular with both learners and employers and as both entry or progression routes in a wide range of professions. However, their rapid growth has caused the UK government to seek to rebalance them away from older, mid-career employees on master’s-level programmes towards a greater focus on those at the start of their careers.
Higher VET in Austria is characterised by its heterogeneity, with many different providers offering a range of qualifications outside the formal education system which are not yet included in the statistics. Because of its important role in the economy, Austria is striving to consolidate the higher VET sector and is in the process of establishing it as a separate segment of its education system. A corresponding legal act, the Federal Act on Higher Vocational Education and Training (HBB) has been in force since 2024 (CEDEFOP, 2025[19]).
In 2020, Sweden introduced short courses within Higher Vocational Education (HVE) to offer more flexible upskilling opportunities for working adults. HVE (Yrkeshögskolan) is a post-secondary form of education that combines theoretical and practical learning in close cooperation with employers and industry. Programmes are offered in fields with clearly identified labour market needs, and the newly introduced short courses correspond to a maximum of six months of study, targeting individuals already in employment.
In the Netherlands, the Associate Degree is a relatively new form of education. It is a two-year academic programme in higher vocational education, combining foundational knowledge and practical skills in a specific field of study. It is designed to prepare students for either entry-level employment or further education, such as transferring to a Bachelor's degree programme in higher vocational education. The curriculum typically combines general education courses with specialised classes related to the chosen discipline, providing a combination of theory and practical experience.
Due to the lack of internationally agreed definitions of tertiary programme orientations, professional programmes cannot be systematically identified in international education statistics. This limits the visibility of such programmes, especially in international comparative education analysis, despite their importance in the labour market. As a result, their contribution to educational progression and labour-market responsiveness is often under-represented in the data and policy analysis. Readers are advised to bear this in mind when interpreting tertiary education data.
Profile of internationally mobile students
The proportion of mobile students – international or foreign – as a share of all tertiary enrolments has risen in nearly all countries between 2013 and 2023 (Figure B4.3). New Zealand is a notable exception, with a 1.2 percentage point decrease in the share of international students, attributed largely to stringent travel restrictions coinciding with the start of the academic year during the COVID-19 pandemic. This is a reversal from the upward trend observed in New Zealand between 2013 and 2018, when the share increased by 4 percentage points. In several countries where international students accounted for 5% or less of total tertiary enrolments in 2013, the share more than doubled over the past decade, reaching over 10% in 2023. This trend is particularly notable in Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Portugal, the Slovak Republic and Slovenia, reflecting a growing internationalisation of their tertiary education systems. (Table B4.3).
English-speaking countries are the most attractive student destinations overall. Together, Australia, Canada, the United Kingdom and the United States receive 46% of all internationally mobile students in OECD and partner countries. The United States is the top OECD destination country for mobile tertiary students, despite having only 5% of students with an international or foreign background. Of the 5.02 million internationally mobile students in OECD countries, 957 000 are enrolled in the United States. Among non-English speaking countries, France, Germany, and the Republic of Türkiye each take about 5% or more of the total share of international students in OECD and partner countries (Table B4.3).
1. Data refers to foreign students.
2. Data for total tertiary does not include doctoral students.
3. Year of reference differs from 2023.
4. Year of reference differs from 2013.
For data, see Table B4.3. For a link to download the data, see Tables and Notes section.
Regions of origin
Students from Asia form the largest group of internationally mobile students enrolled in tertiary education programmes, totalling 58% of all such students across the OECD in 2023. Europe is the next largest region of origin, with European students making up 19% of all mobile students enrolled in OECD countries. Many European students stay within Europe, accounting for 39% of mobile students enrolled in the EU25 countries (Figure B4.4).
Across OECD and partner countries, South Africa sees the largest share of mobile students from African countries: 86% of its mobile students are from other African countries. African students also account for 42% of mobile students in Portugal and 52% in France, reflecting enduring historical, linguistic and cultural ties rooted in former colonial relationships. Student flows from Latin America and the Caribbean highlight the importance of proximity, as they make up the majority of mobile students in Argentina, Brazil, Chile, and Colombia. They also highlight the importance of the language of study: more than 30% of mobile students in Portugal and Spain come from this region. North American students only account for a little more than 15% of international enrolment in Iceland and Ireland, while students from Oceania are a tiny minority among international students in all OECD and partner countries, making up less than 1% of mobile students in OECD destination countries (Figure B4.4).
1. Data refers to foreign students.
2. Year of reference differs from 2023.
For data, see Table B4.3. For a link to download the data, see Tables and Notes section.
Some countries have implemented policies targeted at increasing the mobility of students within their region to deepen regional partnerships and diversify the pool of international students. The New Colombo Plan is a signature initiative of the Australian Government which encourages a two-way flow of students between Australia and the rest of Oceania. The programme involves a scholarship programme for study of up to one year, language training and internships or mentorships, as well as a flexible mobility programme for both short and longer-term study, language study, internships, practicums and research (Australian Government, 2024[19]). The Chilean Agency for International Cooperation for Development (AGCID) offers scholarships for foreign students from developing countries in the Latin American region to pursue postgraduate studies in Chilean universities, fostering academic mobility and international collaboration in the region (AGCID, n.d.[20]). The Erasmus programme, launched by the EU in 1987, aimed to foster co-operation and student exchange among European universities. It has since evolved into Erasmus+, a broader initiative supporting mobility and collaboration in education, training, youth and sport across and beyond Europe. Over 16 million people have participated since its inception (European Commission, 2025[21]). Box B4.3 discusses shorter-duration international mobility in European countries in more depth.
Credit mobility refers to temporary study period abroad that is part of a student’s degree programme, often lasting one semester or less (UNESCO-UIS/OECD/Eurostat, 2024[22]). There are two types of credit-mobile students:
Non-degree mobile: the student is enrolled in a university in their home country and goes abroad temporarily for credit mobility, for example a Romanian student studying in Romania who goes on exchange to Spain.
Degree mobile: the student is already enrolled in a full degree abroad and also goes on a temporary exchange, for example a Romanian studying for a full degree in the United Kingdom who goes on exchange to Spain.
In most countries, 71% of credit-mobile students are non-degree mobile, meaning credit mobility is their only form of international mobility. In contrast, degree-mobile students are already abroad and take credit mobility in addition to their existing degree mobility.
In the European context, such exchanges are typically supported through EU programmes such as Erasmus+ but can also occur via bilateral or institutional agreements (Eurostat, 2024[23]). This textbox analyses the regional destinations of credit-mobile graduates in 2023 across OECD and EU countries (Figure B4.5).
In 2023, 392 600 graduates across reporting countries participated in credit mobility, with most enrolled in bachelor’s or master’s programmes. Master’s-level mobility was particularly prominent, especially in France, which accounted for nearly half of all mobile master’s graduates. In countries such as the Netherlands and Spain, the number of students undertaking credit mobility at the bachelor's level is between three and five times higher than at the master's level, highlighting significant differences in national patterns of engagement with international study across education levels.
Figure B4.5 shows that most European credit-mobile graduates pursue their study abroad within the continent. In nearly all countries, a large majority of credit-mobile graduates chose European destinations, rising to over 95% of such students in countries including Hungary, Ireland, Slovenia and Croatia. However, these figures highlight a two-tiered pattern of mobility: while in Central and Eastern Europe, mobility remains highly concentrated within Europe, in Western and Northern Europe, mobility flows are more internationally distributed, reflecting broader institutional linkages and resources. In Belgium, Denmark, the Netherlands and Norway, at least 40% of credit-mobile graduates went beyond Europe in 2023.
For data, see Table B4.4. For a link to download the data, see Tables and Notes section.
The strong concentration of credit-mobile students within Europe reflects several well-established factors: the geographical proximity of partner institutions, the harmonised frameworks of the European Higher Education Area, and the institutional and financial support provided through Erasmus+. For many Central Eastern European countries, intra-European exchanges offer the most accessible and administratively straightforward option for international study (Teichler, 2017[24]; European Commission, 2024[25]; European Commission, 2021[26]).
In contrast, students in Western and Northern European countries are more likely to access bilateral programmes or institutional agreements with countries outside Europe, supported by stronger institutional capacity, greater language flexibility and targeted funding schemes. This creates opportunities for richer academic exchange but may also reinforce existing asymmetries in access to global networks (European Commission, 2024[25]).
Policies to influence the number of international students
Many countries have initiatives to promote themselves as study destinations. Estonia’s Study in Estonia initiative aims to attract international students to Estonia by providing information about the Estonian education system and promoting study opportunities for international students. It also seeks to foster positive societal attitudes by highlighting the students’ beneficial economic impact, including their contributions to society (Study in Estonia, n.d.[27]). The Study Korea 300K Project, launched in 2024, aims to attract 300 000 international students to Korea by 2027 to enhance educational competitiveness. The programme involves expanding English-taught programmes, easing language and residency barriers, and providing financial support, among other actions (ICEF Monitor, 2023[28]). Similarly, Türkiye Scholarships is a government-funded programme that offers academically successful international students the opportunity to pursue higher education in Türkiye. The programme aims to promote equal access to quality education while strengthening international cooperation and contributing to global development across various fields (Türkiye Scholarships, 2025[29]).
Several countries set target numbers for international students they want to attract. The Bienvenue en France plan seeks to attract 500 000 foreign students by 2027 (Campus France, n.d.[30]). Under the Talent Boost programme, the Finnish Government set a 2023-27 target to triple the number of new foreign students to 15 000 student a year and retain 75% in Finland’s labour market (Government of Finland, n.d.[31]). In Japan, the government aims to attract 400 000 international students and send 500 000 Japanese students abroad by 2033, through initiatives including study abroad fairs and scholarship programmes (ICEF monitor, 2024[32]). Understanding the concentration patterns of internationally mobile students may help countries design policies to influence these flows (Box B4.4).
In contrast, a few countries have started to limit the numbers of international students. Authorities in the French Community of Belgium have set quotas of up to 30% on first entrants from international backgrounds, in order to manage high demand for study programmes in medicine, paramedicine, architecture and other art-related fields (Wallonie Bruxelles Campus, 2025[33]). In Denmark, recent initiatives have concentrated on regulating the number of places in programmes taught in English, limiting international student intake since 2021 (ICEF Monitor, 2024[34]). However, the number of places has recently been increased, particularly in fields with high labour market demand and at campuses located outside major cities (Ministry of Higher Education and Science, 2024[35]). The Netherlands’ Internationalization Act proposes student caps and stricter language rules to manage international student numbers while maintaining Dutch as the primary language of instruction (Eerste Kamer der Staten-Generaal, n.d.[36]).
When developing policies to manage the flow of international students, it is essential to understand whether international mobile students are particularly attracted by a few leading institutions within a country or whether they are widely distributed across tertiary institutions. For example, a country aiming to attract more international students, and currently experiencing a high concentration of them in a few institutions, may need to implement policies that enhance the appeal of other institutions.
To support this, a new indicator has been developed to measure the concentration of internationally mobile students at the country level using institutional-level data. The concentration of international mobile student indicator identifies the institutions within a country that both represent 10% of the country’s total tertiary enrolment as well as have the greatest shares of mobile students at the institutional level. It then calculates the share of the country’s international mobile students that are enrolled in these institutions. The 10% national enrolment threshold serves as a benchmark: if mobile students mobile students were evenly distributed across institutions in proportion to their enrolment sizes — with larger institutions hosting more international students and smaller ones fewer, the indicator would be exactly 10%. Conversely, if all the mobile students of a country were in the selected institutions, the value would be 100%. This indicator does not measure the share of international or foreign students in the overall student population nor does it reflect the concentration of mobile students within individual institutions. Rather, it captures how mobile students are distributed across the higher education system as a whole, regardless of the size of individual institutions.
Higher values indicate a greater concentration of international students in the most international institutions of a country
Note: The values represent the proportion of a country's total mobile students enrolled at institutions with the highest concentrations of mobile students, which collectively account for exactly 10% of the total national tertiary enrolment. A higher value indicates that mobile students are concentrated in fewer institutions. If mobile students were evenly distributed across all institutions, this indicator would equal exactly 10%. This analysis focuses on bachelor's, master's, and doctoral programmes (ISCED levels 6 to 8). The number of international mobile students is based on the mobility definition in the EHESO database.
1. Year of reference differs from 2023: 2022 for Spain.
2. Data is based on citizenship breakdown rather than mobility breakdown.
3. Internationally mobile students also include foreign students enrolled in non-degree programmes and students enrolled in short-cycle tertiary programmes.
Source: Data based on European Higher Education Sector Observatory (EHESO) (2025). Please note that the reference year in EHESO is 2022, which corresponds to the academic year 2022/2023 and is shown as 2023 in this publication. Data for Australia, Canada and Korea are from national data sources.
Figure B4.6 presents the international student concentration indicator for countries with available data. Spain shows the highest concentration level, suggesting that international students are clustered in a relatively small number of institutions. In contrast, Czechia displays lower levels of concentration, pointing to a more even distribution of international students across their higher education systems. Notably, countries with very high shares of mobile students, such as Austria, Australia, Canada and the United Kingdom (Figure B4.3), also exhibit low levels of concentration among their mobile student populations. This pattern may indicate that a more even distribution of international students across tertiary institutions could be associated with the overall attractiveness of a country to international students.
Rather than focusing solely on absolute levels, this indicator offers a meaningful basis for cross-country comparisons, offering valuable comparative insights into the distribution and concentration of internationally mobile students.
First-time entrants into tertiary education are new entrants at ISCED levels 5, 6 or 7 who are also entering tertiary education for the first time.
Foreign students are those who are not citizens of the country in which they are enrolled and where the data are collected. Although they are counted as internationally mobile, they may be long-term residents or even be born in the “host” country. While pragmatic and operational, this classification may be inappropriate for capturing student mobility because of differing national policies regarding the naturalisation of immigrants. For instance, Australia has a greater propensity than Switzerland to grant permanent residence to its immigrant populations. This implies that even when the proportion of foreign students in tertiary enrolment is similar for both countries, the proportion of international students in tertiary education will be smaller in Switzerland than in Australia. Therefore, for student mobility and bilateral comparisons, interpretations of data based on the concept of foreign students should be made with caution. In general, international students are a subset of foreign students.
International students are those who left their country of origin and moved to another country for the purpose of study. The country of origin of a tertiary student is defined according to the criterion of “country of upper secondary education”, “country of prior education” or “country of usual residence” (see below). Depending on country-specific immigration legislation, mobility arrangements (such as the free mobility of individuals within the European Union and the European Economic Area) and data availability, international students may be defined as students who are not permanent or usual residents of their country of study, or alternatively as students who obtained their prior education in a different country.
Mobile students are students who are either international or foreign.
Defining and identifying mobile students, as well as their types of learning mobility, are a key challenge for developing international education statistics, since current international and national statistical systems only report domestic educational activities undertaken within national boundaries (OECD, 2018[37]).
Data on international and foreign students are therefore obtained from enrolments in their countries of destination. This is the same method used for collecting data on total enrolments, i.e. records of regularly enrolled students in an education programme.
Data refer to the 2022/23 academic year and are based on the UNESCO-Institute of Statistics (UIS)/OECD/Eurostat data collection on education statistics administered by the OECD in 2024. Data for some countries may have a different reference year. For more information see Education at a Glance 2025 Sources, Methodologies and Technical Notes (https://doi.org/10.1787/fcfaf2d1-en).
The UNESCO Institute of Statistics (UIS) provided data for Argentina, China, India, Indonesia, Saudi Arabia and South Africa.
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To download the data for the figures and tables in this chapter, click StatLink above.
To access further data and/or other education indicators, please visit the OECD Data Explorer: https://data-explorer.oecd.org/.
Data cut-off for the print publication 13 June 2025. Please note that the Data Explorer contains the most recent data.
Table B4.1. Profile of first-time entrants into tertiary education (2013 and 2023)
1. Year of reference differs from 2013: 2014 for Colombia, Denmark and Mexico; 2015 for Belgium, Greece, Hungary, Italy and Lithuania; 2016 for Estonia and the Slovak Republic; 2017 for Bulgaria, Canada and Spain; and 2018 for Japan.
Table B4.2. Distribution of tertiary graduates, by level of education and selected field of study (2023)
1. Year of reference differs from 2023: 2022 for Argentina, Saudi Arabia and South Africa.
Table B4.3. Profile of international or foreign students in tertiary education (2013, 2018 and 2023)
1. Data refers to foreign students.
2. Year of reference differs from 2013: 2014 for Colombia; 2015 for Croatia, Greece and Indonesia; and 2016 for Argentina..
3. Data for total tertiary does not include doctoral students.
4. Year of reference differs from 2023: 2022 for Saudi Arabia.
Table B4.4. Profile of tertiary graduates who had a temporary international study or work period (2023)
Note: Credit mobility is defined as temporary tertiary education or/and study-related traineeship abroad within a framework of enrolment in a tertiary education programme at a "home institution" (usually) for the purpose of gaining academic credit (i.e. credit that will be recognised in that home institution). Graduates with credit mobility stay are graduates from a tertiary programme at a given ISCED level who have had such a temporary period abroad within a programme at the same level.
1. Data for all tertiary do not include doctoral students.
2. Year of reference differs from 2023: 2022 for Switzerland.
a – category not applicable; b – break in series; d – contains data from another column; m – missing data; x – contained in another column (indicated in brackets). For further control codes, see the Reader’s Guide.
For further methodological information, see Education at a Glance 2025: Sources, Methodologies and Technical Notes (https://doi.org/10.1787/fcfaf2d1-en).
Trends in the percentage of female and international or foreign entrants, average age at entry, and distribution by level of tertiary education
Note: For notes on this table and a link to download the data, see Tables and Notes section above.
Note: For notes on this table and a link to download the data, see Tables and Notes section above.
Trends in the total numbers and share of international or foreign students and distribution by region of origin
Note: For notes on this table and a link to download the data, see Tables and Notes section above.
Number and share of graduates and their distribution by region of destination (2023)
Note: For notes on this table and a link to download the data, see Tables and Notes section above.