Teacher support for student learning

5. Teacher characteristics and teacher support

This section examines how various teacher characteristics are related to the support teachers provide to students, emphasising their importance for teachers’ self-efficacy in maintaining positive relationships with students and in shaping effective learning environments. It explores the role of teachers’ time availability and work-life balance, which are key factors that influence a teacher’s capacity to effectively guide and engage students. This section also addresses teacher well-being, with a particular emphasis on job satisfaction, as a critical factor in creating supportive learning environments. Lastly, it investigates the adaptation of instruction and approaches to individualised learning, highlighting how these practices empower teachers to better meet the diverse needs of their students and enhance their learning experiences.

This teacher-level analysis relies on data from the PISA 2022 teacher questionnaire, an optional survey with data available for 18 countries/economies. However, due to missing data, the findings presented in this section are based on input from 11 to 16 of these countries and economies. Disciplinary climate, which up to this point in the paper has been measured through students reports, in this section is captured through teacher reports.1 In other words, in this section we measure disciplinary climate as perceived by teachers. Similarly, the quality of teacher-student relationships, which so far was measured using the student questionnaire, is here measured using proxy-based teacher responses: the index of teacher’s self-efficacy in maintaining positive relations with students.2

This section does not analyse student persistence – a key element of the classroom learning environment associated with teacher support, as explained in the previous section – because the PISA 2022 teacher questionnaire does not include questions that could serve as proxy measures for this concept.

Teachers’ time availability and work-life balance

Teachers' time availability and teachers' work-life balance shape the quality of teacher-student relationships and the disciplinary climate in classrooms, as visually summarised in Figure 14 below.

The results of the analysis show that teachers’ perceptions of their working conditions are meaningfully associated with their confidence in managing positive relationships with students. Teachers who agreed with the statement, "I am given enough time to do what is expected of me at work," reported a notable increase in the index of teacher’s self-efficacy in maintaining positive relations with students. This underscores the importance of ensuring that teachers feel they have sufficient time to meet their professional expectations, which is associated with enhanced relational self-confidence. Similarly, teachers who agreed with the statement, "my job allows me to give the time I want to my personal life," saw an increase in the index of teacher’s reported self-efficacy. This finding suggests that teachers' work-life balance is also associated with their ability to maintain strong student relationships.

Figure 14. Teachers’ time, teacher-student relationships and disciplinary climate

Changes in the index of teacher’s self-efficacy in maintaining positive relationships with students and the index of disciplinary climate, associated with teachers reporting enough time for work expectations and personal life; average across countries and economies with available data

Notes: Changes account for teachers' gender and total years of experience as teacher.

All coefficients are statistically significant (see Reader’s Guide).

Source: OECD, PISA 2022 Database, Tables B.24 and B.27.

The analysis also revealed associations between teachers' time availability and work-life balance and good disciplinary classroom environments. Teachers who believed they had sufficient time to meet work demands showed an increase in the index of disciplinary climate, pointing to the importance of time availability in fostering well-managed and orderly classrooms. Furthermore, teachers who agreed that their job allows them to devote time to their personal lives saw an increase in the index of disciplinary climate. This highlights that teachers' work-life balance may be associated with creating better classroom environments by positively influencing their management of order and discipline.

The analysis accounted for teachers’ gender and years of teaching experience to ensure that the observed associations focus specifically on the influence of the key factors rather than demographic or professional differences.

In sum, the findings presented in Figure 14 demonstrate the pivotal role of teachers' time availability and work-life balance in shaping teacher outcomes and classroom environments. Having sufficient time for professional tasks is strongly associated with higher levels of self-efficacy and improved disciplinary climates, while a better balance between professional and personal life also contributes positively, albeit to a slightly lesser degree. These insights provide valuable guidance for education policy and school administration, underscoring the importance of creating supportive working conditions for teachers. Furthermore, previous OECD research has shed light on policies that influence how teachers allocate their time and how much time they have available for essential tasks, such as lesson planning, student engagement and professional development (Boeskens and Nusche, 2021[15]). Strategies such as reducing administrative burdens, streamlining schedules, and ensuring dedicated time for these activities highlight the importance of time management in fostering effective teaching practices and positive classroom environments.

Teacher well-being: Job satisfaction

Findings reveal associations between teachers' well-being and the two key predictors of teacher support that are being explored: teacher self-efficacy in maintaining positive relationships with students, and the disciplinary climate in classrooms. Figure 15 visually summarises the key results, focusing on teachers' well-being in terms of their satisfaction with their current job environment and their satisfaction with the teaching profession overall. Results account for teachers’ gender and years of teaching experience, to ensure that the results reflect the associations of interest.

Teachers’ job satisfaction levels are meaningfully associated with their confidence in managing positive relationships with students. Teachers who are satisfied with their current job environment showed an increase in the index of teacher’s self-efficacy. Similarly, teachers who are satisfied with the teaching profession demonstrated an increase in the index of teacher’s self-efficacy. A positive perception of one’s job and profession as a whole is linked to greater confidence in nurturing student relationships.

Associations between teachers' satisfaction levels and the disciplinary climate in classrooms were also observed. Teachers who reported being satisfied with their current job environment also reported an increase in the index of disciplinary climate, highlighting the importance of a positive job environment in fostering orderly and well-managed classrooms. Additionally, teachers who reported being satisfied with the teaching profession showed an increase in the index of disciplinary climate. Satisfaction with both one’s working environment and overall profession may contribute to better classroom conditions and more effective management practices.

The findings in Figure 15 below emphasise the significance of teachers' satisfaction with both their job environment and their profession in shaping teacher support for students. Teachers who feel positively about their working conditions and their choice of profession are more likely to exhibit confidence in maintaining strong student relationships and fostering effective classroom environments. These insights underline the importance of creating supportive and fulfilling working conditions for educators to strengthen their professional performance and classroom dynamics.

Figure 15. Teacher well-being, teacher-student relationships and disciplinary climate

Changes in the index of teacher’s self-efficacy in maintaining positive relationships with students and the index of disciplinary climate, associated with teachers’ satisfaction with their current job environment and the teaching profession; average across countries and economies with available data

Notes: Changes are accounting for teachers' gender and total years of experience as teacher.

All coefficients are statistically significant (see Reader’s Guide).

Source: OECD, PISA 2022 Database, Tables B.23 and B.26.

Adaptation of instruction and individualised learning

Adaptation of instruction practices3

Key findings from the analysis on how specific adaptive teaching strategies relate to self-efficacy in maintaining positive relationships with students – after accounting for teachers’ gender and years of teaching experience – are summarised below (see Figure 16).

The results show that teachers who adopt adaptive practices report higher levels of self-efficacy in their capacity to establish positive relationships with students. Advising students on how to reach their learning goals is the strongest predictor, with teachers who engage in this practice showing a large increase in the teacher’s self-efficacy index. Similarly, teachers who tell students how they can improve their performance see an increase in their self-efficacy in maintaining positive relationships with students.

Tailoring teaching to meet the individual needs of students is also strongly associated with higher levels of self-efficacy, reflected in a large increase in the index. Providing individual help when a student has difficulties results in an increase in the teacher’s self-efficacy index, while offering individual support for advanced students is associated with an increase in the index.

Figure 16. Adaptation of instruction and teacher-student relationships

Changes in teacher’s self-efficacy in maintaining positive relationships with students associated with adaptive teaching practices; average across countries and economies with available data

Notes: Changes are accounting for teachers' gender and total years of experience as teacher.

All coefficients are statistically significant (see Reader’s Guide).

Source: OECD, PISA 2022 Database, Table B.28.

These findings highlight the significant role of adaptive teaching practices in fostering teachers’ confidence in managing student relationships. When teachers have the time, resources and capacity to personalise instruction and address the diverse needs of their students, teachers can strengthen their capacity to maintain positive and supportive interactions in the classroom.

Approaches to individualised learning: Initial teacher education and professional development

Teachers' initial education and professional development on the topic of individualised learning is related to teachers' self-confidence in maintaining positive relationships with students (see Figure 17). This finding holds even after accounting for teachers’ gender and years of teaching experience.

Teachers who reported that approaches to individualised learning were part of their initial teacher training education saw an increase of 0.24 in the index of teacher’s self-efficacy in maintaining positive relationships with students. This suggests that incorporating individualised learning strategies during foundational training plays a role in fostering teachers’ confidence in their ability to build and sustain strong student relationships.

Similarly, teachers who indicated that approaches to individualised learning were part of their professional development in the past 12 months showed an increase of 0.21 in the index of teacher’s self-efficacy. These findings emphasise the value of targeted ongoing professional development opportunities in reinforcing teachers’ skills and confidence, particularly in adapting their pedagogy to support positive and effective interactions with students.

In addition, Figure 17 illustrates that teachers' initial education and professional development in individualised learning are positively related to their perception of the disciplinary climate in classrooms. This relationship is statistically significant even after accounting for teachers’ gender and years of teaching experience.

The results highlight the importance of embedding the principles and practices of individualised learning in both initial teacher education programmes and ongoing professional development activities. These approaches not only strengthen teachers' confidence but also contribute to creating more adaptable and supportive classroom environments.

Figure 17. Approaches to individualised learning in teacher training, teacher-student relationships and disciplinary climate

Changes in the index of teacher’s self-efficacy in maintaining positive relationships with students and the index of disciplinary climate, associated with teachers reporting that approaches to individualised learning were included in their initial teacher education or in their professional development during the last 12 months; average across countries and economies with available data

Notes: Changes are accounting for teachers' gender and total years of experience as teacher.

All coefficients are statistically significant (see Reader’s Guide).

Source: OECD, PISA 2022 Database, Tables B.22 and B.25.

Notes

← 1.  Teachers were asked how often a range of situations occurred in their mathematics lessons (e.g. “there is noise and disorder, “I have to wait a long time for students to quiet down.) in question TC170. Responses were scaled into the index of “disciplinary climate in mathematics”, which measures how much discipline there is during mathematics lessons. This scale was skipped for teachers who reported that they did not teach mathematics to students in the national modal grade for 15-year-olds in the current school year.

← 2.  Teachers were asked to assess their ability to maintain positive relationships with students using the following question (TC199) and items: “In your teaching, to what extent can you do the following?” (i) help my students value learning; (ii) motivate students who show low interest in school work; (iii) motivate students who show low interest in school work; and (iv) help students think critically. Responses were scaled into the index of teachers’ self-efficacy in maintaining positive relationships with students. This scale was skipped for teachers who reported that they taught mathematics to students in the national modal grade for 15-year-olds in the current school year.

← 3.  This section does not analyse the relationship between adaptive practices and disciplinary climate due to the lack of relevant data from the same teachers. By design, mathematics teachers responded only to the question about disciplinary climate in mathematics lessons (TC170), while non-mathematics teachers responded only to the question about adaptive practices (TC232).