This section examines the relationship between the school learning environment and teacher support, focusing first on whether variation in teacher support lies more often between schools or within schools. It then explores the specific aspects of the school context that shape teacher support, with particular attention to the quality of student-teacher relationships, classroom disciplinary climate and student persistence. By addressing both the distribution and the key factors influencing teacher support, this section provides valuable insights into how different elements of the school environment contribute to creating supportive conditions for educators.
Teacher support for student learning
Insights from PISA
Most of the differences in students’ perceptions of teacher support are observed within schools (i.e. among students at the same school) rather than between schools. On average across OECD countries, only 6% of the variation in teacher support occurs between schools, while the remaining 94% occurs within schools (Table B.15).
Variability in teacher support among students is greatest in countries within the Balkan Peninsula – such as Albania, Bulgaria, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Serbia and Romania – as well as in Austria, Baku (Azerbaijan) and Morocco (see Figure 11). This suggests that teacher support in these countries/economies is highly uneven within individual schools, reflecting potentially diverse classroom environments, teaching styles, or varying levels of teacher engagement with students. Conversely, it is smallest in Brunei Darussalam, Denmark*, Guatemala and Macao (China), indicating a more balanced perception of teacher support among students within schools in these countries/economies. Such balance might reflect stronger school-wide policies, training, or cultural factors that ensure dependable student-teacher interactions.
Standard deviation of the index of teacher support in mathematics lessons
Notes: Only countries and economies with available data are shown.
Countries and economies are ranked in descending order of standard deviation of the index of teacher support in mathematics lessons.
Source: OECD, PISA 2022 Database, Table B.1.
The results of the analysis highlight relationships between several key elements of the school learning environment and teacher support across PISA-participating countries. A summary of the results is provided in Figure 12 below.
The most significant predictor of teacher support was the quality of student-teacher relationships.1 Higher scores on this index were strongly associated with increased levels of teacher support (for a one-unit increase in the index of student-teacher relationships, a 0.37 increase in the index of teacher support was observed). This suggests that fostering positive and supportive interactions between students and teachers is an essential factor in enhancing teacher support. Furthermore, it highlights how the pedagogical and socio-emotional dimensions of teaching are interconnected, mutually reinforcing each other to create a more supportive learning environment.
The disciplinary climate also played a meaningful role in affecting teacher support, though the strength of the relationship is smaller. The results indicate that a well-ordered and structured classroom environment is related to improved teacher support, albeit to a lesser extent than compared to student-teacher relationships.
Additionally, student persistence emerged as a modest yet noteworthy predictor. This finding suggests that students’ ability to stay committed and focused on their learning may also play a role in positively influencing teacher support, though the effect is relatively minor.
It is important to note that the analysis accounted for other factors, such as student performance and socio-economic status, which were included as control variables to ensure the findings focused specifically on the influence of the key predictors.
Change in the index of teacher support in mathematics lessons for a one-unit increase in the index of quality of student-teacher relationships, the index of disciplinary climate in mathematics lessons, and the index of student persistence
Notes: Changes are accounting for students' socio-economic status and performance in mathematics.
Student socio-economic status is measured by the PISA index of economic, social and cultural status.
Statistically significant differences are shown in a darker tone (see Reader’s Guide).
All coefficients for OECD average and highest country are statistically significant.
Source: OECD, PISA 2022 Database, Table B.21.
In summary, the regression results underline the critical role of positive student-teacher relationships, a well-maintained disciplinary climate, and student persistence in fostering teacher support across OECD countries. This relationship is not necessarily causal—rather, these factors may be correlated or mutually reinforcing, without directly determining levels of teacher support. These insights provide a valuable foundation for further exploration and policy development aimed at enhancing teacher support in educational settings.
Figure 13 illustrates how the findings from Figure 12 can be used to predict a specific teacher support practice: showing interest in every student’s learning. It shows significant variations in the percentage of students reporting that their teacher demonstrates this interest, depending on the quality of the school learning environment and students' persistence levels. These findings highlight the benefits of fostering a highly supportive and resilient learning environment. For instance:
In France, only 41% of students in Group 1 (see Figure 13) – characterised by low persistence as well as enrolment in schools with poor student-teacher relationships and weak classroom discipline – report having mathematics teachers who show interest in every student’s learning.2 This underscores the compounded challenges faced by these students. In contrast, 63% of French students in Group 3 – characterised by high persistence as well as enrolment in schools with high-quality student-teacher relationships and well-disciplined mathematics classrooms – report their teacher demonstrating interest in every student’s learning.
The difference between both groups is smaller in Singapore, where 67% of students in Group 1 – characterised by the least favourable conditions for teacher support (as outlined above) – report that their mathematics teacher shows interest in every student’s learning. This compares to 86% of students in Group 3 – characterised by the most favourable conditions – who report their teacher demonstrating such interest.
Predicted percentage of students reporting that teachers show an interest in every student's learning in every or most mathematics lessons
Notes: Only countries and economies with available data are shown.
Predicted values are based on a regression model with teacher support (i.e. the student reports that the teacher shows an interest in every student's learning in every or most mathematics lessons) as the outcome variable. Key predictors include the index of quality of student-teacher relationships, the index of disciplinary climate in mathematics lessons, and the index of student persistence. The model also accounts for student performance in mathematics and socio-economic status. Estimates of this model can be found in Table B.21.
The indexes of quality of teacher-student relationships, disciplinary climate and student persistence are categorised into three levels: high, low and average. A high level is defined as a value that is half standard deviation above the average within the student’s country or economy, while a low level corresponds to a value that is half standard deviation below the average. The average level represents the mean value of the index calculated within the country or economy. Groups 1, 2 and 3 are based on these categories: Group 1 corresponds to low levels, Group 2 corresponds to average levels, and Group 3 represents high levels.
Countries and economies are ranked in descending order of the predicted percentage of students in Group 2 who reported that the teacher shows an interest in every student's learning in every or most mathematics lessons.
Source: OECD, PISA 2022 Database, Table B.21.
← 1. In 2022, PISA measured the quality of student-teacher relationships for the first time by asking students about their agreement or disagreement with eight statements such as: “the teachers at my school are respectful towards me”, “when my teachers ask how I am doing, they are really interested in my answer”, and “the teachers at my school are interested in students' well-being”. Student responses were combined into the index of “quality of student-teacher relationships”.
← 2. As indicated in Figure 13, this is not the observed percentage but the predicted percentage for students of Group 1, based on the regression model.