Romania’s natural environment has favourable soil and water conditions and a relatively well‑preserved traditional agricultural landscapes and levels of biodiversity. That said, there are continued pressures on biodiversity, the agriculture sector’s share of total emissions is increasing, and outdated irrigation infrastructure is contributing to inefficient water use. This chapter reviews Romania’s environmental performance and policies affecting agriculture, including measures related to climate change mitigation and adaptation, land use, and water management, with particular attention to those adopted under the Romanian CAP Strategic Plan 2023-27.
Policies for the Future of Farming and Food in Romania
Abstract
Romania’s natural environment exhibits good conditions of soil and water resources and a relatively good preservation of traditional landscapes and biodiversity, although challenges remain:
95% of the grassland habitat types have favourable conservation status, but there are pressures for biodiversity especially in the Natura 2000 grassland, croplands, and forests. Romania also faces challenges in maintaining biodiversity in areas characterised by intensive silvicultural practices.
GHG emission from agriculture have declined over the last decade, however the agricultural sector’s contribution to total emissions has risen. GHG emissions from manure storage and land application are still high, mainly due to inadequate storage facilities and outdated equipment used for manure land application.
Although water withdrawals are below the international benchmark for pressure on available water resources, climate change – through decreased river runoff – is increasing the gap between demand and supply of water. The volume of water used for agriculture for irrigation purposes is increasing, and obsolete irrigation infrastructure contributes to water losses.
Environmental policy developments are mostly driven by EU directives and regulations and include the commitment to ammonia emission reductions and the implementation of river basin management measures.
Under the CAP Strategic Plan (CSP) 2023-27 Romania allocated the minimum required 25% of direct payments to its six eco-schemes. Two-thirds of the budget will be destinated to the first eco-scheme focusing on environmentally beneficial practices applicable in arable land.
Romania has the seventh largest area under organic farming in the European Union. Romanian’s CSP 2023-27 has set the target to increase the area under organic production to 6% of the total Utilised Agricultural Area by 2030.
Investments in irrigation and the adoption of conservation agriculture practices are important adaptation strategies for the Romanian agricultural sector. Romania’s National Strategy for Rehabilitation and Expansion of Irrigation Infrastructure aims to increase the irrigated agricultural areas.
3.1.1. Agri-environmental context
Overall, the natural environment in Romania is characterised by a relatively good state of soil and water resources, preservation of traditional landscapes and high biological diversity. High Nature Value (HNV) farming is important for Romania’s nature through creating and maintaining biodiversity, especially the species-rich semi-natural grasslands in the more marginal, mountainous, and sub-mountainous areas where agricultural productivity is affected by climatic and topographical conditions and is limited by poor soils, high altitude, and steep slopes.
Regarding the general state of the farmed environment in Romania, the most pressing challenges are the increase in the number of extreme climatic phenomena and their intensity, the abandonment of agricultural activities with negative influences on the quality of the soil, the condition of the landscapes, especially in areas affected by natural constraints, the persistent problem of the pollution of shallow drinking water wells with nitrates in some regions, and the risk of desertification in some parts of southern Romania. More specifically:
Although 95% of the grassland habitat types present in Romania have favourable conservation status, there are pressures for biodiversity especially in the Natura 2000 grassland, croplands, and forests (EC, 2020[1]).
Soil erosion by water is a widespread form of soil degradation in Romania and it is estimated that about 9.1% of total agricultural land is affected by moderate to severe water erosion (EC, 2020[2]).
As regards water quality most of the surface and groundwater resources in Romania fall into good and very good quality classes (EC, 2020[1]). Diffuse nutrient pollution from agriculture is the second largest source of water pollution in Romania, but potential nutrient pollution from agriculture as indicated by calculated nitrogen and phosphorus surpluses is clearly below the EU average.
Ammonia emissions in Romania have been quite stable since 2010 (about 150 000 tonnes of NH3 in 2016) and the share of emissions from agriculture in total ammonia emissions is about 88%, which is below the EU average (92%). Romania has not reached the National Emission Reduction Commitments Directive target for ammonia emission reductions (-13% by 2020 and -25% by 2030 compared to 2005) (EC, 2020[1]), but according to the national inventory reported in March 2024 has recently fulfilled the commitment of reducing emissions by 13% compared to 2005.
The share of agriculture of total GHG emissions was 19% in 2017 versus the EU average of 10%, which reflects the relative importance of the agricultural sector for the economy. Total GHG emissions from agriculture have decreased by about 44% from 1990 to 2018 mainly due to the reduction of livestock and mineral fertilisers. The main sources for GHG emissions are enteric fermentation (54.6%), agricultural soils (32.7%) and manure management (13.7%) (EC, 2020[1]).
Figure 3.1 shows the average annual percentage change in selected agricultural and environmental indicators. Although agricultural land area has decreased annually by 0.4% the annual production has increased by almost 3%, which is clearly higher than the EU27 average of 1%. Direct on-farm energy consumption has increased in Romania more rapidly than in EU27, but it remains among the lowest in EU27 (about 28 kg of oil equivalent per ha) (EC, 2020[1]). Albeit water use for agriculture has increased over 5% annually, it is still clearly below the EU27 average. Both nitrogen and phosphorus inputs per hectare of agricultural land have increased annually by 2% and 3.5%, respectively. However, their levels remain clearly below the EU27 averages. Pesticide sales per hectare of cropland have decreased and represent one-third of the average levels of the EU27 averages.
Note: *Annual area increment in organic farming is the average annual difference in the share (in %) of organic farming in agricultural area. A value of 1% indicates that the share of organic farming in total agricultural land was increased by 1 percentage point per year on average. All other indicators are expressed as average relative change in the selected variables.
Source: OECD Agri-environmental indicators (Agricultural land area, direct on-farm energy use, nutrient balances, pesticide sales), Eurostat (Gross production index, water use), FiBl (organic farming are).
3.1.2. Governance of agriculture and forest environmental sustainability
In Romania the authorities that are responsible for the enforcement of environmental regulations that are relevant for agriculture are: the Ministry of Environment, Waters and Forest; the National Agency for Environmental Protection; the National Environmental Guard and the National Administration of Romanian Waters.
The Ministry of Environment, Waters and Forest is responsible for overall legislative, policymaking, management, monitoring, inspection and control competences in the following fields: strategic planning, sustainable development as regards environmental sustainability, environmental infrastructure and water management, meteorology, hydrology, hydrogeology, climate, protected natural areas, waste management, management of hazardous substances, biodiversity conservation, management of air quality, biosecurity and ambient noise levels, and administration of forest management. The Ministry is also in charge of the implementation and co‑ordination of the financial assistance granted by the European Union in the field of environment and forests and of programmes financed from EU funds.
The National Agency for Environmental Protection is the specialised institution of the central public administration, subordinate to the Ministry of the Environment, Water and Forests with competences in the implementation of policies and legislation in the field of environmental protection. The Agency is responsible for strategic environmental planning, monitoring of environmental issues, authorisation of activities with an impact on the environment, assessing the impact of certain public and private projects on the environment according to the Law no. 292/2018, implementation of environmental legislation and policies at national and local level. The Agency also reports to the European Environment Agency regarding the following areas: air quality, climate change, protected areas, soil contamination, and water (MARD, 2023[3]).
The National Environmental Guard is a public institution subordinated to the Ministry of Environment, Waters and Forests. It is a specialised inspection and control agency that can take measures to sanction, suspend, or stop the activity, because of pollution and damage to its environment for non-compliance with the conditions imposed by the regulatory acts. The National Environmental Guard is responsible for ensuring the control of the professional, uniform, and integrated implementation of the government’s policy of applying the national legislation harmonised with the community one, in the field of environmental protection. It has attributions regarding the application of the government’s policy in the matter of preventing, detecting and sanctioning the violation of the legal provisions on environmental protection, including non-compliance with the regulations provided for in the specific laws in the fields of industrial pollution control and risk management, dangerous substances and preparations, biodiversity and protected natural areas. The Guard also plays an active role in ensuring the security of the environment through actions to prevent risks and limit ecological threats, namely pollution of water and air resources, reduction of soil fertility, cross-border pollution, and others (MARD, 2023[3]).
The responsible authorities for the development of the water policies are the Ministry of Environment, Waters and Forests and the implementation of the policies is done by the National Administration “Romanian Waters” (NARW), which is a public institution under the co-ordination of the Ministry of Environment, Waters and Forests. NARW manages the waters of the state public domain and the infrastructure of the National System of Water Management, is implementing the National Strategy for Flood Risk management in the medium and long term (2010-35) and reviews how the implementation plans for different fields related to water are applied by different sectors (local authorities for water supply and sanitation, agriculture for irrigation and reduction of pollution with nitrates, hydropower for environmental discharge downstream from their dams). The Ministry of Environment, Waters and Forests and NARW co-operate for the development, updating and implementation of the River Basin Management Plan (RBMP) and National Management Plan, synthesis of the 11 RBMPs, and Flood Risk Management Plan (FRMP), which are developed according with the provisions of the Water Framework Directive and Flood Risk Management Directive (MARD, 2023[3]). The National Water Management Strategy was adopted in November 2023.
In addition, County Environmental Protection Agencies that are subordinated to the National Environmental Protection Agency, are responsible for implementation of policies, strategies and legislation in the field of environmental protection at the county level, authorisation of activities with an impact on the environment and also assessing the impact of certain public and private projects on the environment according to the Law no. 292/2018.
3.1.3. Key EU and domestic environmental legislation and strategies
Transposition of EU directives and regulations
Environmental policy developments in Romania are mainly driven by EU directives and regulations, and the relevant EU rules are generally transposed in time (EC, 2022[4]). The Ministry of Environment, Waters and Forests is responsible for the transposition of EU regulations regarding environment into national legislation.
Under the Directive 2016/2284/EU on the reduction of national emissions of certain atmospheric pollutants new emission reduction commitments apply for 2020-29 and for 2030 onwards for total emissions of the main air pollutants: nitrogen oxides (NOx), non-methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOCs), sulphur dioxide (SO2), ammonia (NH3) and fine particulate matter (PM2.5). The directive transposes the reduction commitments for 2020 agreed by the European Union and its Member States under the 2012 revised Gothenburg Protocol under the Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution (LRTAP Convention).
The more ambitious reduction commitments agreed for 2030 are designed to reduce the health impacts of air pollution by half compared with 2005. In the case of ammonia emissions, that are mainly generated by the agricultural sector, Romania must maintain, for any year from 2020 to 2029, the commitment to reduce emissions by 13% and for the period 2030 onwards by 25% compared with 2005 emissions level.
The EU Water Framework Directive (WFD) is implemented through River Basin Management Plans (RBMP), which are updated every six years. These plans include a main chapter dedicated to the programmes of measures to achieve the environmental objectives, represented mainly by “good status” for all water bodies, and compliance with the principle of non-deterioration (principle of prevention). The assessment report for Romania shows that the National Programme of measures included 13 343 planned measures for the period 2016 to 2021, and 4 822 measures (which corresponds to 36% of total measures) were planned to be implemented up to 2018 (EC, 2022[5]). However, only 59.7% of the latter planned measures had been implemented by 2018. The highest percentage of measures implemented has been reached for measures tackling pressures from agricultural activities.
Starting in 2013, Romania has applied the Nitrates Directive (ND)’s requirements to the whole territory, instead of identifying Nitrate Vulnerable Zones for action, with the view to prevent pollution. It has also improved some measures of the ND Action Programme. Groundwater quality in 2016-19 slightly improved compared to the previous reporting period, with around 15% of stations exceeding the annual average of 50 mg of nitrate per litre (EC, 2022[4]). For surface waters, the improvement of the water’s quality is more significant, considering that the 100% of lakes, coastal and transitional monitoring sites are under 10mg/l NO3.
Article 17 of the Habitats Directive and Article 12 of the Birds Directive require EU Member States to report on the progress made towards maintaining or restoring the favourable conservation status of species and habitats. According to the report submitted by Romania on the conservation status of habitats and species covered by the Article 17 of the Habitats Directive for the period 2013-18, the conservation status of around 68% of the habitats and 46% of species was good. Regarding birds, about 19% of the breeding species showed short-term increasing or stable population trends while the same figure for the wintering species was 15% (EC, 2022[4]).
Regulations and policies for the forestry sector
In the forestry sector the main regulation for forest land is the Forest Code or Forest Law (Law 85/2024, which amends and supplements Law no. 46/2008). There is a Minister’s Order (no. 694/2016) that regulates the change of forest land use. Conversion of forest land is forbidden unless it is done to achieve the objectives of national interest, declared of public utility, for the location and/or extension of the components of the national meteorological surveillance network, for the location and/or extension of the special telecommunications infrastructure, as well as for military services of strategic interest for national security.
As discussed in Chapter 2, Romania recently also developed the National Forest Strategy 2030 adopted by Government Decision 1227/2022 as part of the National Recovery and Resilience Plan (NRRP) (Government of Romania, 2022[6]). Romania is not only among the EU Member States that have integrated forest-related interventions into the NRRP, but it is also one of the countries that dedicate most of the plans’ funds to forestry (more than 5% of the budget). With the exception of Sweden, who used more than 7% of NRRP’s budget for the forestry sector, the other countries used lower shares, between 0.2% and 2.3% (Bottaro, Liagre and Pettenella, 2024[7]).
The National Circular Economy Strategy
Adopted in 2022, the National Circular Economy Strategy (NCES) defines a long-term vision and strategic direction for the transition to a circular economy in Romania (DPDD, 2022[8]). Agriculture, together with forestry, is one of the nine areas which are considered to have the highest circularity potential. The strategy identifies the challenges and problems of the farming sector and provides guidelines on solutions and opportunities for the different phases of the life cycle, from the production phase to the end-of-life phase.
NCES highlights the importance of biomass-based natural solutions for agriculture – such as organic fertilisers or compost, soil improvers, plant bio-stimulants – to encourage circular approaches, but it also acknowledges the need for additional research, innovation and financial resources to help farmers to adopt such practices more extensively. It also advocates for the development of collective urban agriculture since it may contribute towards social cohesion and more responsible food consumption. Finally, the strategy recognises the importance of the farming sector’s initiatives that use waste to produce energy, biomass, bioliquids, biogas, fermentation gases from waste and sludge.
In terms of policy recommendations, NCES suggests addressing illegal tree cutting through stricter regulation and traceability measures and asks for a new regulation on water re-use to encourage circular approaches. It also advocates for more rewarding measures for carbon sequestration activities by farmers as well as for a more effective legal framework for organic production, to create more business opportunities in this sector.
In 2023, the Action Plan for NCES was approved (GD 927/2023), which includes actions for each priority sector identified as having the greatest potential to facilitate Romania’s transition to a circular economy. Transversal actions include: (i) promotion of education and professional training, (ii) digitalisation of the essential areas for the green transition, (iii) facilitating research, development and innovation in relevant fields, and (iv) green public procurement. Specific actions for agriculture and forestry include:
Increasing the degree of use of biomass from agricultural and forestry activities for the production of energy and biofertilisers.
Promote the use of treated wastewater in irrigation systems, in accordance with EU minimum requirements for water quality and monitoring, to replace freshwater consumption in agriculture, together with the provision of guidelines on their use.
Promoting sustainable agricultural methods that conserve and regenerate the natural fertility of soils and ensure the protection and restoration of ecosystems.
Supporting farmers and foresters through the construction of logistics centres and infrastructure for storage and distribution of agroforestry and food products in order to facilitate access to specialised markets, by ensuring access to new technologies and education, as well as through other measures.
Adaptation of financing instruments to facilitate the access of farmers and foresters to information provided by research and development activities in the agriculture and forestry sector.
The new Mountain Law aims at protecting and developing the mountain area in an inclusive and sustainable manner
Over the years, Romania has enacted laws and regulations to support mountain development, and notable efforts include the first Mountain Law in 2004, which was revised in 2018. The new Mountain Law (no. 197/2018) is an attempt to develop a holistic approach to mountain development and proposes a long set of priorities around five main pillars: (i) infrastructure and territorial planning/landscaping; (ii) economic and social development; (iii) protection and development of mountain environment and preservation of the biodiversity; (iv) education and professional training, and (v) culture and heritage. Within the framework of EU´s Common Agricultural Policy, specific provisions are included to compensate farmers carrying out agricultural activities in mountains area where agricultural productivity is affected by climatic conditions and the limitations related to slopes and altitude (support for mountains area has taken place directly through specific sub-measures in Pillar I that are dedicated exclusively to the disadvantaged mountain areas or through measures with some dedicated budget allocated to the disadvantaged mountain areas) (World Bank, 2023[9]).
3.1.4. Policy instruments to promote environmental sustainability in the CAP 2014-22
This section provides an overview of all the policy instruments that were implemented over the 2014‑22 period to improve the environmental sustainability of Romanian agriculture. As for the other EU Member States, agri-environmental objectives were pursued through the combined and complementary effects of cross-compliance, Green Direct Payment (the so-called greening) and the second pillar voluntary measures. These include agri-environmental and climate schemes, organic farming, Areas of Natural Constraints (ANC), Natura 2000 areas, forestry measures and investments which are beneficial for the environment or climate.
Cross-compliance
The intervention logic of the CAP with respect to the environment is based on a hierarchy of action and compensation based on distinguishing between mandatory minimum requirements and requirements that go beyond the legal minimum requirements. Cross-compliance represents the compulsory basic layer of environmental requirements and obligations to be met to receive CAP funding (OECD, 2023[10]). In the CAP 2014-22, cross-compliance rules were set out in 13 Statutory Management Requirements (SMRs) and 7 good agricultural and environmental conditions (GAEC) standards. In Romania SMR and GAEC standards were defined in accordance with EU Regulation No. 1306/2013 and transposed into Romanian legislation via a Joint Ministry Order No. 352/636/54/2015, with subsequent amendments and put in force from May 2015. Order No. 352/636/54/2015 defined the specification of each SMR and GAEC. APIA is the Paying Agency responsible for the control of GAEC and SMR standards, verification of some SMR norms being delegated to competent institutions. Table 3.1 provides an overview of the GAEC standards applied in Romania during the 2014-22 period.
Direct evidence of the effect of cross-compliance on environmental outcomes is lacking, but generally it is not perceived as an effective tool to improve environmental sustainability. Furthermore, the number of inspections is low and the penalties for non-compliance are both not proportional to the potential harm and too low to be dissuasive (OECD, 2023[10]). The review of the control statistics for cross‑compliance carried out by the European Court of Auditors in 2016 showed that some Member States were stricter than others in applying the concept of intentional non‑compliance, and in Romania very few farmers were penalised during the period 2011-14 (ECA, 2016[12]).
All Member States were also required to put in place a Farm Advisory Service (FAS) to provide information to farmers about cross-compliance obligations, greening and the application of rural development measures. “The FAS put in place in Romania was reported as being weak and fragmented particularly in relation to cross-compliance and the agri-environment measures” (EC, 2020[13]) (Toderiţă, 2019[14]).
A large area was exempt from greening requirements
In addition to cross-compliance, the CAP 2014-22 required that 30% of each Member State’s direct payments envelope was used for a greening payment for compulsory “agricultural practices beneficial for the climate and the environment”. In Romania 30% of the national ceiling corresponded to over EUR 480 million in 2015 and to EUR 570 million in 2020 (Ecorys, 2016[15]). The three greening practices included: 1) crop diversification (the cultivation of a minimum of two or three crops on arable land above a certain size limit primarily to improve soil quality); 2) the maintenance of existing permanent grassland (demanding that the proportion between the total area with permanent grassland and the total agricultural area declared at APIA must not decrease by more than 5% compared to 2015, as well as a requirement to protect the most environmentally sensitive permanent grasslands from ploughing); and 3) a requirement to manage at least 5% of the arable land of farms with more than 15 ha of arable land as Ecological Focus Areas (EFAs), comprising a combination of management practices or landscape features as set out in the regulation and applied by Member States, in order to safeguard and improve biodiversity on farms.
In Romania greening requirements were implemented at national level and were transposed into legislation via OUG no. 3/2015 and MARD Order No. 619/2015. Romania made the following implementation choices concerning the greening payment:
The permanent grassland ratio and obligation for Romania was applied at the national level.
No equivalent practices were implemented.
According to the Guide for applicants for direct payments (APIA, 2016[16]), farmers with an area of arable land greater than 15 ha must ensure that 5% of the arable land include one or more of the following EFAs: a) terraces; b) landscape features – hedges or wooded/forested strips, isolated trees or in lines, groups/clusters of trees or shrubs, field margins, ponds or ditches; c) buffer strips located along water courses or standing waters; d) areas with short rotation coppice; e) farmland afforested with EAFRD support; f) areas with catch crops or green cover; g) areas with nitrogen-fixing crops.
In March 2022 the European Commission adopted an exceptional and temporary derogation to allow the production of any crops for food and feed purposes on fallow land, while maintaining the full level of greening payments, but Romania was one of the six Member States – together with Denmark, Germany, Ireland, the Netherlands and Malta – that did not make use of this derogation (ABL, 2023[17]).
The green direct payment has been criticised because it led to very limited changes in farm practices (Louhichi et al., 2018[18]). This was partly due to exemptions introduced in the legislation and partly because what was asked of farmers was made less demanding in the legislative process (ECA, 2017[19]). Furthermore, due to a high presence of small farms, together with Greece, Croatia, Italy, Malta, and Portugal, Romania was among the countries with a large area that was exempt from the greening measures (i.e. above 40% of the total agriculture area) (Alliance Environnment and Thünen Institute, 2017[20]). Nevertheless, the formal evaluation of the greening payment commissioned by the European Commission (Alliance Environnment and Thünen Institute, 2017[20]), also acknowledged that in Romania the greening motivated at least in part the set-up of new national legislation on permanent pasture management. Indeed, national legislation (a total of four legislative acts) was put in place in Romania in 2013 and 2015 regarding the management of all permanent grasslands, including specific provisions for the organisation and administration of those grasslands in public ownership. The motivation for this legislation was partially triggered by the need for transposition of the cross-compliance rules (GAEC 7) and the greening obligations in EU Regulation No. 1307/2013.
Voluntary agri-environmental measures
The agricultural support through National Rural Development Programme (NRDP) 2014-2020 aimed at addressing several environmental sustainability objectives:
Encouraging farmers and other landowners to adopt or maintain extensive conservation practices in areas of high nature value (HNV) and areas important for wild bird species and butterflies.
To promote adoption of agricultural practices based on reducing inputs to protect soils and water resources and to adapt to the effects of climate change.
Encouraging the continuation of agricultural activity in areas facing natural constraints and other specific constraints to address land abandonment.
Encouraging the adoption of organic farming and the afforestation of agricultural and non-agricultural lands.
Encouraging the adoption of sustainable forest management practices, for conservation biodiversity and soil protection.
Investments in machinery, equipment and facilities to improve manure management and reduction of ammonia emissions from livestock farms.
The most important agri-environmental measure adopted in Romania during the 2014-22 period focused on the preservation of permanent grassland with high nature value (HNV) (i.e. the Carpathian foothills and the hill area). However, the farmers’ interest for package 1 – permanent grassland HNV – dropped by almost one-third at the beginning of the 2014-20 programming period compared to the 2007‑13 programming period. But payments related to package 2 – EUR 100 per hectare under traditional agricultural practices supporting traditional management of permanent grassland – continued to be rather attractive for farmers located in HNV areas (around 28 500 farmers in 2015) (Fienitz, 2018[21]). Since 2015 Romania also runs two pilot projects on result-based payments for biodiversity, of which one in Transylvania administrated by Foundatia ADEPT (see Box 3.1). Encouraged by the success of the support for HNV grasslands, Romanian authorities also introduced a pilot agri-environment-climate package within the agri-environment measure designed to promote adaptation to climate change in areas facing the most extreme effects due to climate change; but this measure failed due to its over-complexity, the excessive requirements applicable to small farms under 10 ha and the lack of farm advisory support (MARD, 2019[22]; Toma et al., 2021[23]).
An evaluation study of the National Rural Development Programme (NRDP) 2014-20 (MARD, 2019[24]) has assessed the programme’s effects on biodiversity conservation, water and soil quality management, climate change mitigation and sustainable development. The study examined the contribution of the rural development programme to these environmental sustainability issues using data reflecting the implementation stage of NRDP 2014-2020 at the end of 2019.
As regards biodiversity conservation this assessment shows that there has been a large increase in area supported by NRDP biodiversity measures. NRDP measures have slowed-down population decline of certain bird species and many agri-environmental - climate measures have been implemented in Natura 2000 sites so that conservation efforts have focused on some priority habitats.
The evaluation study demonstrates that NRDP has been successful in promoting soil quality, while evidence on the impact of NRDP measures on water quality has been difficult to reveal. However, expert surveys indicate that the NRDP has contributed to improved water quality. As regards climate change mitigation and adaptation the study shows that the measures related to soil and water management and biodiversity conservation have also contributed to soil carbon sequestration.
Finally, the study shows that NRDP contributed to the maintenance of farming in rural and mountain areas, reducing land abandonment and preserving traditional practices profitable both from a natural and socio-economic and cultural point of view.
Two pilot sites to test design, development and use of result-based remuneration schemes
In Romania a pilot scheme trialling a results-based agri-environment scheme (RBAPS) on High Nature Value (HNV) grassland was implemented for the period 2015-19. The pilot took place in two regions, Târnava Mare (TM) and Pogány-havas (PH), both mountainous areas including designated Natura 2000 sites.
The main objective of the scheme was to maintain the high natural value of hay meadows, which benefit from traditional farm management. The commitments required the meadows to be managed to protect a range of flowering plant species that are at the same time indicators for these types of meadow. The project partners decided on three levels of payment linked to 5, 8 and 10 indicator species detected, as follows:
5 species = EUR 213/ha/year
8 species = EUR 229/ha/year
10 species = EUR 259/ha/year
Contracts were signed with 16 farmers in Târnava Mare for 48 parcels (73 ha) and with 56 farmers in Pogany-havas for 157 parcels (91 ha).
Results and challenges compared to management-based schemes
The main challenges were establishing a robust set of species to act as indicators for the results, as well as having a sufficient number of people trained to assess the parcels under contract. At the same time these pilot projects showed that result-based payments have a high level of flexibility for farmers in managing their land. The scheme is highly adaptable to local and weather conditions (wet year/dry year, slope, altitude etc.) and controls are limited to assessing a limited number of species. At the same time 100% of the parcels under contract had to be assessed each year, which increases administrative (transaction) costs for the scheme. Overall, this pilot showed that RBAPS offer higher payments for HNV hot-spots, are easier to control and have a more defendable control system. Moreover, the pilot also shows that result-based schemes may perform especially well when the objective is to maintain existing high natural value semi-natural habitats and when a robust set of indicators for measuring the results is available.
Source: (Page et al., 2019[25]).
3.1.5. The new green architecture of the CAP 2023-27
As shown in Chapter 2, the key strategic objectives of Romania’s CAP Strategic Plan (CSP) for the 2023‑27 period are to develop a resilient and sustainable agricultural sector by increasing the economic viability of farms, reducing income disparities between farms and increasing the market orientation and competitiveness of the agricultural sector as a whole. At the same time, the plan also aims at mitigating and adapting to climate change, promoting sustainable farming practices, efficient management of natural resources (water, soil, air) and conservation of biodiversity and landscapes. This section provides an overview of the environmental and climate ambition of Romania’s CSP, followed by a description of the enhanced standards for good agricultural and environmental conditions (GAECs), of the new eco-schemes, and of the voluntary environment-climate intervention financed from EAFRD.
The environmental and climate ambition of Romania’s CSP
Each CSP identifies targeted interventions aimed at tangible results tied to national and EU-wide objectives. In particular, Member States were encouraged to set non-binding national targets – referred to as “national targets” – in relation to the EU-level targets from the Farm to Fork (F2F) and Biodiversity strategies. Such national targets indicate national aspirations, and CSP should include details on the role of instruments inside and outside the CAP to achieve them.
Romania has set a national target to increase the area on which organic farming is practiced by a total 6% of utilised agricultural area until 2030. This is part of the National Action Plan for the Development of Organic Production, target contributing to the EU Green Deal target of having 25% of UAA under organic production at EU level in 2030.
Member States were mostly free to allocate funds to the interventions as they judged appropriate, based on their SWOT analysis and needs assessment. However, they had to respect several ring-fencing requirements (i.e. the obligation to devote a determined share of their financial allocations to certain intervention types). This is the case for the share of the direct payments allocation being planned for eco-schemes (25%), as well as the share of the EAFRD envelope being allocated to environmental, climate and animal welfare actions (35%).1 Romania decided to dedicate the minimum 25% to eco-schemes, and reserved 41% of second pillar funding to environmental and climate objectives, below the EU average (48%) (EC, 2023[26]).
Enhanced conditionality
The new conditionality in the CAP 2023-27 (the so-called enhanced conditionality) increases the mandatory layer of the CAP, revising and extending standards for GAECs in cross-compliance and including former greening commitments in a strengthened form. Member States have a degree of flexibility to further increase mandatory measures under conditionality. Previous GAECs have been carried forward and modified, while new conditionality rules related to climate have also been introduced to increase the environmental and climate ambitions and represent the new minimal requirements for farmers. To this end farmers will have to implement sustainable crop rotations and to ensure a minimum cover for the soil during the most sensitive climatic period to avoid soil erosion. For biodiversity protection farmers need to fallow a certain proportion of their cultivated land. Table 3.2 presents an overview of GAEC standards in Romania’s CSP for 2023-27 and their differences compared to CAP 2014-22.
Romania adopted six eco-schemes, mainly targeting arable land
Eco-schemes are the new Pillar 1 instruments introduced in the CAP 2023-27, which include voluntary measures that go beyond the legal requirements or usual practice in terms of climate and environment. The CAP Regulation requires each eco-scheme to cover at least two areas of action for the climate (mitigation and adaptation), the environment (protection or improvement of water quality, reduction of pressures on water resources, prevention of soil degradation, soil restoration, improvement of soil fertility and nutrition management, protection of biodiversity, conservation, restoration of habitats or species, reduced or sustainable use of pesticides), animal welfare and anti-microbial resistance. Most of the new eco-schemes adopted by the EU countries aim at complementing the multi-annual schemes design as part of the environment-climate intervention under the second pillar. In most cases they have evolved from earlier policy measures of the 2014-22 period.
Romania allocated 25% of the direct payment’s envelope (EUR 2 447 million) to six eco-schemes (see Chapter 2). The six eco-schemes focus on (i) soil conservation practices, (ii) landscape and biodiversity, and (iii) animal welfare. Unlike most of the other Member States, Romanian eco-schemes do not include support for improved fertilisation and for the sustainable use of pesticides (EC, 2023[28]).
In Romania two-thirds of the eco-schemes’ funds will be destinated to the first eco-scheme focusing on beneficial practices applicable in arable land (see Table 3.3). This eco-scheme mainly targets medium and large sized agricultural holdings (in this case, only farms larger than 10 ha) and promotes, among others, the cultivation of protein plants, covering soils during the warmest months of the year and reserving arable land for fallow and other non-productive uses. The second eco-scheme targets small traditional farms, encouraging them to adopt similar practices as the first eco-scheme, while the third eco-scheme intends to incentivise farmers to cover with grass rows some parts of land covered with orchards, vineyards, nurseries and hop gardens. Finally, eco-schemes 4, 5 and 6, which concentrate less than 10% of the eco-scheme budget aim at enhancing animal welfare.
Planned budget for 2023-27 (EUR million)
Source: Authors, based on the CSP of Romania (MARD, 2023[29])and on EC (2024), Catalogue of CAP Interventions https://agridata.ec.europa.eu/extensions/DashboardCapPlan/catalogue_interventions.html (accessed 24th February 2024).
Voluntary agri-environmental support
In Romania’s CSP environmental, climate-related and other management commitments are financed with EUR 1 705 million for the 2023-27 period, the second most important intervention in financial terms under Pillar 2 after investments (see Chapter 2). Most of this support (43% of the total budget) is targeted to animal welfare measures, followed by measures for sustainable management of permanent grasslands (23%) and for the maintenance of organic farming (9.6%) (see Table 3.4).
Budget for 2023-27 (EUR million)
Source: EC (2024), Catalogue of CAP Interventions https://agridata.ec.europa.eu/extensions/DashboardCapPlan/catalogue_interventions.html (accessed 24th February 2024).
Ex-ante impact analysis of the National Strategic Plan (NSP) 2023-2027 has assessed the main expected environmental impacts. Biodiversity, human health and animal welfare, climate change, and water management are expected to be highly positively influenced by the NSP. The most beneficial measures are expected to be those related to organic farming, agri-environmental measures and measures focusing on areas with natural constraints. The effects of eco-schemes are expected to be significant on biodiversity, human health, water, climate change and pesticide pollution, while support to organic farming is expected to have significant positive effects on climate change, biodiversity and water resources. A negative environmental impact is anticipated for investments in infrastructure and coupled support measures (especially related to animals, vegetables and fruit). An ex-post analysis will be required to evaluate these impacts on adopting farms.
3.2.1. Biodiversity and ecosystems, including forest biodiversity and protected areas
Romania is rich in biodiversity and large share of farmland is considered HNV, but significant challenges remain for conservation of forest habitats and species
Romania is one of the most important countries in the European Union in terms of biological diversity. Romania has several bio-geographical regions, including Continental (53% of the country’s surface), Alpine (23%), Steppe (17%), Pannonian (6 %) and Pontic (1%).
Protected areas (national and Natura 2000 sites) cover 24% of Romania’s terrestrial area, which is higher than the 17% target for 2020 established in Aichi Target 11 but falls short of the 30% target for 2030 set in Target 3 of the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework. Marine protected areas account for 21% of Romania’s Exclusive Economic Zone, which is more than double the 2020 Aichi Target of 10% but short of the 30% 2030 target.
In 2021, 22.7% of the Romanian territory was covered by Natura 2000 (EU average 18.5%). Special protection areas (SPAs) classified under the Birds Directive covered 15.6% (EU average 12.8%) and sites of Community importance (SCIs) designated under the Habitats Directive covered 16.9% (EU coverage 14.2%) (EC, 2022[4]). About 13% of the utilised agricultural area and 39% of forest area are under Natura 2000. Thirty-six per cent of agricultural land area is classified as high nature value (HNV), but only 3.4% of the utilised agricultural area is covered by fallow land and linear elements, which is below the EU average (4.6%) (EC, 2020[1]).
The conservation status of habitats and species covered by Article 17 of the Habitats Directive for the period 2013-18 was good for around 68% of the habitats and 46% of species. For the EU Habitats Directive reporting period 2013-2018 about 95% of the Romanian grassland habitat types have a favourable conservation status and the remaining 5% have a declining conservation status (EC, 2020[30]).Regarding birds, about 19% of the breeding species from the nesting area and 15% of the species from the wintering area showed increasing or stable long term population trends (EC, 2022[4]).
From the 2007-12 to 2013-18 reporting period the proportion of habitats and species with good conservation status have increased. Agriculture was found to be the greatest source of pressure on habitats, while the development, construction and use of infrastructure were found the main pressures for species (EC, 2022[4]).
An important contribution to the maintenance of biodiversity in Romania is provided by meadows with high nature value, which in 2014 covered about 2 million ha. In addition, extensive traditional orchards, the mosaic landscapes including meadows, trees, shrubs and small agricultural plots cultivated extensively or grassland located in the vicinity of the forests are important for biodiversity.
The diversity of ecosystems and habitats is complemented by the diversity of species. The following birds are present in Romania´s representative areas for the priority species of wild birds (Special Protection Area or SPA), with an important share of the total population at EU level: Lanius minor (approx. 77%), Falco vespertinus (approx. 55%), Crex crex (approx. 7%), and Aquila pomarina (approx. 20%). In some of the SPAs there are also endangered, vulnerable or rare birds (NRDP 2014-20, 2014[31]). In addition, endangered, vulnerable or rare birds are also present in some of the SPAs. The reference value for the calculation of the bird population index specific to agricultural land which was calculated for the first time in 2010 (the base year with index value of 100), shows that in 2015 the index value decreased to 97. Of the 20 species considered, 8 registered a decline, 9 registered an uncertain trend, 1 registered a growth, and 2 species could not be evaluated (MARD, 2019[24]).
Forest area and other forest vegetation covers 30% of the Romanian total area and is mainly concentrated in the mountain and hilly areas. Romania hosts the largest area of primary forest remaining in the European Union. Biodiversity specific to forests represents an important component of biodiversity in Romania. Of the 106 specific forest habitats about 73% have a high and very high conservation value and only 5% a low conservation value. However, more than 40% of the assessments reveal a bad to poor conservation status (EC, 2021[32]). Although the sustainable management of the forests is encouraged by the management framework created in Romania, the intensive nature of some applied silvicultural practices, reflected by the large number of interventions, negatively affects biological diversity. Romania has also faced challenges with illegal logging.
About 5.2 million ha or 36% of farmland is recognised as High Nature Value (HNV) in Romania. Romania offers several agri-environmental measures under their rural development programme, including schemes to support HNV grassland, as well as those targeted at specific bird and butterfly species (MARD, 2019[24]).
The challenge is to maintain rich biological resources in Romanian landscapes associated with agricultural lands. Therefore, it is necessary to encourage the maintenance or adoption of agricultural practices aimed at the maintenance of HNV areas and the protection of priority species, but also of common species and the habitats of these species.
The share of protected terrestrial areas was 23.4% in 2021 (Figure 3.2), which is below the EU average of 26%, as well as below the Kunming-Montreal target of 30% by 2030.
Source: European Environment Agency (EU countries) and OECD.
3.2.2. Organic farming
Share of organic farming area has not reached 25% target of the EU Farm to Fork strategy
The total area under organic production has more than double in one decade and was about 580 000 ha in 2021, which is the seventh largest area in the European Union. However, the share of organic production in the total agricultural land is relatively low compared with the OECD and the EU27 average (Figure 3.3). Arable crops account for most of the organic area (58% in 2021), followed by permanent grassland (37% in 2021). The rest of the organic land is used for permanent crops and vegetables production. In the case of arable crops cereals and oilseed represent the most important categories with 24% and 20% respectively of total organic land, followed by green fodder (13% in 2021) (MARD, 2023[3]).
Given the potential benefits of organic farming regarding soil quality and reduction of the use of pesticides and inorganic fertilisers, increase in organic production in Romania could contribute to a more sustainable food production system. The impact or the expansion of organic farming on Romanian agri-environmental performance deserves being monitored and evaluated.
Romania’s CSP for CAP 2023-27 includes compensation payments to farmers registered in the organic farming system, both during the conversion period and during the certified period, for the application of organic farming practices, as laid out in Regulation (EU) No. 1848/2018. The objective is to improve water quality, to increase soil fertility and soil organic matter content, to reduce GHG emissions and to enhance biodiversity.
Romania has established, through the National Plan for the Development of Organic Production, the national target for increasing the agricultural area to be destined for organic agriculture by 2030, which will contribute to reaching the EU target of 25% set out in the European Green Deal, respectively in the Farm to Fork Strategy and the EU Biodiversity Strategy for 2030. To achieve the proposed target, the measures provided in the Action Plan for the Development of Organic Production include granting financial support to operators who join the organic farming system, distribution of certified organic products with the help of the School Programme in Romania, and to increase consumption of organic products through information and advertising campaigns. The plan also includes measures to encourage production through improving the organisation of supply chains for organically certified products and strengthening farmers’ position in the supply chain.
Source: FiBL Statistics.
3.2.3. Soil health
Risk of soil erosion by water and wind varies regionally here
With regard to soil erosion, the share of total agricultural area affected by severe water erosion was 11% in 2016 compared with the EU average of 8% (Figure 3.4). With respect to different land use types, 10.1% of arable and permanent crop areas were at a moderate and severe risk of soil erosion by water, whereas for land use types with more permanent soil cover, such as permanent meadows and pasture lands risk of soil erosion is lower and 5.6% of these land use types were at a moderate and severe risk of soil erosion by water. There are regional differences with respect to soil erosion risk by water (Figure 3.5). The risk of wind erosion is the highest in the eastern part of the country.
The mean soil organic carbon (SOC) content in arable soils in Romania (20.1 g/kg) is lower than the EU average (43.1 g/kg). As regards the type of cultivated crops and other management practices that can contribute to soil protection, 60% of arable land was subject to crop diversification requirements in 2018 (vs. 77% in the EU) and only 2% of the agricultural land was under Rural Development contracts to improve soil health (EC, 2015[33]). Moreover, the share of no-till and reduced till practices are relatively low as 86% of cultivated area was tilled conventionally in 2016 (Eurostat, 2016[34]). And 33% of arable land was left without soil cover during the winter months (Eurostat, 2016[35]).
Source: Eurostat (dataset code aei_pr_soiler).
Note: Estimated soil erosion by water, by erosion level, land cover and NUTS 3 regions (source: JRC). The unit of measurement is expressed in tonnes per hectare being 8.5 the highest rate of erosivity caused by water.
Source: © EuroGraphics ©UN-FAO.
As regards measures aiming at reducing soil erosion Romania’s agri-environmental compensation payments granted through NRDP 2014–20 and CSP 2023–27 promote the implementation of the green crops commitments – crops sown in autumn after harvesting the main crop – in order to protect the soil by covering it with vegetation. In addition to reducing soil erosion the aim of the green crop package is also to achieve water resources conservation and increasing water quality objectives in order to contribute to the objectives of the Water Framework Directive.
3.2.4. Fertiliser input and nutrient balances
The input of synthetic and manure fertilisers remains below EU averages
Synthetic nitrogen fertiliser input per hectare of cropland has increased from 24 kg/ha in 2000 to 49 kg/ha in 2019. During the same period manure nitrogen input per hectare of agricultural land has decreased from 26 kg/ha to 23 kg/ha. Both synthetic and manure nitrogen input intensities in Romania are clearly below the EU27 averages (Figure 3.6).
Note: *EU27 extended series (benchmark) is based on 16 EU Member states with data available for the full period: Austria, Bulgaria, Croatia, Czechia, Germany, Finland, France, Latvia, Lithuania, the Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia and Sweden. These represent around 67% of the nitrogen input, and 65% of the applied synthetic phosphorus in the EU.
Source: OECD Agri-environmental indicators.
Synthetic phosphorus fertiliser input per hectare of cropland has increased from 4 kg/ha in 2000 to 9 kg/ha in 2019 and is close to the EU27 average. During the same period manure phosphorus input per hectare of agricultural land has slightly decreased and is clearly below the EU27 average (Figure 3.7).
Note: *EU27 extended series (benchmark) is based on 16 EU Member states with data available for the full period: Austria, Bulgaria, Croatia, Czechia, Germany, Finland, France, Latvia, Lithuania, the Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia and Sweden. These represent around 67% of the nitrogen input, and 65% of the applied synthetic phosphorus in the EU.
Source: OECD Agri-environmental indicators.
Nutrient balances in Romania are negative
The nutrient balances (kg/ha of agricultural land) for both nitrogen and phosphorus have been negative in both 2010 and 2019 (see Figure 3.8). For both nutrients the deficit has increased so that for nitrogen deficit was -25 kg/ha and for phosphorus it was -6 kg/ha in 2019. Given the negative nutrient balances environmental pressures from nutrient use with respect to water quality, emissions to air and climate change can be considered very low, but soil fertility can worsen in the long run.
Note: The EU benchmark is calculated based on 16 EU Member states with data available for the full period: Austria, Bulgaria, Croatia, Czechia, Germany, Finland, France, Latvia, Lithuania, the Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia and Sweden. These represent around 67% of the nitrogen input, and 65% of the applied synthetic phosphorus in the EU.
Source: OECD Agri-environmental indicators.
3.2.5. Ammonia emissions
Ammonia emissions intensity is among the lowest in the European Union, but higher than the target required by National Reduction Commitments Directive
The total ammonia emissions from agriculture in Romania have been relatively stable since 2010 (around 145 kilotonnes). The relative contribution of agricultural ammonia emissions, about 85% of total national emissions in 2015 is among the lowest in the European Union (Eurostat, 2018[36]). Also, emission intensity, about 11 kg of ammonia emissions per hectare of UAA in 2020 is among the lowest in the European Union, but higher than the OECD average (Figure 3.9).
Despite low ammonia emissions intensity of agriculture in Romania, there is a risk of non-compliance with their National Emission Reduction Commitments Directive (NECD) emission reductions for ammonia: reduction of 13% by 2020 and 25% by 2030 as compared with the 2005 levels, but according to the national inventory reported in March 2024 has recently fulfilled the commitment of reducing emissions by 13% compared to 2005. Target reduction of 25% would require that ammonia emissions intensity would be 8.9 kg/ha by 2030 (Figure 3.9). In 2018 the share of livestock sector from ammonia emissions was about 69%, while crop production represented 31% of agricultural emissions (EEA, 2022[37]).
Note: * OECD average here excludes Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Japan, Mexico and New Zealand due to data gaps. The red level marked in 2021 correspond to the EU maximum ceiling set for the country as from 2030.
Source : OECD Agri-environmental indicators.
3.2.6. Plant pests and diseases control
Pesticide use is low and has decreased over the past decade
Pesticide use (active ingredients per ha of cropland) is low compared with EU27 and OECD averages (Figure 3.10). Pesticide sales have decreased over the past decade in Romania slightly faster than in the rest of the EU27 and on average in the OECD. The purchases in 2019-21, at 1.0 kg of active substance per hectare, were 22% below their 2016-18 level. This is also 57% below the average OECD level, and 69% below the average observed level in the EU27. Pesticides sold Romania in 2021 were mainly herbicides (47%), fungicides (47%) and insecticides (6%).
Source: OECD Agri-environmental indicators.
3.3.1. Water availability for agriculture
Current water withdrawals below international benchmark, but climate change increases demand of water for irrigation
Water availability in Romania is about 2 000 cubic meters per capita per year, which is slightly above the international threshold for water stress (1 700 m3) and more than twice below the European Union’s average water availability of 4 500 m3 (World Bank, 2023[38]). Although water withdrawals are below the international benchmark for pressure on available water resources, climate change – through decreased river runoff – is increasing the gap between demand and supply of water. Water availability for agriculture will be reduced during the primary growing season, while demand for irrigation will be higher due to rising temperature and decreasing and more variable precipitation (World Bank, 2016[39]). Some river basins are water scarce (for example, Dobrogea-Litoral, Prut, Vedea and Banat Rivers), and worsened by climate change.
Climate and adaptation modelling analysis conducted in (World Bank, 2016[39]) shows that improved and increased irrigation would provide substantial crop yield benefits through removing water stress. Thus, moving from rainfed to irrigated agricultural land would increase resilience to climate change driven impacts. Without irrigation some of the crops could experience up to 35% yield reductions, especially in the southern part of Romania. A transition to irrigated agriculture would require robust water demand management practices, which could build on the Water Use Plans issued by Romanian Waters.
3.3.2. Water quality and agriculture
Agriculture is the second most important source of pressure on water quality
Based on the National Management Plan updated in 2021, approved by the G.D. 392/2023, 66% of all surface water bodies reach good ecological status and/or good ecological potential and 98% have good chemical status in Romania. In the case of groundwater bodies, 8% failed to achieve good chemical status but 100% are in good quantitative status (WISE, 2020[40]). Regarding the Water Framework Directive, the assessment report for Romania shows that the Programme of Measures included 13 343 planned measures for the period 2016 to 2021, and 4 822 measures (which corresponds to 36% of total measures) were planned to be implemented up to 2018. However, only 60% out of the latter planned measures were implemented by 2018 (EC, 2022[5]). The highest percentage of measures implemented were measures tackling pressures from agricultural activities.
Although nitrogen and phosphorus surpluses are negative in Romania, diffuse source pollution from agriculture is the second most significant pressure on water bodies. Nutrient and organic pollution has the highest impacts on surface water bodies and chemical (nitrates) pollution has the highest impact on groundwater bodies. Nitrate was the top pollutant causing failure of good chemical status (EC, 2020[1]). Under the 2014-22 RDP, in 2016 about 12% of agricultural land in Romania was under the contracts to improve water management.
3.3.3. Water abstractions for agriculture
On-farm irrigation systems require modernisation
In Romania, the share of water abstraction for agriculture is 30.9% (Figure 3.11) and other main users of freshwater are public water supply, electricity cooling, and manufacturing. Romania uses a register to control water abstractions, although small abstractions do not require permits in Romania and not all are registered (EEA, 2022[41]). According to the Water Exploitation Index plus (WEI+),2 which measures total freshwater use as a percentage of the renewable freshwater resources, Romania’s WEI+ was 4.4% (EU27 8.9%) in 2017 indicating conditions of low water scarcity (EEA, 2022[41]).
The share of irrigable agricultural areas in Romania has increased since 2010 reaching 1.9% of the total utilised agricultural area in 2016. Similarly, there is an increase in the volume of water used for agriculture for irrigation purposes (2012: 371 million m3; 2017: 440 million m3) (EC, 2022[42]). However, reliable data for water use in agriculture is very difficult to obtain since many farmers use water from streams, wells and ponds. Moreover, deteriorating irrigation infrastructure contributes to water losses.
Note: For OECD countries not reporting data for 2020, closest year was used to estimate the average.
Source: European Environmental Agency (for EU countries) and OECD Stat.
Increasing rainfall variability due to climate change will affect non-irrigated agriculture, which constitutes the majority of Romania’s agricultural production, and elevate the need for rehabilitation of existing irrigation systems and investment in green irrigation infrastructure. This is particularly important in vulnerable areas like in the south, south-east and east, where climate models predict drought will be most frequent and the most severe (World Bank, 2023[38]). The Irrigation Strategy calls for the rehabilitation and expansion of the irrigation infrastructure to reach 2.87 million ha with functional infrastructure, including development of 123 500 ha of new gravity fed irrigation. Currently, gravity supplied schemes (about 250 000 ha) are less than 15% utilised, which is the main hurdle to fighting drought and addressing weather-variability of yields (World Bank, 2023[38]).
Under the 2023-27 CSP, the government has allocated EUR 400 million for the modernisation of existing on-farm irrigation infrastructure and EUR 85 million for the establishment of new, small irrigation systems at the farm level. To support these investments in irrigation, the adoption of agricultural practices that conserve soil moisture will be essential to enhance the overall productivity of water management, reducing water requirements and increasing water productivity in both rainfed and irrigated conditions.
3.4.1. GHG emissions from agriculture
GHG emissions from agriculture have decreased significantly, but the share of agriculture of total emissions has increased
Romania’s total greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions have considerably decreased compared to 1990. Economy-wide GHG emissions decreased by 59% between 1990 and 2020. Emissions per capita are lower than the EU average. However, Romania’s emission intensity (0.61 kg CO2-eq/EUR of value-added) is almost 2.5 times higher than the EU27 average, because the production of goods and services in Romania remains very carbon and energy intensive (EC, 2022[4]).
GHG emissions from agriculture have been trending downwards, associated with the economic decline of agriculture since 1989, including reduced animal numbers and decreased use of mineral fertilisers. However, GHG emissions from manure storage and land application are still high in Romania due to inadequate storage facilities and outdated equipment used for manure land application. To maintain a low level of GHG emissions from agriculture, it is necessary to support farmers to keep the soil covered, to use land management techniques that help to keep carbon in the soil, to use precision agriculture, as well as to build storage facilities and use of modern equipment for manure application.
In 2018, agricultural GHG emissions (including cropland and grassland) amounted to 17.5 million tonnes of CO2 equivalent, representing 3.9% of the total EU GHG emissions from agriculture. The total emissions of GHG from agriculture decreased between 1990 and 2021 by 44.7% (‑21.9% in EU27) (Figure 3.12) The share of agriculture in the total net emissions increased from 17% in 2009 to 19% in 2017, compared with 10% of the total GHG emissions at the EU level. In 2016, the emissions of methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) per hectare of UAA were at 1.29 kilotonnes CO2 equivalent/1 000 ha, being among the lowest in the EU27 (EC, 2020[1]).
In 2018, the main source of agricultural GHG emissions was enteric fermentation accounting for 54.6%, compared to an EU average of 43.8%, followed by agricultural soils (with 32.7%, lower than the EU average of 38.4%) and by manure management (13.7%) which is close to the EU average (14.2%) (EC, 2020[1]). Figure 3.13 provides a snapshot of total GHG emissions in Romania in 2021.
Source: OECD Stat.
Note: Agricultural GHG emissions by gas and source. Unit measure: Million tonnes of CO2 equivalent. Fuel combustion for agriculture/forestry/fishing comes from UNFCCC. The sources considered are Stationary, Off-road vehicles and other Machinery, and Fishing. For circular graphs, the number in the centre of the circles represent the total emissions from the corresponding gas coming from agriculture and fuel combustion for the case of carbon dioxide (CO2), while the small one represents total GHG emissions (without LULUCF).
Source: OECD Stat (2024) Agri-environmental indicators for AFOLU emissions, OECD GHG emission database, for total and sectoral emissions and UNFCCC (2024) for fossil fuel emissions from agriculture, fisheries and forestry.
3.4.2. Climate mitigation measures in agriculture
Climate change mitigation commitments
Romania has an integrated National Energy and Climate Plan (NECP) for 2021-30. The work builds on long-term energy and climate plans. Under EU legislation, Romania has a target of limiting the increase of GHG emissions in the non-ETS sectors (buildings, road and domestic maritime transport, agriculture, waste, and small industries) to +19% by 2020 and reducing emissions by 2% by 2030 compared to 2005 levels (EC, 2022[4]).
In the Land Use, Land Use Change and Forestry (LULUCF) sector, Romania is projected to see decreasing net removals by 2030. Reported quantities under the Kyoto Protocol for LULUCF sector in Romania show net removals of -32.2 MtCO2-eq on average for the period 2013 to 2019. With this, Romania accounts for 9.3% of the annual average sink of -344.9 MtCO2-eq of the EU27. Accounting for the same period depicts net credits of -6.3 Mt CO2-eq on average, which corresponds to 5.4% of the EU27 accounted sink of -115.0 MtCO2-eq (EC, 2022[4]).
The total production of renewable energy from agriculture and forestry reached 3 632 kToe in 2018, representing 61% of the total Romanian renewable energy production, which is a higher proportion than in the European Union on average. Forestry is the main contributor with more than 50% of the Romanian renewable energy production. Romania is 0.1 percentage point away from its national 2020 objective regarding the share of renewable energy in gross energy final consumption (EC, 2020[1]).
Programmes and measures recently adopted
In November 2023, Romania approved the long-term strategy (LTS) for reducing GHG emissions (Government of Romania, 2023[43]). Romania’s LTS includes the target to become climate neutral in 2050, reaching 99% net emission reduction in 2050, compared to the 1990 level. According to the strategy, in agriculture and LULUCF sector emissions will be reduced by applying the following measures:
Emissions from enteric fermentation will be reduced by introducing a proper diet.
Agricultural residues will no longer be burnt on the agricultural lands starting in 2030.
Reduction in the use of inorganic fertilisers.
In order to reduce the emissions from the manure management, CH4 recovery is envisioned. The amount of CH4 emissions recovered will be used as biogas. At the same time, methane capture will lead to manure management emission reduction.
The share of solar energy will be increased to 15% in 2050, while diesel consumption will be reduced to zero in agriculture.
Regarding LULUCF, it is assumed that the annual average forest burnt area by 2050 will be equal to the average forest burnt area during 2010-19.
In addition to the National Recovery and Resilience Plan (NRRP) (see Chapter 2), Romania has created other legal, policy and institutional frameworks for implementing climate action aimed at achieving its targets under international commitments. As for agriculture, the LTS acknowledges the key role of the CSP 2023-27 to support the farming sector to reduce GHG emissions. The main types of interventions that adequately respond to national objectives, included in the LTS are:
Supporting investments in the livestock sector that include new investments and/or modernisation of livestock farms, namely investments in equipment, adaptation to standards, connections to utilities, procurement of equipment and building modern facilities, for the proper manure management including manure and sewage sludge storage and application, procuring employed for reducing GHG and ammonia footprint, as well as technologies that contribute to a low-carbon economy, etc.
Investments in the agri-food sector (vegetables, potatoes, fruit trees, table grapes, flowers, aromatic, medicinal and ornamental plants) to produce energy from renewable sources (solar, wind, geothermal, aerothermal, hydrothermal, etc.) and use it exclusively for self-consumption purposes.
Investments made in small farms will contribute to implementing proper manure management and obtaining organic fertilisers from the utilisation of biomass.
Regarding the investments carried out by young established and recently established farmers, actions that contribute to reducing GHG emissions, acquisition of organic fertilisers, production and use of renewable energy from the utilisation of biomass.
Non-productive investments carried out at the farm level, such as planting forest protection curtains, will also contribute to mitigating and adapting to climate change, by reducing GHG emissions and improving carbon capture and sequestration.
3.5.1. Climate change impacts on Romanian agriculture
Overall, the agricultural sector appears highly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change and it is expected that many rural areas will be increasingly affected by the changing climatic conditions. However, there are regional differences in the likelihood of negative impacts such as drought and extreme rainfall events, as well as differences in the vulnerability, resilience and adaptive capacity of different rural areas and farmers to climate change. These differences are further heightened by the vast duality in farm size and structure, which are characteristic of the agricultural sector in Romania (EC and EEA, 2023[44]).
Romania is already increasingly encountering the negative impacts of climate change (including extreme events) and the modelling of future climate trends suggests that these negative impacts will continue to become more severe. These impacts include: (i) increased incidence of severe flooding with the associated social and economic disruption and costs; (ii) increased frequency and intensity of drought; (iii) increased risk of soil erosion by wind and water; (iv) risk of desertification and associated land degradation, notably in southern and eastern Romania; and (v) reduced agricultural productivity. Overall, the possible consequences of climate change will increase significantly the risk of natural disasters in the agricultural sector. Depending on the duration and severity of the extreme weather events, the negative effects could also contribute at the reduction of the financial security for farmers in many regions, especially in the south and southeast of the country (EC and EEA, 2023[44]).
Since the 1980s the incidence of extreme drought has steadily increased and since 2000 there have been six growing seasons with large rainfall deficits which significantly diminished crop yields. Significant droughts occurred in both 2007 and 2012. In 2007, the gross added value of the agricultural sector decreased by 15.3%, while in 2012, the decrease reached 21.2%. Droughts occurring during the period of 2007-13, have reduced Romania’s production per hectare by over 50%. Crops most impacted by droughts include maize, wheat, barley, potatoes, sunflower, and rape (World Bank, 2018[45]).
Flooding has also significantly impacted Romanian agriculture and has increased in the last few decades. Flood events between 2005 and 2010 caused damages estimated at EUR 6 billion, with 142 people killed, and 27 000 homes damaged. Flooding in the Timis region in April 2005 covered about 100 000 ha and suspended agricultural production for the rest of the year. The same year, the Siret River flooded 40 000 ha, while the Danube flooding in 2006 covered about 30 000 ha (World Bank, 2018[45]).
3.5.2. Adaptation strategies
Investments in irrigation and the adoption of conservation agriculture practices are important adaptation strategies for the Romanian agricultural sector. Increasing rainfall variability will threaten non-irrigated agriculture and elevate the need for rehabilitation of existing irrigation schemes and investment in green irrigation infrastructure (World Bank, 2023[38]). This is particularly important in most vulnerable areas, such as the south, south-east and east of Romania, where droughts are predicted to be the most frequent and severe. The updated Irrigation Strategy calls for the rehabilitation and expansion of the irrigation infrastructure to reach 2.87 million ha with functional infrastructure, including development of 123 500 ha of new gravity fed irrigation (World Bank, 2023[38]).
The National Strategy for Rehabilitation and Expansion of Irrigation Infrastructure (MARD, 2019[46]) is a multi-sectoral policy document, supporting and complementing the measures previously adopted in the agricultural sector on adapting to climate change and reducing its effects, as well as measures taken to increase energy efficiency through application of irrigation. The general objective of this strategy is to increase the irrigated agricultural areas to capitalise the agricultural potential of high fertility land subject to the effects of drought, especially in the south and east of Romania. The specific objectives set out in the strategy include both the completion of the rehabilitation of the main irrigation infrastructures, but also the development of new irrigation systems.
Less than 1% of Romanian farmers have adopted EU CAP risk management tools and those that do are large farms. The most vulnerable producers – the small farms – do not take out insurance either due to a lack of knowledge about them or lack of ability to pay for the premiums. With risks increasing under climate change, development of risk management products and strategies and skills suitable for and attractive to small farmers is essential. The current CSP has prioritised the creation of a risk management instrument to complement the agricultural insurance system and ensure the compensation of all farmers for losses due to climatic and environmental effects (World Bank, 2023[38]).
Romania’s forests cover about 30% of the country’s territory. Annual forest cuttings have been 13‑15 million m3, which is less than the annual allowable cut approved by the government. The forestry sector’s contribution to the GDP is about 4.5% and it employs about 28 000 people. Forestry sector exports have exceeded USD 1 billion per year (FAO, 2003[47]). The share of protected forests increased from 42% to 52% in the period 1990-2003. The Romanian Network of Protected Areas covers 5.2% of the country’s area, most of which consist mainly of forest (FAO, 2003[47]). In Romania, forest cover accounts for 29% of the land, while the government´s target is 40% (Government of Romania, 2022[6]).
Of the 106 specific forest habitats about 73% have a high and very high conservation value and only 5% a low conservation value. However, more than 40% of the assessments reveal a bad to poor conservation status for forest habitats (EC, 2021[32]). A negative impact on forest health and management is also the result of the changes of ownership occurring in the country since 1989 (Scriban et al., 2019[48]).
Although Romania has a management framework for the sustainable management of the forests, the intensive nature of some applied silvicultural practices and the large number of interventions, create the premise for negatively affecting biological diversity. In fact, the European Commission launched in July 2020 an infringement procedure against Romania for systemic breaches of the EU environmental law in relation to forestry activities, because the Commission found that Romania had failed to carry out efficient and adequate checks to verify operators’ compliance with the obligations imposed by the Timber Regulation and to apply appropriate penalties (EC, 2022[4]). Furthermore, forest management plans have been adopted and implemented prior to the completion of the assessments required under the Habitats Directive and Strategic Environmental Assessment Directive (EC, 2022[4]).
The National Recovery and Resilience Plan (NRRP) (Government of Romania, 2022[6]) is considered a strategic tool to restore forests that have been degraded mainly due to illegal logging and climate change. The plan includes restoration and afforestation measures, combined with actions to improve forest health and adapt to climate change.
The Romanian Government is addressing illegal logging with several measures:
Establishment of a National Forest Guard with nine regional Forest Guards, which work closely with the police and gendarmerie.
Development in 2014 of the Integrated National Information System for Tracking Wood (SUMAL), which has been upgraded several times, most recently in 2021.
Introduction in 2016 of the Forest Inspector mobile app, which is linked to SUMAL and allows civil society to monitor logging and timber transportation and report illegal activities.
Revisions to the Forest Act in 2020 that tighten restrictions on forestry and increase sanctions for illegal activities.
Ongoing procurement of satellite data to support monitoring and evaluation.
Allocating EUR 46 million from the Recovery and Resilience Fund to digitalisation of environmental protection, including strengthening the timber tracking system.
A draft Forest Habitat Restoration Plan has been developed to improve the status of degraded forests habitats, and these restoration activities have begun.
Under EU Effort Sharing Legislation, Romania has a target of limiting the increase of GHG emissions in the non-ETS sectors (buildings, road and domestic maritime transport, agriculture, waste, and small industries) to +19% by 2020 and reducing emissions by 2% by 2030 compared to 2005 levels (EC, 2022[4]). The same reduction target of -2% for 2030 is reflected in Romania’s National Energy and Climate Plan.
Romania is on track to become “fit for 55”, that is reducing its absolute emissions by 55% (relative to 1990) by 2030, which is consistent with the European Green Deal. Carbon-neutrality target by 2050, however requires increased decarbonisation path for transport and building sectors that are projected to increase Romania’s carbon footprint over time (Panton, 2023[49]).
Decarbonisation of emission intensive sectors in Romania, such as transport, electricity, and buildings are expected to require significant investments that may amount to over 3% of cumulative GDP by 2050 (World Bank, 2023[38]).
The environmental performance of agriculture in Romania is generally positive: 95% of the grassland habitat types have favourable conservation status, nitrogen and phosphorus surpluses are below the EU average and water resources are generally in good condition. However, ongoing and future structural changes in the sector could create additional pressures on natural resources, particularly concerning water quality, biodiversity, and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Romania is recognised as one of the most biologically diverse countries within the European Union, with numerous habitats enjoying favourable conservation status.
Environmental policies in Romania are primarily shaped by EU directives and regulations, which are usually implemented in time. Romania has aligned its agri-environmental policies with the broader framework established by the EU CAP since 2007. Under the new 2023-27 CAP Strategic Plan (CSP), Romania has allocated the minimum compulsory 25% of direct payments to six eco-schemes, which focus on soil conservation, biodiversity, and animal welfare. Notably, two-thirds of these funds are directed toward a specific eco-scheme that promotes environmentally beneficial practices on arable land.
Despite Romania having the seventh largest area under organic production within the European Union, the proportion of organically farmed land remains relatively low (less than 4%) compared with the OECD and the EU27 average. Romania’s CSP for CAP 2023-27 aims to enhance water quality, soil fertility, GHG emission reductions, and biodiversity through compensation payments to organic farmers. The country has also set a national target through the National Plan for the Development of Organic Production to expand organic agriculture to 6% of its total land area by 2030.
Agricultural GHG emissions in Romania have risen, from 17% of total emissions in 2009 to 19% in 2017. Romania’s long-term strategy (LTS) for reducing GHG emissions identifies the CSP 2023-27 as crucial in supporting agricultural emission reductions. GHG emissions from manure storage and land application are still high in Romania due to inadequate storage facilities and outdated equipment used for manure land application. To maintain a low level of GHG emissions from agriculture, it is necessary to give incentives to farmers to keep the soil covered, to use land management techniques that help to keep carbon in the soil, to use precision agriculture, as well as to build storage facilities and use of modern equipment for manure application.
Water resources in Romania are currently in good condition, but future challenges loom due to climate change and the intensification of agricultural production, which may heighten the risk of nitrate pollution. The transition to irrigated agriculture needs more effective water management strategies.
High nature value (HNV) farming plays a vital role in sustaining biodiversity within Romanian landscapes, particularly in preserving species-rich semi-natural grasslands. However, maintaining the biodiversity associated with agricultural landscapes is challenging. Therefore, it is necessary to encourage the maintenance or adoption of agricultural practices aimed at the maintenance of HNV areas and the protection of priority species, but also of common species and the habitats of these species.
Challenges remain in mainstreaming biodiversity, particularly in the implementation of policies and enforcement of laws. More than 40% of forest habitats are in poor conservation status. However, Romania has taken important steps to address illegal logging, and efforts are ongoing. Key measures include, among others, the establishment of a National Forest Guard, revisions to the Forest Act in 2020 that tighten restrictions on forestry and increase sanctions for illegal activities and ongoing procurement of satellite data to support monitoring and evaluation. Additionally, a draft Forest Habitat Restoration Plan has been developed to improve the status of degraded forests habitats.
Adaptation strategies, including investments in irrigation and conservation agriculture, are critical for Romania’s agricultural sector. The National Strategy for Rehabilitation and Expansion of Irrigation Infrastructure aims to increase the irrigated agricultural areas, especially in the south and east of Romania. Currently, less than 1% of Romanian farmers utilise EU CAP risk management tools, and those who do are typically large farms, leaving small and vulnerable farmers exposed. As climate change escalates risks, developing tailored risk management strategies for small farmers will be essential.
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← 1. This ring-fencing requirement is not solely linked to environmental and climate interventions, but also takes into account the financial allocations to areas with specific disadvantages, Areas with Natural Constraints (50%), and investment support allocated for these purposes.
← 2. The Water Exploitation Index plus (WEI+) is a measure of total fresh water use as a percentage of the renewable freshwater resources (groundwater and surface water) and quantifies how much water is abstracted and how much water is returned after use to the environment.