Croatia benefits from an overall good state of natural resources, with ecosystems among the richest in Europe and abundant water resources compared to the rest of the European Union. Agriculture has reduced its use chemical inputs and organic farming keeps expanding. Nonetheless, pressures from agricultural production still pose challenges. This chapter assesses the impact of agriculture on the environment in Croatia, the regulatory responses undertaken to limit these effects and support environmental sustainability, and actions taken for the sector in climate change adaptation and mitigation, with particular attention to the role of the CAP 2023-27.
Policies for the Future of Farming and Food in Croatia
Abstract
The state of Croatia’s natural resources is good despite multiple pressures from agricultural activities. The country, endowed with rich ecosystems, has a large share of land under conservation or natural forest cover, abundant water resources, with low pressure from pesticide application on biodiversity and soils.
Surface water quality remains an important area requiring attention, as are ammonia emissions, which have been on the rise over the last decade. Improvement of nutrient management is needed to attain the country’s 2030 national target for these emissions. GHG emissions from agriculture have decreased since the fall of Yugoslavia.
The Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) regulates agri-environmental practices, complemented by multiple strategic documents and plans that address other national, European and international commitments.
The new 2023-27 CAP Strategic Plan (CSP) includes several types of measures oriented towards climate and environmental objectives, particularly voluntary eco-schemes, rural development interventions, and enhanced mandatory conditionality requirements, with a key focus on crop diversification, organic farming, and animal welfare.
Substantial CSP funding has been allocated to organic farming and to eco-schemes, which are expected to support environmental ambitions, improve nutrient management, and combat soil erosion. The high share of protected land can help protect biodiversity and support other environmental objectives.
Agriculture is at the centre of Croatia’s adaptation efforts. The 2023-27 CSP focuses on agricultural insurance and improving the public irrigation infrastructure. It will be important to monitor and measure progress in this area.
In the absence of a specific climate mitigation plan for agriculture, CSP policy interventions are the main instrument driving mitigation efforts. There is scope to reduce on-farm fossil fuel use, increase the sector’s use of renewable energies, and further develop the bioeconomy.
The forestry sector has the potential to enhance mitigation efforts by increasing the carbon sink without compromising other objectives. Mitigation measures may increase the opportunity costs for forest owners if less biomass were to be extracted, which a revision of current management plans should clarify.
Overall, Croatia appears well placed in terms of its agri-environmental policy package and prospects. However, several challenges remain, in particular concerning the implementation of existing strategies and plans, and the monitoring of policy progress against environmental and climate objectives.
Croatia’s ecosystems are amongst the richest in Europe, with a large share of land protected or under forest cover. The country is rich in water resources. Nonetheless, pressures from agricultural production still pose certain challenges, with issues related to water quality, persistent level of ammonia emissions, and soil erosion. The sector is also a stable but significant contributor of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. These trends are increasingly taken into consideration for the regulation of the agricultural sector.
3.1.1. Context and objectives
The use of some agricultural inputs has decreased in a context of declining farmland
Overall output figures illustrate the increase in yields in Croatia. Gross agricultural production has shown a slight increase over the past decade (0.5% per year over 2011-21), while cropland decreased by 0.4% annually (Figure 3.1). Pasture area also decreased since 2013 at -1.6% annually.1 Overall, between 2013 and 2021 the area devoted to agriculture decreased by ‑0.5% per year, whereas it remains stable on average in the European Union.
Average annual change in selected agri-environmental indicators in Croatia and the European Union, 2011-2021
Note: The annual changes are calculated as a trend on the full time series – geometric trend for most cases (percentage change), except for organic farming that is based on an arithmetic trend (annual increment). * Trend for Croatia as from 2013 due to a 2013 change in methodology accounting of pasture. ** Trend based on 2011-2019, due to a lack of reported data after 2019. *** Trend for Croatia as from 2013 in absence of data before 2013.
Source: OECD Agri-environmental indicators (OECD, 2023[1]).
The use of agricultural inputs over the period 2011-21 varied depending on the type of input. Whereas water use and phosphorus input per hectare (ha) remained generally stable, on-farm energy use increased by 0.9% per year (compared to 1.7% overall in the European Union), and nitrogen input per ha increased by 0.4% per year (versus -0.1% at EU level). In sharp contrast, pesticide sales decreased by an average of 4.9% per year. This decline is partly explained by the expansion of organic farming, which increased from 2% of the utilised agricultural area in 2011 to 8% in 2021.
In this context, government policies were designed to maintain natural capital and keep some of the positive trends, while mitigating other adverse impacts. Article 3 of the Constitution of the Republic of Croatia states “conservation of nature and the environment” as part of the “highest values of the constitutional order”. Sustainability and resilience to climate change is the second of the four objectives laid out in the national Agricultural Strategy until 2030 (Croatian Parliament, 2022[2]), which aims to better align national policies with the objectives defined by the European Green Deal, the Farm to Fork and the Biodiversity strategy for 2030 at the EU level. The National Development Strategy until 2030 also defines some more specific direction under its Strategic Objective 9 on “Food self-sufficiency and development of bioeconomy”. Among the priorities listed are increase in productivity, contribution to climate neutrality, reduction of pesticide use, and expansion of organic farming. The Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) Strategic Plan (CSP) of Croatia for the period 2023-27 reflects several of these objectives (Ministry of Agriculture, 2022[3]).
3.1.2. Governance of agriculture and forest environmental sustainability
The institutional framework governing environmental policy changed after a merger of ministries in 2020
Policies on agriculture, forests and the environment in Croatia are mainly managed by two institutions: the Ministry of Agriculture and the Ministry of Economy and Sustainable Development. The Ministry of Agriculture manages all administrative activities related to the sectors of agriculture, fisheries and forestry. It also co-ordinates measures for rural development, regulates the management of agricultural land, and is in charge of sanitary and phytosanitary policy as well as for veterinary and food safety issues (see also Section 2.1.3).
The Ministry of Economy and Sustainable Development (MESD) was established in 2020 following a merger of the Ministry of Economy and the Ministry of Environmental Protection and Energy in order to “reconcile the economy with sustainable development” (OECD, 2021[4]). This Ministry defines the overall environmental protection and nature conservation strategy, in coherence with the sustainable development strategy for the whole economy, and defines the climate change mitigation and adaptation strategy. Among others, it oversees agencies for water management, natural parks, and the Environmental Protection and Energy Efficiency Fund.
Several environmental institutions operate independently but are under the responsibility of the MESD. They include the Croatian Environment Agency (which collects and manages environmental data), the State Institute for Environmental and Nature Protection (which monitors and assesses the state of nature and oversees nature conservation and protection), and the state-owned company Croatian Waters (in charge of water resource and flood risk management).
Public forests, which represent 76% of all forests in the country, are managed by the state-owned company Croatian Forests (Hrvatske Šume), a limited liability company established by the Law on Forests. The Minister of Agriculture represents the government of Croatia in the company’s assembly.
The Paying Agency in Agriculture, Fisheries and Rural Development (Agencija za plaćanja u poljoprivredi, ribarstvu i ruralnom razvoju – APPRRR) implements agricultural policy. It is in charge of the administration of the Common Agricultural Policy funds and of other national programmes and measures. The agency performs administrative and on-the-spot controls of beneficiaries of the CAP measures to verify that they meet all rules and requirements, including cross-compliance2 (see also Section 2.1.3). The control and penalty system is also implemented by APPRRR, in collaboration with the Croatian Agency for Agriculture and Food (HAPIH) and the State Inspectorate, following Croatia’s CSP.
Compliance with other regulations is controlled by the State Inspectorate. This agency enforces regulations and standards and conducts inspections in a wide range of environment-related areas, including environmental protection, nature protection, water resources, forestry and hunting, energy, mining, and toxic chemicals. The agency releases annual reports on these controls, but these are not specific to the farming sector.
There is a comprehensive agri-environmental legal framework, which has expanded following EU accession
The main texts of relevance regulating the impacts of the sector on the environment are the Laws on Agriculture, Environmental Protection, Natural Protection and Climate Change (Box 3.1).
The Law on Agriculture (2018, last revision in 2022) determines the agricultural policy objectives. Among the stated objectives are the sustainable management of natural resources and the development of an environmentally-friendly agriculture. Measures covered by this law include payments under the CAP and possible specific state aids. The text also transposes the CAP’s cross-compliance requirements, including restrictions on grassland conversion and conservation of land under growing condition, and rules defining organic farming based on EU regulation.
The Law on Environmental Protection (2013, last revision in 2018) defines general environmental protection principles, lays out the environmental domains to protect – air, waters, forest, sea, soil and the Earth’s rock crust, protected plant and animal species, and nature – and defines protection rules against pollution. It initially established an independent Environmental Protection Agency and a series of basic documents to be produced to support sustainable development and environmental protection:
The Sustainable Development Strategy (latest version from 2021 as “National Development Strategy”).
The Environmental Protection Plan (a draft version of this Plan for 2016-23 was submitted for public consultation in 2016 but never formally adopted).
The Environmental Protection Programme adopted at the regional level (by counties and major cities).
The State of the Environment report (latest version 2022 for the period 2017-20).
These reports are now produced by the Ministry of Economy and Sustainable Development (MESD), following the integration of the Croatian Agency for Environment and Nature (HAOP) to the Ministry of Environmental Protection and Energy in 2019 and the 2020 merger of the latter with the Ministry of Economy.
The Law on Nature Protection (2013, last revision in 2019) defines protection rules for natural habitats and transposes two related EU directives on the conservation of natural habitats and of wild fauna and flora (Directive 92/43/EEC), and on the conservation of wild birds (Directive 2009/147/EC). The text notably implements the modalities of protection under Natura 2000 areas. It defines the Nature Protection Strategy and the related Action Plan (latest version for these documents date from 2017 for the period 2017-25).
The Law on Climate Change and Protection of the Ozone Layer (2019) frames the modalities of action for climate change mitigation, adaptation and protection of the ozone layer consistently with related EU directives. It defines the following key documents in support to climate change action and the ozone layer protection:
The Low Carbon Development Strategy (published in 2021), and the related Action Plan.
The Climate Change Adaptation Strategy (published in 2020), and the related Action Plan.
The Integrated National Energy and Climate Plan (published in 2019).
The Climate Change Mitigation, Adaptation and Ozone Layer Protection Programme.
3.1.3. Agri-environmental measures in the context of the CAP
The CSP addresses environmental objectives through eco-schemes, rural development interventions...
The CSP of Croatia for 2023-27 reflects some of these objectives, even if the top needs identified in the plan are of an economic nature (see also Section 2.3). The CSP aims to tackle several environmental and climate challenges faced by the agricultural sector. In particular, it foresees new rules for the protection of organic matter and carbon content in the soil, to support climate mitigation efforts, improve water quality, and enhance biodiversity. This subsection provides clarification on some of these elements.
As detailed in Section 2.3.3, Croatia selected eight eco-schemes for farmers willing to go beyond the minimum requirements. They relate to improved crop rotations, use of nitrogen fixing crops (e.g. legumes), maintenance of landscape features, use of organic fertiliser on arable land, extensive grazing, and use of practices reducing soil erosion. Other eco-schemes also support the reinforcement of buffer zone protections along watercourses, and a 10% share of agricultural areas cultivated with practices supporting biodiversity conservation and restoration.
Environmental considerations are addressed through Pillar 2 rural development interventions. Environmental, climate-related and other management commitments (Article 70) will be supported with EUR 496 million of EU and national funds (27% of the rural development budget). Almost half of the funding in this category will support the conversion and maintenance of organic areas (Section 3.2.3). Other relevant rural development interventions include support for animal welfare practices, measures to reduce the use of protection agents on perennial plantations, and the protection of endangered native livestock breeds.
Rural development measures under the CSP support the construction of public irrigation infrastructure and an increase in the use of energy from renewable sources in agricultural production and processing. Table 3.1 summarises all relevant interventions included in the CSP.
Croatia's 2023-27 CSP interventions with environmental and climate relevance
Note: The budget includes EU funding and national co-financing of Pillar 2 measures. Some additional forestry investments directed to the commercialisation of forest products are not listed here.
Source: Adapted from Ministry of Agriculture (2022[5]).
...and mandatory conditionality requirements for farmers
The enhanced conditionality of the 2023-27 CAP requires beneficiaries to fulfil environmental and animal welfare regulations and good practices. Unlike the eco-schemes, conditionality is mandatory for farmers. It comprises the Statutory Management Requirements (SMR), or the main EU legislation on the environment, public health, plant health and animal welfare that all farmers must respect independent of whether they receive CAP payments, as well as nine standards for Good Agricultural and Environmental Conditions (GAEC).
While the addition in the 2023-27 CAP of new GAEC standards and improvements to the previous ones point to an increase in environmental ambition, actual progress will depend on their implementation by Member States, as they may select the practices required and use exemptions (Münch et al., 2023[6]). Croatia decided to use the flexibility allowed for the implementation of GAEC 2 (protection of wetlands and peatlands) and will postpone it until 2025 (Ministry of Agriculture, 2022[3]). While some Member States chose to include additional GAEC standards at the national level, Croatia did not use this option. Table 3.2 summarises Croatia’s implementation of the GAEC standards.
APPRRR is the competent authority for the implementation of conditionality, working with the State Inspectorate and the Croatian Agency for Agriculture and Food (HAPIH) for the performance of inspection and control tasks (Section 3.1.2).
In early 2024, an EU-level discussion about the flexibilisation of certain conditionality rules was launched. It responded to social movements by EU farmers facing difficulties related to temporary factors (extreme meteorological events, high input prices, inflow of products from Ukraine due to the war) and new reform proposals in the context of the EU Green Deal. In this context, a regulation granting a partial exemption from the rules of GAEC 8 for 2024 was adopted in February,3 and in March the European Commission proposed changes to other GAEC standards (European Commission, 2024[7]). These decisions give Member States more flexibility to decide on the scope of the implementation. An online survey to gather views from farmers was opened in March 2024, with results published in the summer of 2024. The proposed actions had not been adopted at the time of drafting of this report.
3.2.1. Biodiversity and ecosystems
Croatia is richly endowed in biodiversity and its nature is in a good conservation status, but significant challenges remain
Croatia is amongst the countries with the richest ecosystems in Europe as it is at the junction of three different biomes (continental, alpine, and Mediterranean) and many types of habitats − mountains, forests and marine. The country is a migratory route for many species of birds and hosts one of the highest plant diversity of all European countries, as well as many endangered species (European Environment Agency, 2013[9]). As a country with a high level of biodiversity, the challenges it faces in developing its agriculture sector in this context are different from other countries which have a lower level of biodiversity.
In general, nature is in a relatively good state of conservation. Ninety-five per cent of wooded areas, which cover 47% of the land area, are in a state of natural composition, which is outstanding relative to the rest of the European Union and even by global standards (Section 3.6). Croatia hosts 76 habitat types as defined by the EU Habitat Directive, which represents one-third of all habitats protected by the directive. Thirty‑nine per cent of these habitats have good conservation status (against an EU average of 15%), although 21% are in bad conservation state (EU average 36% (European Environment Agency, 2020[10]). Species richness is an asset for agriculture in Croatia, which benefits from several native breeds, also subject to conservation objectives (Box 3.2).
In spite of this overall good environmental state, biological and landscape diversity are affected by habitat loss and fragmentation resulting from several anthropogenic activities, including agriculture, infrastructure development, invasive alien species, pollution, urbanisation, and climate change. Habitat degradation and fragmentation, poaching, and pesticide use particularly threaten mammals (Convention for Biological Diversity, 2023[11]). Forest ecosystems are affected by many factors, including pollution, inappropriate water management, land conversion to agriculture and infrastructure, fragmentation, forest fires, and uncontrolled cuttings in private forests. Although beneficial for the economy, the large influx of tourists – 21 million visitors in 2019, i.e. five times the country’s population – brings additional pressure on biodiversity, notably through the introduction of alien species or diseases harmful for autochthonous species (Ministry of Agriculture, 2022[3]).
Native breeds (also known as autochthonous or indigenous) are those that originate from, have adapted to, and are used in a particular geographical region (FAO, 2012[12]). The importance of native livestock breeds is recognised from several viewpoints: they maintain the diversity of animal genetic resources and are frequently valued from social, economic, and cultural perspectives (Ovaska et al., 2021[13]).
The status of native is conferred in Croatia on breeds of domestic animals that originated on the country’s territory and have genetically adapted to one or more traditional production systems or to one or more environments (Croatian Parliament, 2018[14]). The “National programme for the preservation of autochthonous and endangered breeds of domestic animals 2021-25” sets the guidelines for the preservation and sustainable use of these breeds, including measures for conservation in their original environment (in situ) and ex situ. The list of native and endangered domestic animal breeds includes 28 breeds of cattle, horses, donkeys, pigs, poultry, sheep, and goats, 14 of which have been categorised as “endangered” and 5 as “critically endangered” (Ministry of Agriculture, 2023[15]).
Several programmes use EU and national funds to support the in situ conservation of native breeds of livestock and poultry. Both the 2014-22 Rural Development Programme and the 2023-27 CAP Strategic Plan provide support in the form of payments per livestock head to compensate for the loss of income and additional costs of breeding and keeping native breeds. In addition, several smaller programmes funded from the national budget support breeding programmes and breeders’ associations (see also Section 2.4.2).
The national network of gene banks collects animal genetic material for the ex situ conservation of native breeds. At its centre is the National Domestic Animal Gene Bank, managed by the Ministry of Agriculture. Recognised gene banks that are part of the network include those managed by the Croatian Agency for Agriculture and Food (HAPIH) and some breeders’ associations. At the end of 2022, the central gene bank had collected more than 25 000 genetic samples of native livestock breeds (Ministry of Agriculture, 2023[15]).
Note: In addition to livestock and poultry, the national programme also covers seven breeds of dogs and one of bees that are part of the list of native and endangered domestic animal breeds.
Croatia has designated a large share as protected areas in an effort to mitigate environmental pressures
To mitigate human pressures on natural ecosystems, Croatia has relied on an extensive deployment of protected areas. The share of protected terrestrial areas was 38.1% in 2021 (Figure 3.2), the fifth highest among EU Member States (for an EU average of 26%), placing the country well above the Kunming-Montreal target of 30% by 2030 (European Environment Agency, 2023[16]). These protected areas are largely (64%) Natura 2000 sites,4 exclusively designated under the EU Birds Directive and the Habitats Directive after Croatia’s 2013 EU accession. The rest is also generally designated as Natura 2000 areas, but primarily protected through national laws (national parks, parks of nature). Croatia has the largest share of agricultural area (including grassland) in Natura 2000 protected zones in the European Union (26%), over twice the EU average of 11%. The country ranks fourth in the share of forest area under Natura 2000 with 46% coverage (against 23% in the European Union).
Even though the large share of protected areas is encouraging for conservation efforts, there remains a gap when it comes to management plans for designated areas. The Habitats Directive requires the creation of Special Areas of Conservation within the Natura 2000 network, with more specific nature protection measures. To date, Croatia has achieved little in this regard (European Commission, 2022[17]). Furthermore, despite many national projects supported by EU funds to set up management plans for Natura 2000 designated areas and develop reporting and monitoring systems, the European Commission noted that more efforts are needed to efficiently address the most notable pressures, including from agriculture. Very large gaps remain, in particular in the monitoring of bird species. According to the last conservation report for 2013-18, only 10% of the breeding species and 11% of key wintering species showed increased or stable population trends, whereas trends for most of the other species were unknown (European Commission, 2022[17]). Data on the Farm Bird Index and the Forest Bird Index have been collected since 2016 only, which makes it difficult to use them as reliable indicators of trends at this stage (European Commission, 2020[18]).
Share of protected terrestrial area in 2021 in Croatia and selected countries and regions
Note: The international target corresponds to the Target 3 of the Kunming Montreal Biodiversity Framework that establishes that 30% of terrestrial area should be protected by Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity by 2030.
Source: European Environment Agency (for EU countries) (2024[19]) and OECD (2023), Agri-Environmental Indicators.
3.2.2. Agricultural land management
Land abandonment and agricultural intensification threaten some important habitats
As indicated in Section 3.1.1, there has been a trend of a slight decline in Croatia’s agricultural land, at a rate of -0.5% per year between 2011 and 2021. Nevertheless, arable land has remained stable at around 930 000 ha since 2013. With the depopulation of rural areas, there is a trend of land consolidation in the sector and an intensification of farming practices. Over the period 2013-20, the share of the utilised agricultural area (UAA) farmed with high input intensity5 has increased from 33% to 52%, while the UAA farmed with low input decreased from 33% to 24% (European Commission, 2023[20]). The share of high nature value areas6 is high (61-80% in Eastern Croatia, 81-100% in Adriatic and North-West Croatia), but extensive cropland and agricultural mosaics have been threatened by this process of land consolidation and agricultural production intensification, with consequences for biodiversity depending on these ecosystems (European Commission, 2020[18]). The share of unutilised agricultural land has halved since 2007, and was around 2% in 2020. Landscape features7 are relatively sparse, representing only 0.7% of the UAA, while fallow land represents only 1%, well below the 10% target set in the Farm to Fork Strategy (European Commission, 2020[18]).
In this context, grassland is at particular risk. Due to depopulation, many permanent grasslands are not maintained or maintenance is minimal. Karst pastures, which are abundant with rare species, require grazing for their maintenance, and their flora and fauna are affected by abandonment (Box 3.3). Despite the significant extent of area designated as Natura 2000, the slow implementation of management plans limits access of Croatian farmers in these areas to several CAP support schemes. According to Croatian reporting under the EU Habitats Directive for 2013-18, only 27.6% of grassland habitat types currently have favourable conservation status, whereas 58.6% are in poor or bad conservation state, and the status for 13.8% is unknown. The situation is even more dramatic for wet habitats, such as peat bogs, mires and fens, two-thirds of which are in bad condition, 11% in poor condition, and the rest unknown.
In 2020, 9% of the agricultural area was under management contracts under the Rural Development Plan to support biodiversity protection and/or landscape features. This was above the initial target set for the country (8%), but well below the EU average of 18%.
The geology of Croatia is characterised by the presence of karst, which occupies about half of its land area. Karst is a landscape associated with carbonate rocks, such as limestone and dolomite. The soluble nature of the underlying rock creates features such as sinkholes, caves, enclosed depressions, disappearing streams, and springs (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2024[21]). In Croatia, the karst area runs along the Adriatic coast and is part of the wider Dinaric karst complex, which extends to neighbouring countries (Matas, 2006[22]).
Karst ecosystems are rich in biodiversity: their physical heterogeneity often creates specialised habitats for rare or endemic species. At the same time, they are very sensitive to human activities. Preserving habitat diversity in karst depends on the maintenance of vegetation and soils, which tend to be thin and vulnerable to erosion. Water also flows quickly through karst with little filtration. Therefore, pollutants that enter a karst aquifer, including from agriculture, are rapidly transported, creating water quality problems.
In Croatia, an estimated 115 573 hectares of karst pastures are classified as agricultural land, and over 70% of this area is appropriate for grazing (Bakić, 2021[23]). At the same time, this area has been affected by land abandonment (see also Chapter 1). The decrease of livestock production and the growth of grassland vegetation has led to increased risk of fires and endanger biodiversity (Kutnjak, Leto and Rajčić, 2022[24]). For example, in the area of the Dinara Mountain, pastures traditionally used for grazing are largely neglected, becoming overgrown and losing their natural values and biodiversity (Dinara back to life, 2024[25]). Overgrazing, however, can also promote the degradation of the karst ecosystem. A study of North Adriatic karst pastures found that both heavy grazing and abandonment caused a loss of plant richness and a decrease in above-ground biomass, and found low-intensity grazing to be the most appropriate way to manage these grasslands from a conservation and biodiversity perspective (Škornik, Vidrih and Kaligarič, 2010[26]).
3.2.3. Organic farming
Support policies have had an important role as drivers of the organic farming expansion
The development of organic farming has been particularly fast over the past decade (see also Section 1.3.3). In 2009‑11, only 1.8% of the country’s UAA was under organic farming but this share reached 7.5% by 2019-21 (Figure 3.3), slightly below the national goal of 8% of the Action Plan for the Development of Organic Agriculture 2011-16. The area continues to grow since then: data from the Croatian Bureau of Statistics show a further increase in 2022, to 129 374 hectares, or 8.95% of the UAA. This share is above the average OECD level of 4.6%, but remains below the EU average of 9.7%. Furthermore, the EU Farm to Fork strategy initially set an objective of 25% across the European Union by 2030, which represents an important gap for Croatia.
Eurostat data indicate that the areas under conversion to organic farming have decreased since 2016, which suggests that an inflexion point may have been reached. Over 90% of the organic area receives support from the European Union’s Common Agricultural Policy (CAP), and agricultural support may have played a preponderant role over demand effects to explain the conversion to organic farming of some specific activities (hazelnuts, walnuts, pasture) (European Commission, 2020[18]).
Share of organic farming in utilised agricultural area, Croatia and selected countries and regions
Note: Organic area includes land fully converted and under conversion.
Source: Research Institute of Organic Agriculture FiBL (2023). Key indicators on organic agriculture worldwide, https://statistics.fibl.org/world/key-indicators.html (accessed in October 2023).
As indicated above, support to organic farming has been chosen as a key measure of CAP Pillar 2 for 2023-27, with a dedicated budget of EUR 238 million. This intervention is expected to contribute to the CAP strategic objectives of climate change action, environmental care, landscape and biodiversity preservation and food and health quality protection. It provides an annual payment per hectare to support the transition and maintenance of organic farming for arable crops, vegetables, perennial crops and permanent lawns, with the objective of increasing the organic area share to 14% by 2030 (Ministry of Agriculture, 2022[3]).
Additional CAP funding will be provided for organic producers under the rural development measure for investments in farms, which supports investments in facilities and equipment for the application of organic fertilisers. The new eco-scheme “Application of organic fertilisers in permanent plantations”, added in the first revision to the CSP in November 2023, also seeks to encourage the use of organic production methods in vineyards, olive groves, orchards, and mixed perennial plantations (Ministry of Agriculture, 2023[27]).
At the national level, the strategic orientation for the development of the sector is provided by the National Action Plan for the Development of Organic Agriculture for 2023-30, approved in August 2023. The Plan lays the foundations for supporting the entire organic value chain, from securing adequate ecologically acceptable raw materials to the placement and sale of certified products on the market. It also aims to encourage the development of accompanying activities such as processing, promotion, and sale through different channels, including tourism.8
3.2.4. Soil health
The overall soil erosion situation has improved, but there are important regional variations
Due to its location and climate, Croatia is highly exposed to soil erosion risks and certain areas have suffered substantial soil losses. The European Joint Recent Centre (JRC) estimated a rate of soil loss by water in agricultural areas and natural pasture of 3.5 tonnes per hectare for 2016 (similar to the EU average). The JRC estimated that changing land use and management practices contributed to reduce this erosion by about a quarter over the past decades, as the rate was of 4.7 tonnes per hectare in 2000. Similarly, the share of agricultural land severely degraded is estimated to have greatly decreased, from 12.4% in 2000 down to 7.9% in 2016 (Figure 3.4).
Estimated share of agricultural soils severely affected by water erosion in Croatia and selected countries
Note : Areas are classified as severely affected by water erosion if erosion rate exceeds 10 tonnes per hectare per year.
Source: Eurostat (2024) – Estimated soil erosion by water [aei_pr_soiler].
Notwithstanding the overall improvement, there is significant variation in regional erosion patterns, with the coastal area more exposed, as illustrated in Figure 3.5. About 20% of agricultural area and natural grassland was affected by moderate or severe erosion from water (>5 t/ha/yr), slightly above the EU average (18%). The most severely affected areas represented 151 700 ha of agricultural land areas (without pasture), and 37 400 ha of natural grassland, which represents about 8% of each land class, similar to average patterns in the rest of the European Union (Figure 3.4).
Estimated soil erosion by water in Croatia at NUTS 3 regional level (2016)
Note: Administrative boundaries: © Eurographics; Cartography: Eurostat – IMAGE; 01/2024.
Source: Eurostat (2024), Estimated soil loss by water erosion by land cover type [aei_pr_soiler].
Conventional tillage, which is widespread in Croatia, and the absence of winter cover crops exacerbate soil erosion pressures in the country (European Commission, 2020[18]). About 90% of arable land continued to be cultivated under conventional tillage in 2016, a stable level since 2010. This was well above the EU average of 68%, with only two other EU Member States9 having higher use of full tillage. Conversely, no-till was only found on 0.5% of areas compared to 3.8% in the rest of the European Union. More than 55% of arable land was left bare during the winter in 2016, the largest share in the European Union and far above the EU average (24%). This share was also up by 10% compared to 2010.
The mean organic carbon content of Croatian soils in 2018 was 28 g/kg, slightly above the EU average of 24 (European Commission, 2023[28]). Soil salinisation due to natural and anthropogenic drivers has also been identified as problematic in certain coastal regions. This affects soil quality, but also irrigation potential (see Box 3.3 on the specificities of karst systems). Croatia is one of thirteen EU Member States that have declared to be affected by desertification under the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (European Court of Auditors, 2018[29]).
Soil data is currently dispersed and non-centralised, as it is collected by different institutions, with a lack of systematic soil monitoring. Some actions in this area are foreseen in Croatia’s Recovery and Resilience Plan (RRP)10 (see also Section 2.4.1) as part of the measures for the restructuring and consolidation of agricultural land (measure C1.5. R2). One of the reforms that has been implemented is the new Law on the consolidation of agricultural land, adopted in April 2022, which foresees the creation of an information system on consolidated land and a soil quality database (Government of the Republic of Croatia, 2022[30]). The RRP plans an investment of EUR 1.7 million to establish by 2025 a network of 90 permanent stations for the monitoring of agricultural land across the country. This will enable the collection and analysis of soil samples and provide the necessary data for the evaluation of the soil condition. The first point for monitoring agricultural soil was established in July 2023 under the responsibility of the HAPIH’s Soil Centre (Croatian Agency for Agriculture and Food, 2023[31]).
Better soil management objectives are integrated both in the National Strategy for Adaptation to Climate Change, in order to improve production resilience, and in the Low-Carbon Development Strategy until 2030, with the goal of enhancing soil organic carbon and protect mineral carbon in organic soils.11 In 2020, over 9.1% of agricultural land in Croatia was under contract to improve soil management or prevent soil erosion (European Network for Rural Development, 2021[32]).
Specific measures to improve soil management have been integrated to the CSP of Croatia as one area of action. Several eco-schemes have been designed, covering prevention of soil degradation, soil restoration, improvement of soil fertility, and better nutrient management. For instance, EUR 74 million are reserved for the use of manure on arable land, whereas EUR 67 million will be devoted to a minimum share (20%) of legumes planted on agricultural areas. Conservation agriculture is allocated EUR 37 million. Several GAEC standards are dedicated to improving soil management, such as GAEC 5 on tillage management, GAEC 6 on minimum soil cover, and GAEC 7 on crop rotations. In addition, EUR 20 million are dedicated to non-productive investments (specifically, construction of terraced plots, construction of external dry walls, hedges) which should also prevent soil erosion.
3.2.5. Fertiliser input and nutrient balance
The input of synthetic fertilisers has declined but remains relatively high, particularly in the case of phosphorus
As the share of high input farms increased over the past years, the average input expenditure increased from EUR 268 to EUR 321 per hectare between 2013 and 2020, but remains below the EU average (European Commission, 2023[33]). The application of synthetic nitrogen (N) fertilisers has decreased since 2000, when it was over 40% higher than the EU average. Application levels have reached a level closer to other Member States in the last decade, even if it has slightly rebounded according to the latest data in 2017-19 (Figure 3.6, panel a). The input of nitrogen through manure input has slightly decreased and is 20% below EU average level (Figure 3.6, panel b). Phosphorus (P) application levels through synthetic fertilisers remain on average much higher than the practice in the rest of the European Union, often exceeding it by 30% or more (Figure 3.6, panel c). However, the input of phosphorus from organic fertiliser is considerably below the EU average and decreasing (Figure 3.6, panel d), which has contributed to a reduction in total nutrient inputs for phosphorus. This can be partly attributed to restructuring in the livestock sector, which has been through a decrease in the number of animals – both ruminant and monogastric – since 2010.
Input of synthetic fertiliser and manure in Croatia and rest of the European Union (kg per ha per year)
Note: * EU27 extended series (benchmark) is based on 16 EU Member states with data available for the full period: Austria, Bulgaria, Croatia, Czechia, Germany, Finland, France, Latvia, Lithuania, the Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia and Sweden. These represent around 67% of the nitrogen input, and 65% of the applied synthetic phosphorus in the European Union.
Source: OECD (2023), Agri-environmental indicators (database).
The nutrient balances have improved over the past decade as a result of the decreases in fertiliser application and improved nutrient use efficiency. Nitrogen surpluses decreased from 67 kg/ha in 2010 to 53 kg/ha in 2019, approaching the EU average (50 kg/ha for the European Union as a whole in 2015, and 37 kg/ha in 2019 for countries with data) but still exceeding the levels of peer EU countries (Figure 3.7). In the case of phosphorus, in 2010 Croatia had one of the highest surplus of the peer group (over 5 kg/ha), but with 1.6 kg/ha in 2019, the country is now closer to the average levels observed across the EU and the OECD. Nonetheless, and in spite of an overall good quality of water resources in Croatia (Section 3.3), the impact of diffuse pollution from agriculture is visible on surface- and groundwater bodies, especially in the continental part of the country belonging to the Danube River Basin. Overall, 43% of Croatia’s surface water bodies and 6% of groundwater are affected by nutrient excess pollution. Furthermore, although the quality of groundwater is generally considered good, Croatia has a relatively high proportion of eutrophic or hypertrophic rivers and lakes (European Commission, 2020[18]).
Nutrient balances in Croatia and in selected countries and regions
Note: The EU benchmark is calculated based on 16 EU Member states with data available for the full period: Austria, Bulgaria, Croatia, Czechia, Germany, Finland, France, Latvia, Lithuania, the Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia and Sweden. These represent around 67% of the nitrogen input, and 65% of the applied synthetic phosphorus in the European Union. The OECD benchmark is based on 24 OECD Members. In addition to EU OECD countries listed above are also accounted: Australia, Canada, Colombia, Costa Rica, Iceland, Korea, Mexico, New Zealand, Switzerland, Türkiye and the United States.
Source: OECD (2023), Agri-environmental indicators (database).
3.2.6. Ammonia emissions
Lower livestock numbers drove a decrease in the ammonia emissions intensity after 2008, but recent performance in this area has deterioriated
Nutrient inputs into agricultural soil generate air pollution by ammonia (NH3) through volatilisation, which in turn pollutes soil and water through deposition, or forms aerosols harmful to human health. Agriculture is the main contributor to ammonia emissions in Croatia. In 2018, the sector was responsible for 81% of NH3 emissions, even if this is below the EU average contribution from the sector (93%) due to the relatively lower livestock density. The intensity of ammonia emissions in agricultural land was higher than the EU average up to 2008, but the reduction in animal numbers drove it below the EU average after 2009 (Figure 3.8). At the same time, the level of emission intensity remained above the average level observed in the OECD.12 Furthermore, the trend of NH3 emissions reductions stopped in 2013 and reverted to an upward trend after 2016.
Due to the decreased performance in ammonia emissions reductions, Croatia faces challenges to meet its current commitments. Between 2014 and 2019, the country exceeded its 2010 national emission ceiling for NH3 (European Environment Agency, 2021[34]), reporting the highest percentage exceedance (23%) after Spain.13 While current NH3 emissions are below Croatia’s National Emission Ceiling Directive reduction commitment for 2020-29, reviews commissioned by the European Commission have found a medium risk of non-compliance for the period 2020-29 as well as for 2030 and beyond (European Commission, 2020[18]).14
Ammonia emissions intensity per hectare of agricultural land, Croatia and selected regions
Note: * OECD average excludes Mexico and Chile due to data gaps.
Source: OECD (2023), Agri-environmental indicators (database).
3.2.7. Plant pests and diseases control
A strong decline in sales of pesticides following EU accession
Pesticide sales in Croatia have decreased relatively fast over the past decade (‑4.9%) compared to the rest of the European Union (-0.2%) and other Members of the OECD.15 Purchases in 2019-21, at 1.7 kg of active substance per hectare, were 28% below their 2013-15 level (Figure 3.9). This is also 46% below the average observed level in the European Union, as well as in the rest of the OECD.16 This decreasing trend was confirmed in 2021 and 2022, the years with the lowest levels of pesticide sales in the country since 2013. Pesticides sold in 2022 were mainly herbicides (48%) and fungicides (40%), with smaller shares of insecticides (6%) and plant growth regulators (5%). The largest decreases since 2013 have been observed in fungicides (-36%) and insecticides (-33%).
Source: OECD (2023), Agri-environmental indicators (database).
Croatia has also improved in terms of the toxicity of the substances purchased. Between 2013 and 2021, the Harmonised Risk Indicator 117 (for all active substances) decreased by 57%, against a decrease of only 33% on average in the European Union (Eurostat, 2024[35]).
Some of these trends may be attributed to the evolution of the legal framework following EU accession. Croatia published in 2013 its first National Action Plan to achieve the sustainable use of pesticides for 2013-23, as requested under the Directive 2009/128/EC on the sustainable use of pesticides. Between 2013 and 2015, sales of several specific products declined with the decision of non-approval or non-renewal of a number of active substances, following the implementation of EU standards (EU Regulation 540/2011).
The domestic legal framework was updated in April 2022 with the adoption of a new Law on the Sustainable Use of Pesticides, which replaces previous legislation in this area. The new law aims to achieve a sustainable use of pesticides, reduce their risks and negative effects, introduce the mandatory application of the basic principles of integrated plant protection for the control of harmful organisms and encourage the use of non-chemical plant protection measures (Government of the Republic of Croatia, 2022[36]). The law requires that all professional users, distributors, and advisors attend training to acquire satisfactory knowledge of the safe handling and proper application of pesticides. It also introduces the use of electronic credentials to connect to the Phytosanitary Information System for the verification of the status of professional users, distributors and advisers (Ministry of Agriculture, 2023[37]). This new law responded to a number of concerns expressed by the European Commission at the time of adoption of the Farm-to-Fork strategy (European Commission, 2020[18]), and led to the adoption of a rulebook with additional conditions for pesticides in 2023. The 2013 National Action Plan, however, is still to be revised.
3.2.8. Animal disease control and welfare
Use of veterinary antimicrobial agents was reduced, but more progress is needed on animal welfare
The sale of veterinary antimicrobial agents has steadily decreased since 2014. They represented 56.2 mg per population correction unit (PCU)18 in 2022 compared to 103.5 mg/PCU in 2014, a decrease of 46%. This is lower than the average EU level of 75.8 mg/PCU19 (European Medicines Agency, 2022[38]), which also went through a drastic reduction over the same period (-51%). At the EU level, the Farm to Fork strategy has set a 50% reduction target in the sales of antimicrobials for farmed animals and in aquaculture by 2030. To further support such evolution, Croatia established in 2023 a mandatory training programme for animal farmers supported by CAP direct payments, part of which will cover antimicrobial resistance issues and alternative solutions. The European Commission has identified a need to upgrade farm biosecurity and to revise and upgrade registration of certain farms, animal identification and animal movements to ensure biosecurity and resilience to possible disease outbreaks (European Commission, 2020[18]).
The European Commission monitors specific animal welfare issues. A problematic routine practice in Croatia is the tail docking of pigs, which is prohibited as a general practice in the European Union, but remains common in the country: the percentage of pigs reared with intact tails has not increased since 2016 (European Commission, 2020[18]). Furthermore, an on-site audit in 2018 revealed that ship approval and inspection processes could not guarantee the compliance with EU regulation on welfare associated with animal transportation (European Commission, 2018[39]).
New legislation has been passed over the past years to improve animal welfare. The 2013 Law on the implementation of European Union regulations on animal protection was revised in 2019 to tighten some modalities related to certification and inspection. A new law on animal protection was also passed in 2017 to prescribe the responsibility and obligations of natural and legal persons for the protection of animals, which includes the protection of their life, health and well-being, including during keeping, breeding, performing procedures on animals, killing, and transportation for the case of the agricultural sector. A Law on Animal Health was approved in 2022, to complement existing Laws on veterinary medicine and on veterinary-medical products. Animal welfare measures were added to the Rural Development Plan of Croatia in 2018 and have been consolidated through the 2023-27 CAP Strategic Plan, with a total public funding allocation of EUR 155 million, i.e. almost 9% of the Pillar 2 budget.
3.3.1. Context and governance
Water management is undertaken by several agencies at the national and regional levels
Croatia has abundant water resources, albeit unevenly distributed across its territory. The North and Eastern part of the country belong to the Black Sea catchment area, with long and abundant water flow – the Danube River being the most illustrative example. The Adriatic catchment areas on the western and southern parts have shorter water streams and more irregular water runoffs. Furthermore, as the karst occupies about half of the territory (Box 3.3) and has less capacity for water accumulation, the possibility of building up water reserves to manage critical dry periods is limited (Ministry of Agriculture, 2022[3]) (OECD, 2015[40]). However, the country is regularly hit by flooding events with serious economic costs (OECD, 2020[41]). The number of lakes is limited and wetland areas cover 0.3% of the territory (Eurostat, 2024[42]).
Water management responsibilities are undertaken by the Ministry of Economy and Sustainable Development for policy orientations, two specialised agencies at the national level for management and monitoring, and the regional and local governance units for implementation. More specifically, the Water Agency Hrvatske vode, established by the Water Act of 2009, is in charge of River Basin Management Plans, the regulation of water uses, including irrigation, and the protection of the resource. The Water Institute (Josip Juraj Strossmayer), which is under the authority of the Ministry, is in charge of monitoring the resource and of scientific analyses.
3.3.2. Use of water for irrigation
Croatia has a very small share of land under irrigation and plans to invest in the construction of public irrigation infrastructure in 2023-27
Only 29 670 ha of agricultural land (1.9% of Croatia UAA) was equipped with irrigation infrastructure in 2016. However, since irrigation and drainage equipment are not in good condition, the effectively irrigated area in the same year was only 16 070 ha (1% of UAA). These shares are well below the EU averages of 9% and 6% for equipped and irrigated areas, respectively (Eurostat, 2019[43]). In 2005, the government launched the National Project of Irrigation and Land and Water Management in the Republic of Croatia (NAPNAV). According to these plans, irrigation potential was estimated at 244 000 hectares (ha). The plan sought to expand irrigated areas to 65 000 ha by 2020, building irrigation infrastructure for a total cost of EUR 396 million (Holjevic, Marusic and Romic, 2007[44]). These plans were compromised by the 2009 economic crisis and irrigation projects implemented under the 2014‑20 Rural Development Programme covered only 7 457 ha of agricultural land, with 11 additional projects covering 9 948 ha in the pipeline and the construction of an irrigation canal with the aim of increasing irrigation capabilities and enriching small water resources in the area of western Slavonia (European Commission, 2020[18]; Ministry of Agriculture, 2024[45]).
The 2023-27 CAP Strategic Plan foresees a budget of EUR 72 million from Pillar 2 for new investments in public irrigation systems. These interventions will support the construction of public systems to enable the supply of water to agricultural plots (as opposed to on-farm systems directly on users’ plots) and is intended to lead to an increase in the net irrigated area. The infrastructure supported includes reservoirs, pumping stations, pipelines, distribution networks, and monitoring and control systems. Systems that obtain water from alternative sources (e.g. rainwater collection) will also be supported, but the use of treated wastewater for irrigation will not. Priority will be given to investments in undeveloped areas, areas with lower than average rainfall, or irrigation systems with a higher economic rate of return and in suitable soil. The investments must be compatible with River Basin Management Plans in accordance with the requirements of the EU Water Framework Directive that also protects the quantitative status of water bodies. Water metering is required and projects in areas with less than good water quantity status are not eligible (Ministry of Agriculture, 2022[3]).
Current regulation of water use for irrigation is managed by the Water Agency (Hrvatske vode), which delivers water use permits and sets fees according to the volume of abstracted water. A water permit specifies the entitled user, the allowable amount of water and the period of application, the purpose and conditions for water withdrawal, as well as the measuring and modality of control of the quantity abstracted. The costs borne by farmers do not include the full opportunity cost of water, just the irrigation costs corresponding to the water abstraction fee, the operating and maintenance costs, and an administrative fee.
The availability of aggregated data on agricultural water use and irrigation in Croatia is limited, and historical data on the volume of water abstraction for agriculture is not available. Nonetheless, it is estimated that irrigation represents only around 5% of all water abstractions in 2020 (Figure 3.10) versus 42% in the 36 countries monitored by the European Environmental Agency. The Water Exploitation Index (WEI+), measuring the percentage of water use against renewable freshwater resources was estimated at 0.361 in 2017 (European Environment Agency, 2020[46]). This is the fifth lowest of the 36 EU and non-EU countries covered by this indicator.
Share of freshwater abstraction for agriculture, Croatia and selected countries and regions, 2020
Note: For OECD countries not reporting data for 2018, closest year was used to estimate the average.
Source: Eurostat (2024) for EU Member States (code : env_wat_abs) and OECD Stat Agri-environmental indicators (2024) of others.
3.3.3. Water quality and agriculture
The quality of water has declined as a consequence of pollution from agriculture
As highlighted in the previous section, the quality of water has declined from the past high level of input use in Croatian agriculture. The country has a relatively high proportion of eutrophic or hypertrophic rivers and lakes. Furthermore, 60% of surface waters are in less than good ecological status, and 8% in less than good chemical status. Groundwater is in better state, with only 3% not in good ecological status and 9% failing on good chemical status (European Commission, 2020[18]). Agricultural nutrients are among the most significant sources of pollution of surface water bodies (43% of surface bodies affected) and of groundwater (6%), with pollution most substantial in the continental part of the country in the Danube River Basin (ibid).
In response to these pressures, the government has implemented several successive Action Programmes with the goal of implementing measures to protect water from agricultural nitrate pollution and prevent further degradation of the water resources. The CAP instruments have been used to promote better practices, in particular the Statutory Management Requirements (SMRs) 1 and 2 targeting phosphate and nitrate pollution, and the Good Agricultural and Environmental Conditions (GAECs) 4, 5, and 6 on water and soil protection. The 2014-22 Rural Development Plan was used to further support the reduction of diffuse pollution, with over 11.8% of agricultural land in Croatia under contracts to improve water management in 2022. The new CAP eco-schemes also give a large budget for better nutrient use, notably EUR 74.3 billion for the use of manure on arable land, while Pillar 2 interventions devote EUR 237.8 billion to organic farming, which could bring further nutrient management benefit depending on the practices adopted. Under the Water Framework Directive, Croatia is required to monitor the ecological status of its water bodies and to develop national level indicators to support this assessment.
3.4.1. Agriculture and forestry exposure to climate change
Agriculture is experiencing the impact of climate change, with the 2022 drought a significant example
Like in many countries, Croatian agriculture is vulnerable to climate change. The Croatian Meteorological and Hydrological Service (DHMZ), which is in charge of meteorological and hydrological forecasts, studies climate evolution and performs long-term modelling to better understand the changing patterns for the country. Temperatures have been increasing in Croatia over the past 60 years, and the occurrence of hot days and heat waves is expected to increase, with risks of exacerbated drought events, water shortages and wildfires. Historically high temperatures were recorded in the summer of 2022, with 3.0-4.3 degrees above the historical average (1981-2010). The number of dry periods in Croatia has increased for all time scales, by up to 60%, and has doubled in the Northern and Central Adriatic regions on a 12-month basis. In addition to the immediate consequences of the lack of precipitation, this creates long-term jeopardy for lakes and underground water reserves due to the limited accumulation capacity of the karstic region. Conversely, a more frequent occurrence of intense precipitation episodes increases the risk of floods and runoffs associated with more severe erosion and possible landslides (Ministry of Economy and Sustainable Development, 2020[47]; Climate-ADAPT, 2023[48]).
These changing climate patterns have consequences for agriculture. Vegetative periods of arable crops (in particular cereals and oilseeds) are affected, with higher water demand and overall anticipated yield reductions of 3-8% for current crops in Croatia by 2050. Fruit and vegetable crops (apples, grapevine, olives) are already affected with shorter vegetative periods, in particular in regions like Slavonia and Dalmatia. Risks of crop losses are also higher, with a greater occurrence of severe droughts, storm winds, floods, hail or fire episodes. Drought alone caused between 2013 and 2016 around HRK 3 billion (EUR 400 million) of damage to the sector in Croatia; and the damage from the 2022 summer drought episode was EUR 300 million (Ministry of Economy and Sustainable Development, 2020[47]; Climate-ADAPT, 2023[48]). The European Environmental Agency considers Croatia as one of the EU Member States with the highest cumulative share of damages from extreme weather and climate events in relation to the gross national product (Ministry of Agriculture, 2022[3]). A lack of groundwater and an increase in air temperature are perceived as the main challenges for the future of agriculture in Croatia, although new opportunities could emerge with the possibility to grow crops with longer vegetative periods.
The forestry sector is also highly exposed. The fire season is longer and more intense. The phenological phases of tree species are also affected, with an earlier start of vegetation and longer vegetation seasons depending on species and habitats, which impact species migration but also patterns of distribution of pests, including invasive species. Some forest ecosystems, such as oak forests, could face decreased productivity, whereas broader ecosystems damages could result from forest fires, strong winds increase occurrence, icing events, floods or pest attacks, reducing the quality of wood varieties and affecting the overall services provisioning of forests (Climate-ADAPT, 2023[48]).
3.4.2. Adaptation strategy of Croatia
Agriculture accounts for nearly half of the estimated national adaptation funding requirements The National Strategy for Adaptation to Climate Change by 2040 acknowledges that agriculture and forestry are among the sectors most exposed to climate change and defines response measures to better adapt these sectors to this threat. Eight measures have been defined for agriculture:
Implementation of the climate change adaptation experimental-research programme in agriculture (P-01).
Increasing the water absorption capacity of agricultural soil (P-02).
Application of appropriate soil tillage methods (e.g. soil conservation tillage and other methods of reduced soil tillage) (P-03).
Cultivation of species and varieties of agricultural crops for food and non-food supply chain and breeds of domestic animals that are more resilient to climate change (P-04).
Integration of climate change risks into the development of irrigation systems (P-05).
Application of anti-erosion measures (P-06).
Reconstruction and construction of amelioration of drainage structures (P-07).
Insurance of agricultural production from losses caused by adverse climatic conditions (P-08).
Among these measures, five specific actions were ranked of very high importance in the National Strategic for Adaptation (P-01 to P-05), and two of high importance (P-06 and P-07).
Twelve climate adaptation measures specific to forests have also been developed. These include: increased knowledge capacity on the vulnerability and the monitoring of forest resources; strengthened capacities for forest protection; implementation of the green infrastructure concept for urban and rural areas; prediction of change to the distribution of harmful organisms; afforestation and reforestation measures; awareness raising for stakeholder and forest owners; development of risk assessment tools; exploration of possible adaptation measures for wild animals; and identification of communities and forest areas that are most vulnerable to climate change.
Ten additional measures target the improvement of water resources management, including structural and non-structural measures to adapt to potential damage from strong rainfall and flooding events, strengthened research and management capacities on the risks of extreme events, increased capacity for exploration, and sustainable management of groundwater. Other domains of action include measures on biodiversity (development of early warning systems for protected areas, preservation and application of traditional agricultural practices and knowledge for resilience of semi-natural and natural ecosystems), risk management (strengthened role for the Croatian Platform for Disaster Risk Reduction, multi-sectoral and sectoral risks assessments, integrated and standardised cross-sectoral database of threads, measures, damages and losses) and enhanced general monitoring and forecasting capacity.
The draft National Adaptation Plan estimates at HRK 27.6 billion (EUR 3.6 billion) the total amount required to implement adaptation measures for the period up to 2040. These resources are planned to come from different sources of funding: the state budget and the European Structural and Investment Funds, as well as the private sector, regional and local governments budget and national companies. Government expenditures would focus on measures and activities on public awareness, capacity building, project documentation preparation, or pilot projects, whereas larger infrastructure projects are expected to be financed by EU funds. Out of this adaptation funding needs, agriculture would require HRK 12.6 billion (EUR 1.7 billion), forestry HRK 5.2 billion (EUR 0.7 billion) and water resources HRK 5.4 billion (EUR 0.7 billion). These three domains therefore represent 84% of the estimated adaptation needs, with agriculture alone accounting for 46%. The required agriculture adaptation funding is thus roughly equivalent to the total budget of Croatia for Pillar 2 under the 2023-27 CAP.
3.4.3. Agricultural policy measures for adaptation
Agricultural insurance and irrigation are the most important policy focus areas
Measures under the Common Agricultural Policy are expected to support these adaptation objectives. The 2014-22 Rural Development Programme included several measures which can enhance adaptation capacity: better inputs and manure management, development of organic farming, preservation of the High Natural Value grasslands, as well as non-productive investments. Many of these measures are extended with the CSP for 2023-27.
Irrigation development is an area of particular interest. The National Adaptation Plan considers boosting initial investments planned under the NAPNAV programme and targets a total of 100 000 ha of irrigated land, which the 2023-27 CSP will partly support through Pillar 2 (see Section 3.3.2 for more detail).
In the context of the Common Agricultural Policy, farmers can receive two types of support to cope with extreme events: co-financing of insurance costs before the event (Article 76 of EU regulation 2021/2115); and co-financing of eligible cost for the restoration of damaged or lost production potential after the event (Article 73). However, in Croatia only about 8% of farms (but 50% of production) are covered by insurance because the high-risk profiles related to exposure to drought and low deployment of irrigation lead to high insurance premiums (European Commission, 2020[18]). Public expenditure on agricultural insurance is relatively low: under the 2014-22 RDP it was estimated at about EUR 98 million as of end-2022. In the 2023-27 CSP, the budget for this category is EUR 70 million (4% of the Pillar 2 budget). See also Section 2.5 on agricultural risk management.
To strengthen absorptive capacity, Croatia published in 2022 its Disaster Risk Management Strategy until 2030. It defines two main objectives: i) disaster risk reduction through better prediction and prevention tools; and ii) increase of preparedness for disaster management. The Strategy is under the lead of the Ministry of Internal Affairs, but the Ministry of Agriculture is involved for the implementation of specific measures related to plant diseases, animal diseases and drought. The Disaster Management Action Plan attached to the strategy for the period 2021-24 includes the completion of 13 irrigation projects (5 400 ha) by 2024 at the latest.
Monitoring the implementation of adaptation measures has proven challenging
Croatia must report on the implementation progress in its adaptation policy and measures in the context of its EU and international obligations, monitoring adaptation performance and budgetary efforts. Counties and large cities also have the obligation to report on environmental protection programmes that require four-year action plans. However, the difficulty to establish indicators of progress on adaptation action hinders the monitoring of implementation. The National Adaptation Strategy defines a first set of possible indicators to be used in the future: production and area under irrigation, share of land sown with crops resilient to climate stress, mass of eroded agricultural soil, area of land with functional drainage, irrigation water savings achieved by specific programmes, share of land with reduced or no tillage, among others. Similar indicators are planned to be used for forests (monitoring of fire occurrence and forest status and damages). Further work is planned at the national level and in co-operation at the international and EU levels to improve the measurement of progress towards adaptation. Delays in the implementation of some measures can be a challenge for the strengthening of the adaptation capacity. For instance, in its review of the second River Basin Management Plan of Croatia (2016), the European Commission noted that the country had still to produce a drought management plan (European Commission, 2020[18]).
3.5.1. Current emissions trends for AFOLU
Agricultural GHG emissions have declined over the last three decades
GHG emissions in Croatia have declined significantly since the early 1990s due to the structural adjustments after the breakup of Yugoslavia. Agricultural emissions followed this trend with a decrease of 38% of GHG emissions since 1990, including a decline in the last decade driven by reduced livestock numbers (Figure 3.11). In 2021, the sector emitted 2.7 million tonnes of CO2 equivalent (MtCO2-eq) and accounted for 11% of the total country emissions (without LULUCF). This represents an annual decline of -2% following a peak at 3.5 MtCO2-eq in 2008. The objective of emissions reduction by 2030 for sectors not covered by the EU Emissions Trading System (non-ETS, which include agriculture) under the European Union’s Effort Sharing Regulation were revised in 2023 from -7% to -16.7% for Croatia, compared to 2005 levels. Agriculture has already exceeded this target, with a current reduction level of ‑19.7%. However, this is not sufficient to compensate the lower performance of other sectors, as the overall non-ETS reduction in Croatia was only -6.1% in 2022 compared to 2005. To date, no sector-specific national target has been assigned for agriculture.
Relative change in GHG emissions from agriculture in Croatia and selected regions, 1990-2021
Source: OECD (2023), Agri-environmental indicators (database) (OECD, 2023[49]).
Agricultural emissions in Croatia mainly originate from livestock – methane from enteric fermentation (40%) and methane and nitrous oxide from manure management (20%). Non-CO2 emissions from soils generate most of the remainder (37%) through nitrous oxide emissions from fertiliser application and manure deposition (Figure 3.12). Livestock emissions are at a historical low – half of their 1990 level – due to a sharp decrease in the number of animals. Only three EU Member States display trends of decreasing emissions from the livestock sector (European Court of Auditors, 2021[50]). Soil emissions have also been notably declining since the 2000s, but after reaching a minimum in 2014 they are presently on an upward trend with an increase of 2.9% per year.
It should be noted that the 2.7 MtCO2-eq emissions from agriculture do not account for emissions from fuel combustion by the sector. Around 0.8 MtCO2-eq is attributed to fuel combustion in agriculture, forestry and fisheries. Emissions from this source declined between 2010 and 2017, but in recent years have increased by almost 10%, which is mostly attributable to agriculture and forestry.20
The land use, land-use change and forestry (LULUCF) sector plays an important role in the emission budget of Croatia. Land represents a substantial sink: on average, it sequestered -5.8 MtCO2 per year in 2019-21, which offsets 24% of other national anthropogenic emissions. Most of the sink is related to forest, but grassland also participates in sequestration (-0.3 MtCO2/yr). Cropland represents a source (with 0.3 MtCO2/yr), but this level decreased by more than 40% over the past decade, which indicates an improvement in cropland management. The forest sink has been significantly reduced over the past decades due to intensified management of forest. From 1991 to 2006, it was in the range of ‑7‑8 MtCO2/yr, but since 2016 it has not been greater than ‑6 MtCO2/yr.
Total and AFOLU GHG emissions in Croatia, 2021
Note: Yellow colour in the panel b, c, and d correspond to nitrous oxide emissions, red colours correspond to methane emissions, and blue colours to carbon dioxide. Fuel combustion corresponds to the sectors agriculture/forestry/fishing as per UNFCCC reporting.
Source: OECD Stat (2024) Agri-environmental indicators for AFOLU emissions, OECD GHG emission database, for total and sectoral emissions and UNFCCC (2024) for fossil fuel emissions from agriculture, fisheries and forestry.
3.5.2. Commitments for climate mitigation
Croatia undertook emission reduction commitments since signing the Kyoto Protocol and recently adopted stronger targets reflecting higher ambition at the EU level
Croatia is an Annex I Party to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and had already taken GHG emission reduction commitments at the Kyoto Protocol before aligning with the EU’s policies in 2013 and becoming a Party to the Paris Agreement in 2017. Over the years, the country has produced many reports on its GHG emission trends and climate mitigation strategy as part of international and EU requirements. The 7th National Communication to the UNFCCC and the 4th Biennial Report were submitted to the UNFCCC in 2018 and 2019, respectively. The next editions of these two reports, due by the end of 2022, were still not published at the time of preparation of the 2023 United Nations Climate Change Conference (COP28).
In addition to UNFCCC reporting documentation, several other important reports were produced, providing more details on Croatia’s sectoral strategies and plans. At the end of 2019, the first version of the Integrated National Energy and Climate Plan (NECP) for 2021-30 was released. In 2021, it was followed by the publication of the Low-carbon development strategy until 2030 with a view to 2050, which elaborated on a set of potential measures targeting emissions from agriculture. All government communications on climate mitigation acknowledge that agriculture plays an important role, noting the specificity of the sector as to food security and livelihoods objectives. The 2023-27 CAP budget is intended to support climate action, with 30% of the rural development budget allocated to environmental and climate measures.
With the “Fit-for-55” increased ambition at European Union level, Croatia submitted in mid-2023 the draft of an updated NECP reflecting stronger targets. This plan endorses the various commitments for Croatia, defined at EU level, including the new reduction target of -16.7% for non-ETS sectors, as indicated in the previous section. The LULUCF sector in Croatia will need to enhance its sink by about 0.6 Mt CO2 in the period 2026-2921 in order to contribute to the enhanced EU sink target of 310 Mt CO2.
3.5.3. Climate mitigation measures in agriculture
Most measures for agriculture included in the most recent national plan can be closely mapped to CSP interventions
The latest version of the NECP specifies a detailed list of measures for each sector, indicating the Ministry in charge, the supervisory body, the timeline and budget and the monitoring method. In the case of agriculture, it includes ten measures, in line with the recommendations from the Low Carbon Strategy. Most of them are closely linked to the 2023-27 CSP (Table 3.3). In December 2023, Croatia submitted an updated version of the NECP to the European Commission; this list will continue to evolve, with close alignment with the latest CSP version.
Note: Budget estimates for the CAP measures were updated to reflect the most recent CSP data compared to those stated in the 2023 NECP. The CAP funding amounts in the right column refer to: yearly budget in the case of eco-schemes and total public funding budgeted (including both EU and national funds) in the case of rural development interventions.
Source: Integrated National Energy and Climate Plan (Ministry of Economy and Sustainable Development, 2023[51]) and 2023-27 CSP (Ministry of Agriculture, 2023[27]).
The implementation of these measures is planned by 2030 and those in the CSP have a 2027 horizon. Some additional options were not elaborated in the draft updated NECP, but are listed in Croatia’s Low Carbon Strategy. They include changes in the diet of cattle and pigs and the quality of fodder; changing the livestock breeding system; improvement of breeding and selection programme, health, and welfare of animals; changing the way people eat; and collection and processing of agricultural plantations and residues for use for energy purposes.
3.5.4. Climate mitigation measures for LULUCF
Some mitigation measures in the draft national plan require clearer implementation pathways
The NECP includes similar measures targeting forestry and LULUCF activities in the agricultural sector as detailed below in Table 3.4.
Other measures announced in the NECP are also relevant to the AFOLU sector. In particular: the transformation of the bioeconomy sector (MS-9); collecting and processing of biomass from agriculture, forestry, fishing and aquaculture (MS-12); the elimination of fossil fuel subsidies (MS-13), with the plan to review current regulations by 2030, including for tax exemptions granted to agriculture; carbon removal certification (MS-14), notably through carbon farming and forestry solutions; the reduction of food waste (GO-5); and the use of renewable energy sources for thermal purposes (OIE-5), which includes notably biomass use.
Note: Budget estimate by measure not available in the case of the LULUCF measures for NECP. Budget estimates for the CAP measures were updated to reflect the most recent CSP data compared to those stated in the 2023 NECP. The CAP funding amounts of rural development interventions show the total public funding budgeted (including both EU and national funds).
Source: Integrated National Energy and Climate Plan (Ministry of Economy and Sustainable Development, 2023[51]) and Croatia’s CAP CSP.
The NECP considers that if all these additional measures are implemented, agricultural emissions could be further reduced by 0.3 MtCO2-eq by 2030 (-11% compared to present levels). The costs associated to these measures are estimated at EUR 585 million over the period, and an additional equivalent investment is required for the period 2030-50. No cost assessment is provided for LULUCF activities, although the report notes that required funding is well below the available resources.
In its review of the updated NCEP draft, the European Commission pointed out that more details would be needed on the emission savings attributed to agriculture, linking those to specific measures and the use of EU funding. Additionally, no specific pathway was given for the achievement of the LULUCF target and the contribution of renewable energy from biomass to the climate mitigation efforts. Concrete plans were also expected as to the phase out of fossil fuel subsidies. The Commission noted that the net-zero ambition was not explicitly transposed within the overall emission objectives of Croatia (European Commission, 2023[52]). These elements must be incorporated in the updated version of the NCEP.
Forests are in a good conservation status, but their carbon sink effect has declined over the last decade
Wooded areas covered 48.1% of Croatia’s territory in 2018 according to the latest EU Land Use and Cover Area frame Survey (LUCAS). These lands are composed of 56% of high forest, 14% of coppice forest, and the remainder of different degrees of degraded forest vegetation.22 Ninety-five per cent of these forested areas is in a state of natural composition, and 73% is considered to be in good ecological condition (compared to 52% on average in the European Union); only 12% is considered to be in bad condition (Convention for Biological Diversity, 2023[11]; European Environment Agency, 2023[53]). About 4 500 plant species and subspecies, 260 autochthonous tree species, and more than 100 forest plant communities can be found within these habitats.
Management of forests in Croatia follows a long tradition, with legislation first introduced in the 18th century (Box 1.2). About 76% of forested land (and 71% of high forest and coppice low forest) was owned in 2015 by the state and largely managed by the state-owned company Hrvatske šume (Croatian Forest).23 Since 2002, all state-owned forests receive a Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) certificate stating that the forests are managed according to strict sustainability standards which are regularly renewed. The remaining 24% of forests and forested land (660 000 ha in 2015) was owned by 600 000 individual private owners, most of them with forest stand of less than 1 ha (Ministry of Agriculture, 2017[54]). The share of forest covered with long-term management plans has increased over time, from 73% in 2000 to 83% in 2015, as private owners were requested to make stronger commitments and all forests are at present covered (FAO, 2020[55]).
About two-thirds (69%) of forests in Croatia are in a productive state. This share has decreased over the past decade as forest protection measures were extended. The forest area protected from management has tripled since 2010, and represents at present 13% of areas, whereas multifunctional forest has increased from 9% to 14% and conservation areas for biodiversity now represent 3% of the total forest area. When considering areas protected under Natura 2000, the share of forest and wooded land under environmental protection stands at around 45% (European Environment Agency, 2023[16]). Forest management remains impossible on 30 970 ha of land (1.1% of the forested land) that are still affected by landmines from the 1991-1995 conflict, which significantly disrupted forest management. Harvested volumes have been expanding over the past ten years in order to restore the management of part of this land, and further harvest should take place after the full completion of the demining process.
Forest management includes forest conversion and afforestation activities, but these are relatively limited compared to the full extent of forests. Between 2010 and 2017, the area deforested was always lower than 500 ha per year and did not affect more than 0.08% of the forest area. Over the same period, the afforested area represented 0.11% of the forest area. Indeed, the forest area is more driven by natural expansion, which was ten times larger than managed afforestation, reaching 3 400 ha of new forest per year between 2015 and 2020. In addition, 900 ha of forest was regenerated per year, with reforestation following clear cuts (FAO, 2020[55]). New afforestation plans in the context of the climate policy should further support forest expansion (Section 3.5).
These managements trends have supported a growing stock of biomass over the past decades, from 360 million cubic metres (m3) of wood over bark in 2000 to 427 million m3 in 2020. As a consequence of this growing stock, Croatian forests have represented a significant carbon sink over the years (‑5.8 MtCO2 in 2021, see Section 3.5.1), even though the forest sink effect was reduced over the past decade with the increased harvested volumes, on average by 140 ktCO2 per year (or 50 ktCO2 per year with other LULUCF sources). With currently planned harvests, the sink associated to the forest reference level has been estimated at ‑4 368 ktCO2 for 2021-25 (Ministry of Economy and Sustainable Development, 2019[56]).
The Croatian Government considers that the objective set in the EU LULUCF directive of increasing the LULUCF sink of Croatia by 593 ktCO2 over 2026-29 is difficult to achieve, notably due to the unfavourable age structure of the forests (Ministry of Economy and Sustainable Development, 2023[51]). It would require significantly revising logging plans − while the Renewable Energy Directive also incentivises the use of solid biomass for bioenergy − and potentially converting some coppice stands into high forest, which would represent a substantial economic loss for the sector. Croatia is also closely monitoring the natural disturbances to the carbon stock associated with wildfires and other extreme events (windbreaks, snowbreaks and icebreaks). Over the period 2001-17, five years recorded a loss of carbon greater than 0.2 MtCO2 due to exceptional fires, including 0.9 MtCO2 in 2017 alone (Ministry of Economy and Sustainable Development, 2019[56]).
Energy use by agriculture has increased and is projected to grow further. There is scope to reduce consumption and increase the use of renewable energies by the sector
Direct on-farm energy consumption has been relatively stable over the past 20 years. Following a slight decline after 2010, between 2015 and 2020 it increased at an average rate of around 2% to reach its highest level since 2001 at 233 kilotonnes of oil equivalent (ktoe) (OECD, 2023[57]). This represents 3% of the final energy consumption of the Croatian economy, a share similar to the European Union’s (Eurostat, 2022[58]).
Over time, the mix of fuels consumed by the sector has evolved, reflecting efficiency improvements and structural changes. Consumption of petroleum products in 2020 was 6% lower than in 2010, but still represents 81% of the energy sources (FAO, 2023[59]). As indicated in Section 2.4.4, Croatia applies an exemption from the excise duty on diesel for agricultural use (European Commission, 2022[60]).
The use of other energy carriers has steadily increased. Natural gas consumption increased by 39% over the 2010-20 period, and now represents 11% of the sector’s energy use, whereas the direct use of heat has been multiplied by six and now accounts for 3% of consumption. Electricity use has remained stable at 5%. These structural changes have led to a decrease in energy emissions for the sector of around -3% over the ten-year period (FAO, 2023[59]; UNFCCC, 2023[61]).
On-farm energy consumption is expected to increase further in the future due to the frequent unusually high temperatures that require the use of cooling facilities for animals or for storing fruits and vegetables. However, there is scope to reduce it through the energy renovation of agricultural buildings or by conditioning new constructions in accordance with energy efficiency rules (Ministry of Agriculture, 2022[3]).
At 3%, the share of agriculture in the production of renewable energy in Croatia is well below the EU average (12%). This is due to a low development of biofuel crops compared to other EU Member States. As a consequence, in 2022 the consumption of renewable energy in the transport sector was only 2%, which is the lowest incorporation rate in the European Union and well below the 9.6% EU average. The use of renewable energy is much larger in other sectors such as electricity (55%), and heating and cooling (37%), both well above the respective EU averages of 41% and 25%. This large renewable share in Croatia is explained by the contribution of solid biomass from forest, which accounted for 63% of renewable energy production in 2021, above the EU average of 41% (European Commission, 2023[62]).
In its observation letter to the 2021 proposal by Croatia for its CSP, the European Commission noted the low use of renewable resources from Croatian agriculture, pointing in particular to the untapped potential for developing biogas production facilities.
In September 2023, Croatia presented a draft Bioeconomy Strategy until 2035 that partly covers this domain (Ministry of Agriculture, 2023[63]). The strategy covers public policies from all sectors relevant to the bioeconomy and defines the vision and strategic goals of bioeconomy development, considering the principles of sustainable development and national development directions, development needs and potentials of the bioeconomy. In particular, it plans to identify and remove obstacles for the development of bioeconomy sectors, map the availability and biomass of the various sectors – including food and beverages, microbial biomass, wood processing, bioplastics and renewable energy –, support research and innovation for the sector and foster the consumption of domestic bioeconomy products. A first step was achieved with a national Central Portal for Bioeconomy, CROBIOHUB,24 to connect stakeholders and promote the bioeconomy, but other concrete measures have yet to be defined.
Croatia demonstrates an overall good state of natural resources, despite pressures on its environment from agricultural activities and other drivers. The country, which has some of the richest ecosystems in Europe, has a comprehensive set of national agri-environmental laws and regulations that cover a wide range of areas, some of which have been amended and revised several times under the impetus of accession to the European Union. Some gaps in this policy framework need to be filled and governance reviewed, however, in order for Croatia to benefit from a full and consistent package across all environmental dimensions for agriculture.
The EU CAP has framed the core agri-environmental objectives since 2013. The new 2023-27 CAP Strategic Plan (CSP) includes significant funding that is earmarked for crop diversification under the new eco-schemes, as well as for organic farming, and animal welfare. It is complemented by the Recovery and Resilience Plan (RRP) that funds better monitoring of agricultural soils. Together, these measures are meant to address the remaining challenges for the sector. However, nutrient surpluses are still above the EU average, and ammonia emissions have increased over the past ten years despite a notable reduction in synthetic fertiliser application. The 2030 national target on ammonia emissions is at risk, as well as surface water quality, if these trends continue. Support to organic farming expansion, as planned under the new CSP and the 2023 national strategy, may help improve nutrient management and combat soil erosion. Further incentives will be needed as conversion to organic farming has decelerated recently, and current trends fall short of the ambitious target of the EU Farm to Fork strategy.
In the face of climate change risks, agricultural insurance and irrigation are currently the main areas of focus for the sector’s adaptation. There are plans to step up the construction of public irrigation infrastructures in 2023-27 to better use the abundant, albeit unevenly distributed, water resources. However, monitoring and measuring progress towards adaptation has proven challenging, even if a first set of indicators has been defined. Climate action will also require emission reduction efforts as the sector represents 11% of the national GHG emissions. There is at present no specific climate mitigation plan or emission reduction target for agriculture and the 2023-27 CAP interventions are the main instrument supporting the sector’s climate mitigation efforts. There is scope for further measures, as energy use in the sector is increasing and Croatia subsidises diesel use for farmers. Use of renewable energies could be ramped up and plans to develop the bioeconomy sector accelerated, as these are well behind other EU Member States.
Protecting biodiversity should remain a priority. Croatia’s current conservation policy has ensured a high share of protected areas, putting the country in a leading position in the European Union and well above the Kunming-Montreal international target. However, land abandonment threatens the conservation of sensitive habitats such as karst pastures. The use of forested land has a particular role to play at the interface of biodiversity and climate policies. More forests have been put into production over the past decade. EU climate objectives require enhancing the forest carbon sink, which will pose particular challenges in terms of expected revenue loss for the sector. More detailed forest management plans are necessary to ensure a feasible path for the sector to achieve its economic, climate and biodiversity objectives.
In light of these observations, Croatia appears well placed in terms of its agri-environmental policy package and prospects, although a number of challenges remain. Many new strategy documents and plans aim to respond to international commitments and compliance requirements, but having the capacity to implement these strategies and monitor their progress is challenging and will be key for the success of the environmental objectives set for agriculture.
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← 1. The methodology for pastureland statistics in Croatia was updated in 2013, therefore data for pastureland and agricultural land are only used as from that year.
← 2. “Cross-compliance”, also named under the new CAP “conditionality", designates the set of rules that EU farmers need to respect to receive EU CAP payments.
← 3. Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2024/587 of 12 February.
← 4. Natura 2000 sites are specific land area designated for specific conservation measures by each EU country in accordance with the EU Birds and Habitat Directives. Such measures should be designed based on the ecological needs identified, and each member state then has the responsibility of defining and implementing the site management accordingly, in cooperation with local landowners and managers.
← 5. Eurostat defines high input intensity farm as the EU farms with the largest purchase of inputs, based on a threshold established at EU level by considering the most intensive farms representing one third of total EU UAA in 2010 (or 2013 for Croatian farms). The input threshold obtained for high input farms is EUR 560 per ha across the European Union. Any farm with a larger input use – covering purchased fertilisers and soil improvers, pesticides, traps and baits, bird scarers, anti-hail shells, frost protection and purchased feed – is designated as high input farm.
← 6. High nature value areas are defined as areas where “agriculture is a major (usually the dominant) land use and where that agriculture supports, or is associated with, either a high species and habitat diversity or the presence of species of European conservation concern, or both” (Paracchini et al., 2008[67]). Eurostat reports extent of high nature value environment as its agri-environmental indicator #23.
← 7. Agricultural landscape features (or simply landscape features) are defined as small fragments of non-productive natural or semi-natural vegetation in agricultural landscape which provide ecosystem services and support for biodiversity (Czucz et al., 2022[66]).
← 8. Information provided by Croatia to the OECD in the context of the annual agricultural policy monitoring.
← 9. Poland and Malta.
← 10. The EU Recovery and Resilience Facility is the key funding instrument of the Next Generation EU plan to mitigate the social and economic impact of the coronavirus pandemic. It contemplates reforms and investments in several areas, to be implemented by 2026. Croatia’s plan consists of 157 investments and 78 reforms, supported by EUR 10 billion in grants and loans. The plan’s Component 1.5 aims at increasing food security and the competitiveness of the agri-food sector through eight investments and four reforms.
← 11. In the case of organic soils (peatland), the available data is limited, but published estimates suggest that the area of land involved for Croatia would be rather small: 56 594 hectares, i.e. 0.06% of the land in the country (Tanneberger et al., 2017[65]).
← 12. The OECD average does not include Chile and Mexico due to data gaps.
← 13. According to Croatian authorities, this exceedance is due to the correction of emissions made during the comprehensive technical review of national emissions calculations from 2015, in accordance with the Directive on the reduction of national emissions of certain atmospheric pollutants (2016/2284/EU), and not to an increase in emission sources (number animals or manure management) (Ministry of Agriculture, 2022[3]).
← 14. Emission ceilings for NH3 in Croatia have been set at the following levels through the successive EU regulations: 30 Gt for 2010-2019 (initial level to be reached at the accession date), 46 Gt for 2020-2029 (1% reduction compared to 2005 level) and 35 Gt as from 2030 (25% reduction compared to 2005 level).
← 15. The indicator is here focused on pesticide sales and therefore does not provide an accurate indication of pesticide use, the toxicity of the active substances used or their potential environmental harm.
← 16. For the rest of the OECD, based on statistics of 2016, which is the last year with data reported for the United States.
← 17. Harmonised risk indicators were established to measure progress in meeting the objectives of the European Union Directive 2009/128/EC on the sustainable use of pesticides. HRI 1 is based on pesticide sales data reported to the European Commission by Member States and measures the risk to human health and the environment from pesticides.
← 18. Population correction unit is proxy for the size of the food-producing animal population (including all horses and excluding companion animals).
← 19. On the basis of the 25 European countries with complete data on the period. Data gaps exist for Greece, Malta and Romania. Note that the United Kingdom is accounted for in this average.
← 20. According to government statistics (Ministry of Agriculture, 2019[64]), the share of fisheries in the final energy consumption of this sectoral aggregate was 11% in 2017.
← 21. The exact regulatory target is 593 kt CO2.
← 22. Other wooded land in Croatia includes scrubland (maquia, garigue, scrubs and shrub). Forest management in these areas consists mainly of protecting measures to prevent their further degradation and stimulate their succession to forests (FAO, 2020[55]).
← 23. A small fraction of this is owned and managed by other public entities.