Social expenditures are low in Romania, and social transfers and taxes have the lowest effect on poverty reduction compared to European OECD countries. Very low indexation of social benefits curbed social spending for more than a decade. Inhabitants of rural areas, among them Roma and people with disabilities, face particular social challenges. The government has directed substantial policy effort towards these areas in recent years. In 2023, a reform of Romania’s minimum-income scheme increased both benefit amounts and coverage. This reform is likely to reduce poverty. Additionally, current national strategies in the areas of social inclusion, poverty reduction, homelessness, long-term care and active ageing show clearly that improving protection against poverty is a policy priority. Separate strategies focus policy efforts on improving the situation of the Roma minority group, securing equal opportunities for women and men, and preventing and combating domestic violence. Almost a quarter of the allocations made by Romania’s National Recovery and Resilience Plan (NRRP) is dedicated to social spending, with much of the focus on disadvantaged groups and poorer regions.
OECD Reviews of Labour Market and Social Policies: Romania 2025
Social spending is low in Romania, at 17.6% of GDP in 2021. On average, OECD countries spend 22.1% of GDP on social programmes, and no OECD EU country spends less than Romania (Figure 5.1). Spending on old-age benefits in Romania is in line with the OECD average, while income support for the working-age population is a third lower than in OECD countries on average. Spending on social assistance and unemployment benefits was around 0.1% of GDP each in 2021, which is five times less than the average across OECD countries (Figure 5.2). Moreover, spending on social services other than health in Romania was 1% in 2021, which is more than two times lower than the average across OECD countries.
Public social expenditure by broad social policy area as a percentage of GDP, 2021
Note: Countries are ranked by decreasing order of public social expenditure as a percentage of GDP. Spending on active labour market programmes (ALMPs) cannot be split by cash/services breakdown; they are included however in the total public spending (shown in brackets). Income support to the working-age population refers to spending on the following SOCX cash categories: incapacity benefits, family cash benefits, unemployment and other social policy areas categories.
Source: OECD calculations based on OECD Data Explorer • Social expenditure aggregates.
Spending on unemployment benefits and social assistance relative to GDP declined substantially over the last decade as Romania’s labour market improved. Unemployment expenditures were almost six times lower in 2021 than in 2013, while social assistance spending was two times lower in 2021 than in 2013 (Figure 5.2). The unemployment rate declining from 7% to 4% during this period (see Chapter 2) can explain only part of the drop in expenditures. Romania did not adjust benefit amounts even to account for inflation between 2008 and 2022. Since 2022, however, the country has substantially increased benefit amounts.
Cash social spending for the working-age population by social policy branch, percentage of GDP, Romania (2013‑21) and selected OECD countries (2019)
Note: Expenditures in the unemployment and social assistance categories are primarily for unemployment benefits and social benefits. The incapacity category primarily includes spending on disability pensions and paid sick leave. The family category includes maternity, paternity and parental-leave benefits, as well as other family allowances including child benefits. Year 2021 is provisional data.
Source: OECD Data Explorer • Social expenditure aggregates and unpublished data for Romania.
Taken together, taxes and public benefits have a lower impact on reducing income poverty of the working-age population in Romania than on average across OECD countries. The income poverty rate based on market income before taxes and transfers was 21% in 2021. After accounting for taxation and benefits this figure is 15% (according to data from the OECD Income Distribution Database). This compares to a substantially larger reduction from 18% to 10% on average across OECD countries. Romania has the lowest relative reduction in poverty by taxes and transfers compared to European OECD countries.
Interventions financed by the EU Social Inclusion and Dignity Programme 2021‑27 (SIDP)1 intend to improve the welfare of the population in Romania’s rural communities that have limited or no access to social services. These interventions also aim to support vulnerable groups facing the risk of poverty or social exclusion. Interventions include investments in education infrastructure, measures to address students dropping out of school, and providing cultural and social services to people living in rural areas. The programme aims to cover 100 000 children, 10 000 vulnerable older people, 40 000 people with disabilities, and 400 000 people in rural areas. The EU provides 80% of its financing, which amounted to 1.3% of Romanian GDP in 2023 (Eurostat, 2024[1]).
5.2.1. Unemployment benefits are low and many jobseekers are not covered
The eligibility conditions and duration of unemployment benefits in Romania are not remarkable compared to OECD countries. Unemployment benefits (called Unemployment Indemnity, Indemnizatia de Somaj) are paid to individuals who have lost their job for reasons beyond their control or have graduated from education institutions and not found employment. They are available to people from the age of 16 or older who are not eligible for old-age pensions. To receive benefits, an unemployed person must be ready to start working. Unemployment benefits can be combined with income up to a certain threshold. This threshold is equal to the value of the Reference Social Indicator (RSI), which was around 8% of the average wage in 2023. When a jobseeker finds a job, he or she may keep 30% of his or her unemployment benefits until the end of the eligibility period. To be eligible, contributions on earnings must have been made for at least 12 months in the 24 months preceding the claim. The period of payment of the benefits is: six months for one year of contributions; nine months for five years of contributions; and 12 months for 10 years of contributions. Among OECD countries, Canada, Czechia, Hungary, the Slovak Republic, the United Kingdom and the United States pay unemployment benefits for half a year or less, while in Belgium, Denmark, France, Iceland, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal and Spain the benefits can be claimed for two years or more. In some OECD countries, individuals who do not qualify for contributory unemployment benefit might receive means-tested unemployment assistance benefits, which is not the case in Romania.
In Romania, the amount of the unemployment benefit is low. This benefit also provides little insurance against income loss and does not incentivise reporting full earnings. It is composed of two elements: first, a flat-rate benefit equal to the RSI, and second, a variable amount that replaces between 3% and 10% of jobseekers’ earnings in the preceding year. This variable amount depends on the length of the contribution period, which can vary from 3 to 20 years. For people with unstable careers the unemployment amount is likely to be the lowest, as the contribution requirements restart from zero when a jobseeker finds a job. The unemployment benefits replace only 30% of income for those earning two‑thirds of the average wage in Romania, compared to the OECD average of 56% (Figure 5.3). Unemployed graduates from education institutions receive the benefit at 50% of the RSI for six months. Since March 2022, the RSI amount has been linked to inflation. Before, it was adjusted in a discretionary way. The unemployment benefit is neither taxable nor means-tested. Unemployment benefits do not provide comfort to individuals searching for a good job that would be a good fit; rather, the benefits incentivise jobseekers quickly accepting a job offer.
Only 11.5% of jobseekers in Romania received unemployment benefits in 2023 (Figure 5.3, Panel B). This rate was much higher – 30.6% – in 2013, when the unemployment rate was higher and the average unemployment duration was lower. On average among 25 European OECD countries in 2019, 30% of jobseekers received unemployment benefits. The proportion of jobseekers receiving benefits varied between countries with 10% in Poland and the Slovak Republic to more than 50% in Austria, Belgium, Finland and Germany (OECD, 2023[2]). Currently, many individuals registered as unemployed do not receive unemployment benefits in Romania because their record of contribution since their previous period of unemployment is too short, or because they have been unemployed for more than a year. Indeed, 40% of all unemployed individuals in Romania were unemployed for more than 12 months in 2023 (Eurostat, 2024[3]). Additionally, large informal employment in the country (see Chapter 2) reduces coverage.
Note: Net replacement rates give the share of previous net income replaced by unemployment benefits and top-ups for a single person with previous earnings at the average wage in the second and seventh month of registered unemployment. Calculations are for a 40‑year‑old single person without children who has been continuously employed since the age of 18 in full-time employment. Previous earnings are at the median of the national full-time earnings distribution. Data refer to 2022 for Australia, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, Israel, Japan, Portugal and the United States. The pseudo-coverage rate gives the number of unemployed entitled to benefit as a percentage of unemployed (Panel B).
Source: OECD Tax-Benefit model version 2.6.0, (Panel A), OECD Data Explorer • Employment and unemployment by five‑year age group and sex - levels for the number of unemployed and National Institute for Statistics – ROMANIA (SOM101C) – Registered unemployed beneficiaries of money rights, by age group, sex and level of preparing) for unemployment benefit recipients (Panel B).
5.2.2. Romania substantially increased minimum-income benefits
In 2024, Romania reformed minimum-income benefits and increased them from very low levels. The Guaranteed Minimum Income (GMI) and the allowance for family support were merged and replaced by the Minimum Inclusion Income (MII). The MII includes two components: 1) a basic component, called inclusion aid; and 2) a top-up for families with children called aid for families with children. The benefit amounts vary according to the household composition and are substantially higher for households with children, as well as for single parents and older people.2 The benefit amounts are adjusted for inflation every year. Means testing also accounts for assets.
Previous minimum-income benefit levels were extremely low and inefficient in fighting poverty in Romania. The MII amount is substantially higher. It allocates more than double the amount of the previous minimum-income benefit for a single‑person household. In addition, it offers around 40% more than the previous minimum-income benefit for a couple with two children, that has no other income. The previous minimum-income benefits increased more steeply for subsequent household members (up to five) and did not increase for older people. The MII amount is linked to the inflation rate. The previous minimum-income benefits were linked to the RSI, which was not adjusted between 2008 and 2022, eroding its real value substantially (Adăscăliţei, Raţ and Spătari, 2020[4]; Pop, 2023[5]). On top of MII’s higher benefit amount, a higher income threshold implies that more people qualify for the MII.
Romania’s new minimum-income benefits cover many more people, and the country’s total spending on benefits has increased. The number of beneficiaries of MII in April 2024 was 43% higher than the number of beneficiaries of GMI in April 2023. Total spending on MII was more than three times higher. However, the number of beneficiaries of the MII top-up for families with children was 10% lower in April 2024 compared to the number of beneficiaries of the allowance for family support one year earlier. Meanwhile, total spending quadrupled.
MII maintains previous incentives for job search effort by adults and for children’s participation in education. Individuals are eligible for MII if they register with the National Agency for Employment (NAE) and remain available to accept job offers if they are capable of working. Eligibility for MII also requires participation in so‑called socially useful activities administered by local municipalities, as well as children’s attendance in school. Non-compliance with these requirements results in the loss of benefits for 12 months. Occasional work and half of labour income, up to around 15% of the minimum wage, are not accounted for in the means testing. When a benefit recipient signs an employment contract for at least 24 months, benefits remain unaffected for six months. However, initial employment with a 24‑month contract is not very common in Romania.
Despite the 2024 increase in spending, the level of minimum-income benefits in Romania as a percent of the median disposable income remains substantially below the average across OECD countries. As of 2024, minimum income benefits for a couple with two children without other income are estimated to be 26% of the median disposable income in Romania, versus 38% among OECD countries on average (Figure 5.4). Moreover, despite doubling the benefit amount in real terms for a single person household, minimum-income benefits are still 11% of the median disposable income, compared to 36% on average among OECD countries.
Households with children also receive unconditional non-taxable benefits called the monthly state allowance for children. As of 2024, the amount is around 20% of the median disposable income for children aged up to two years. The monthly state allowance for children is 8% of median disposable income for children aged 2‑18 years or up to age 26 if participating in formal education. The amount of family benefits in Romania relative to the average wage is very similar to the average among OECD countries.3 People and particularly children from disadvantaged areas also benefit from assistance from the Fund for European Aid to the Most Deprived (FEAD) in the form of food vouchers and financing for basic household materials (Government of Romania, 2022[6]).
Romanians with low incomes may also qualify for a heating allowance, which is subject to means testing and depends on the type of heating. The allowance can reach up to around 15% of the median disposable income and is paid for half a year during the heating season. On top of this, an energy consumption support might cover up to 2% of the median disposable income per month of energy consumption bills, depending on the heating source in the household.
Net income from minimum-income benefits as a percentage of the median equivalised household income, Romania and selected OECD countries
Note: The dashed horizonal line in both panels indicates the relative poverty line of 50% of the equivalised median household income.
Panel A: Results are for a single adult without children and a jobless couple with two children aged 4 and 6. The family is assumed to meet the requirements for social assistance and cash housing supplements. * The 2024 for Romania is an early estimate. Panel B: Results are for a single adult without children.
Source: OECD Data Explorer • Adequacy of minimum income benefits, (Panel A) and OECD calculations based on the OECD Tax-Benefit model version 2.6.0 and unpublished data for median disposable household income (Panel B).
5.2.3. Provision of social services is improving but a stronger effort is needed
Social services for older people, people with disabilities, homeless people, children and victims of domestic violence face many challenges in Romania. Local governments are primarily responsible for delivering social services while the central government co-finances many of them, partially through some national agencies.4 A law introduced in 2023 encourages stronger co‑operation between local governments in delivering social services. The law provides more flexibility to beneficiaries in choosing service providers, but co‑ordination among different levels of government could still be improved (Government of Romania, 2022[7]; Pop, 2023[5]). Frail older people fall under the responsibility of social assistance, while social protection cares for people with disabilities. Responsibility for people with chronic conditions falls to the health system. So a day care and recovery centre for older people, for example, does not provide services for people with disabilities because different quality standards apply to them. Fragmentation of service provision is particularly challenging in rural areas (European Commission, 2023[8]). In addition, recruiting qualified staff is difficult in rural areas (Ministry for Family, Youth and Equal Opportunities, 2022[9]). Limited financing is an important constraint to supplying adequate value and quality of services (Grigoraș et al., 2021[10]). Services are primarily delivered by public entities supported by NGOs. NGOs delivering services are largely self-financed, partially with tax-deductible donations from businesses and private donors. The current activation framework for people with disabilities requires strong improvements. All firms with at least 50 employees are required to employ at least 4% of workers with disabilities. However, firms often prefer to pay fees instead of complying. Therefore, this instrument has not been proven to be effective. Indeed, the difference between employment in the general population and among people with disabilities has remained 50% higher in Romania than on average among EU countries since 2014 (Eurostat, 2024[11]). More frequent use of part‑time work contracts might broaden the pool of potential care workers.
Romania’s currently implemented sectoral strategies for social services envisage increasing central government co-financing, improving co‑ordination among institutions and making the provision of services more effective, e.g. through digitalisation, as well as improving activation and prevention measures. These strategies improve understanding of the current situation and are useful in terms of guiding future actions. That said, they require clear action plans and outcome indicators to be effective, which has been a challenge in the past (Pop, 2023[5]). Among recent actions, in 2022 the Minister of Labour and Social Solidarity increased the minimum quality standards required to deliver social services for older people, homeless people, and other categories of vulnerable adults. The Ministry of Labour and Social Solidarity also improved financing of these services.
Romania’s National Long‑Term Care and Active Aging Strategy 2023‑30 aims to increase the number of older people who manage to live independent lives for as long as possible. This strategy also aims to improve access to long-term care services for older people (Government of Romania, 2022[7]). Furthermore, it prioritises home and community care, including support for informal carers. In 2024, the law on social assistance for older people was amended so that care services for older people are delivered mainly at their homes and in non-residential care and recovery centres. Access to residential care is exceptional.
The National Strategy on the Rights of Persons with Disability “A fair Romania” for 2022‑27 adopts a comprehensive approach to improving the situation of people with disabilities. The strategy aims to further deinstitutionalise care by restructuring large care service centres and providing more non-residential services in more dispersed institutions. The quality of services is reported to be higher in small institutions, which are substantially more expensive. As of 1 January 2031, accredited social service providers will no longer be allowed to establish residential centres for disabled adults, except for crisis centres (Government of Romania, 2023[12]). To improve service quality, the government will offer specialised trainings to family carers. The law sets a minimum of at least one highly educated social worker in each local community. Given regional disparities, the government aims to improve access to transport for people with disabilities. Moreover, the strategy mandates the creation of a centralised national platform for the collection, storage and distribution of information on people with disabilities.
The National Strategy on Social Inclusion of Homeless People 2022‑27 aims to increase social inclusion of homeless people in several ways. The provisions it outlines include improving monitoring and better integrating existing services. The strategy was proceeded by a project called Every Person Counts!, which in 2019‑21 evaluated homelessness in Romania, delineated the needs of homeless people and assessed the scope of existing social services for homeless people. Additionally, the National Housing Strategy for 2022‑50 proposes building social housing for people from vulnerable groups, creating categories for people at risk of social exclusion and marginalisation, and ensuring access to housing services for people without shelter by increasing the supply of social housing.
5.3.1. Women’s labour market participation is very low
Gender inequalities accumulate throughout the lifecycle in all countries. Enrolment in early education is low for both boys and girls in Romania. School dropout rates in lower secondary education are similarly high for boys and girls at 12% while the average among EU countries was 2% in 2021. In upper secondary education, the dropout rate reached 24% for men and 22% for women in Romania, while 7% of men and 6% of women dropped out in the EU in 2021. At age 15, PISA survey does not reveal statistically significant gender differences in mathematics or science. That said, PISA survey shows significantly higher results for women in reading, a result that is similar in many other countries. Like in all EU countries, vocational and tertiary education choices reveal a clear gender pattern: 44% of upper secondary vocational students are women in Romania, and women make up 43% of tertiary education STEM field graduates. In addition, 55% of tertiary education students are women (Eurostat, 2024[13]). Finally, the share of women among graduates of STEM fields in tertiary education is the highest in Romania among EU countries.
The gender gap in labour market participation is very large in Romania. In 2023, the gender gap in labour participation rate was 19 points in Romania. This rate was higher in only four OECD countries. It results from the very low workforce participation rate of women (57%). Compared to 2008, the workforce participation rate increased substantially less for women than for men. The gap appears to start early. Between the ages of 15‑24, labour market participation rates are 19% for women compared to 32% for men in Romania (OECD, 2024[14]). Women’s labour market participation is particularly low in rural areas (OECD, 2024[15]).
More opportunities for part-time employment could help increase women’s employment and better reconcile work with caregiving responsibilities. Only 2% of both male and female workers work part-time in Romania, versus 8% of male workers and 23% of female workers on average in OECD countries (OECD, 2024[16]). The regulation of part-time work can unnecessarily limit its use, and part-time jobs remain rare in Romania (OECD, 2024[15]). Working overtime is prohibited for part-time workers while it is available to full-time workers. In addition, in 2022, the fiscal code increased the floor for social security contributions, setting it at the minimum wage. As a result, for anyone earning less than this minimum due to working part-time the effective contribution rate is higher than for full-time workers. These measures seem to be aimed at reducing tax evasion, but they might limit part-time work opportunities.
Gender wage disparities are low in Romania, and women earned at median 5.8% less than men in 2022, which was around half the OECD average of 11.4%. Still, Romanian women earn less even though more of them graduate from tertiary education. Unequal treatment of workers is banned, and women do not face legal obstacles for work or promotions. That said, public policies could be deployed more proactively to promote equal career opportunities for men and women. Example policies could include mandating that companies report gender pay gaps, introducing mechanisms to improve the gender balance in leadership positions in the public sector, encouraging greater participation and representation of women at all levels of politics and promoting gender diversity in leadership positions in private companies.
5.3.2. Improving access to early childhood education requires further policy efforts
Raising low labour market participation of women requires better balancing of care responsibilities between men and women. As in other countries, mothers stop working to care for children more often than fathers. Indeed, women spend on average 230% more time than men on childcare in Romania, which is the highest figure among EU countries for which data exist (Eurostat, 2024[17]). Prolonged career breaks make it more difficult to return to employment and might reduce future earnings and career opportunities. In addition, the employment rate is particularly low for mothers of children aged less than three and those of more than one child in Romania. In these cases, the employment rates are more than 15 points lower in Romania than in OECD countries on average.5
Parental benefits are available for prolonged periods and are relatively generous in Romania. Women can receive maternal and parental leave together for up to two years after having a child,6 which is very long compared to OECD countries. On average, OECD countries grant paid leave of about a year to mothers, and only three OECD countries grant a longer paid leave than Romania. However, in these three countries the benefit replaces 35% or less of previous earnings, while in Romania it replaces 85%.7 The average replacement of income among 28 OECD countries is 54%. Only Chile, Estonia and Slovenia offer replacement rates that are higher than Romania. That said, this income is offered for substantially shorter periods: 3 months for Chile, 16 months for Estonia and 8 months for Slovenia.
Some policy measures aim to reduce the labour market impact of long caregiving leaves on women. In 2023, Romania implemented the EU Directive on Work-life balance for Parents and Carers (European Union, 2019[18]), and doubled the parental leave ascribed solely to fathers from one to two months. Although almost all parental leave can be claimed by fathers in Romania, two and a half months can be used by fathers only. This two and a half months consists of two months of parental leave and two weeks of paternity leave. On average among OECD countries, fathers benefit form slightly less than three months of this type of leave. The total duration of paid leave for mothers following childbirth is twice longer in Romania than the OECD average. In the first quarter of 2024, only one man for every six women took parental leave in Romania, and only one in four men took parental leave at all. Between the first quarters of 2013 and 2024, the ratio of men to women taking parental leave increased very slightly from 14% to 15%. To improve labour market participation of parents, working parents entitled to parental leave receive a childcare benefit (called an insertion incentive). At its minimum amount, the insertion incentive is equal to 41% of minimum wage until the child is six months old (though the amount is not automatically linked to the minimum wage). The insertion incentive is equal to 18% of minimum wage until the child turns three years old. Despite the insertion incentive being operational since 20108 and being widely used by almost 90 000 beneficiaries in 2020 (Government of Romania, 2021[19]), the gender employment gap has not diminished in the last 15 years. In 2021, the amount of the benefit increased, and its duration was prolonged from one to two years (Government of Romania, 2021[19]). Romania’s labour code protects jobs during maternity, paternity and parental leaves.
Enrolment of children in early childhood education and care is very low in Romania even though care in kindergarten is free (parents pay only for meals). Only 8% of children aged 0‑2 attended childcare facilities in 2020 versus 36% in OECD countries on average (Figure 5.5). This is related to the shortage of childcare providers – particularly in urban areas with high population density and in remote rural areas – but also to long parental leaves and cultural norms about children benefitting from childcare provided at home (OECD, 2024[15]). Preschool education became mandatory from age four in Romania in 2023. Prior to this, preschool was mandatory at age five. In 2030, preschool will be mandatory starting at age three. Within three‑to-five‑year-old age group, participation was higher at 76% in 2020 but still below the OECD average of 87%. Still, since 2015 enrolment rates for three‑ to five‑year-olds stagnated between 2015 and 2017 at around 84% and decreased thereafter to 76% in 2020. The enrolment rates are particularly low among the Roma population and in rural areas. For example, within the Roma community the participation rate is merely 27% (World Bank, 2023[20]). Additionally, discrepancies between rural and urban areas and between Roma children and non-Roma children have been persistent. These discrepancies have increased recently as early childhood education services have not been very successful in addressing the specific needs of children from vulnerable families (Pop, 2023[5]).
Childcare is often provided by grandparents in Romania (OECD, 2024[15]). This pattern potentially puts pressure on women to withdraw from the labour market when they become grandmothers. Informal care arrangements (i.e. care provided by grandparents or other family members or friends without pay) is highest in Romania compared with 25% of children on average in the EU. In no other country in the EU are more than 50% of children this age cared for through informal care arrangements.9 This dynamic has been reinforced in Romania by lower retirement ages for women. That said, the lower retirement age for women will be gradually eliminated by 2035.
Improving access to childcare and early education requires financial outlays, particularly in rural areas. Spending on early childhood education and care is low in Romania and it stood at 0.4% of GDP in 2019 which was half of the OECD average.10 Maintenance of and investments in nurseries, kindergartens and schools are the responsibility of local authorities, but they are partially financed by the state budget (Pop, 2023[5]).
Romania has taken steps to improve access to high quality early childhood education. In 2020, the government moved administration of nurseries from the social protection system into the educational system. That same year, the Ministry of Education lowered the starting age for compulsory education to include the last two years of pre‑school (ages four and five) (OECD, 2024[15]). In 2021, the government issued new curricula and new reference standards for the early education system. In addition, in 2021, central-government co-financing of early childhood education was increased. Romania’s National Recovery and Resilience Plan envisages projects aimed at increasing capacity with regards to early childhood education for approximately 20 600 children in disadvantaged areas. Between 2009 and 2023, 336 kindergartens were built. As of 2023, additional 466 kindergartens are under construction or planned.11
Share of children enrolled in early childhood education and care services or primary education by age, 2020
Note: Early childhood education and care services (ISCED level 0 and other registered services) or primary education (ISCED 2011 Level 1). Data refer to 2018 (Costa Rica, Iceland, the United Kingdom) and 2019 (Japan).
Source: OECD Family Database, indicator PF3.2 Enrolment in childcare and pre‑school.
The situation of members of the LGBTIQ+ community in Romania is marked by conservative societal attitudes, discrimination and the need for more action in favour of LGBTIQ+ rights. LGBTIQ+ individuals still face substantial discrimination both in the workplace and in public life. Surveys point to low acceptance of LGBTIQ+ individuals in Romania, and negative attitudes towards the LGBTIQ+ community are more widespread than in the EU on average. Four in ten people living in Romania say they would feel uncomfortable if a colleague at work with whom they are in daily contact were gay, lesbian, bisexual or transgender – which is three times the average among EU countries (Figure 2.16). Half of people living in Romania say they would feel uncomfortable if a gay, lesbian, or bisexual person were elected to the highest political office. Only one in four people living in Romania says they would be comfortable with one of their children being in a romantic relationship with a gay, lesbian or bisexual person (European Commission, 2023[21]).
Romania ratified the Council of Europe Convention on Preventing and Combating Violence Against Women and Domestic Violence (also known as the Istanbul Convention) in 2016. Romania’s labour code explicitly bans any discrimination based on gender or sexual orientation, though gender identity is not explicitly mentioned (Art. 59/a). Romania’s Government Ordinance No. 137/2000 bans all forms of discrimination, and it explicitly includes discrimination based on sexual orientation. The National Council for Combating Discrimination is the autonomous institution under parliamentary control that guarantees the implementation of the non-discrimination principle in accordance with domestic legislation and international law. The National Strategy for Preventing and Combating Sexual Violence (SYNERGY) 2021‑30 co‑ordinates implementation of broad prevention and protective measures in this area.
NGOs report that, in practice, the treatment of sexual and hate‑speech offences varies substantially between local police and prosecutor offices. Romania has initiated substantial policy actions on this issue recently. In 2022, the government partnered with the LGBTIQ+ association, ACCEPT, to implement a project called Partnership for the Equality of LGBTI Persons: Implementation of the ECHR Case Law on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity. The project trained 147 prosecutors and 160 police officers to ensure a standardised and victim-centred approach to investigations of sexual and hate speech offences between October 2022 and February 2024. The project also produced a manual Investigation of Hate Crimes Based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity. This manual is a tool for both prosecutors and police to ensure a systematic and standardised approach to criminal prosecutions in cases involving such offences. The manual defines key concepts in the field of sexual orientation and gender identity, and it describes how to best help LGBTIQ+ victims. Beginning in 2019, the prosecutor’s office started monitoring cases of gender-based violence for which the European Court of Human Rights observed ineffective reactions by Romanian authorities. The Norwegian Financial Mechanism 2014‑21 funded some projects to enhance protection for victims of gender-based violence through improving prosecution procedures. Importantly, some acts of gender-based violence and domestic violence are subject to ex‑officio prosecution in Romania, which means that victims are not required to file a complaint. In 2024, the government expanded the types of violence that can result in protective orders to include of all forms of violence – physical, sexual, psychological and harassment by any means, including online.
Although some political figures have been exploiting resentment against sexual minorities for political purposes, such tendencies have not provoked legislative change. In 2020, the Romanian Parliament initially passed a law prohibiting all teaching institutions (including those that provide extracurricular education) from any activity aimed at spreading the theory or opinion of gender identity. However, the Romania’s president refused to sign the law. Furthermore, the country’s constitutional court rejected the law on the basis that Romanian legislation: 1) prohibits discrimination on the grounds of sexual orientation; 2) provides legal recognition for people who change sex; and 3) recognises sex and gender as distinct concepts (Safta, 2023[22]).
The recognition of same‑sex marriages and civil unions is an ongoing political and legal debate in Romania. Since 2008, there have been a few attempts to introduce civil unions into Romanian law, but none of these attempts were successful. In 2015, an initiative to hold a referendum on prohibiting same‑sex marriage in the constitution gained over 3 million signatures. The referendum that resulted was held in 2018. Only 21% voters turned out to vote in the referendum, less than the 30% required for it to be binding. In 2018, Romania’s constitutional court ruled that residence rights in the country can no longer be refused to foreigners in same‑sex relationships who married in another EU country. In 2019, a legal representation option was added to patients’ right legislation in Romania allowing partners in same‑sex relationships to visit their partners in hospital and make decisions on their behalf, though the legislation did not explicitly mention same‑sex marriages. In 2023, the European Court of Human Rights ruled that Romania breaches the right to private and family life of same‑sex couples and obliged Romania to provide same‑sex couples with legal recognition (Prundea, 2023[23]).
Gender-based violence is one of the most severe forms of gender inequality not only in Romania, but around the world. One in five women experience intimate partner violence both in Romania and on average among OECD countries (OECD, 2024[24]). Yet, Romania lacks key data to properly monitor the magnitude of the problem. The European Institute for Gender Equality (EIGE) index does not provide a score in the area of violence for Romania, due to insufficient evidence on violence against women (Băluță and Tufiș, 2022[25]). The last survey to collect data on gender‑based violence was conducted in 2014 (FRA, 2014[26]). Such surveys effectively produce low‑bound estimates, as violence is regularly underreported (OECD, 2023[27]). EIGE (2021[28]) has estimated that gender-based violence costs Romania 7% of GDP, double the value found on average across the EU. These costs are due to the physical and emotional effects of this violence on victims, lost economic output, and utilisation of both the health system and criminal justice system. Romania shows the highest incidence of early marriages in the EU, and it is a leading country of origins for human trafficking (Wes and Chilera, 2023[29]).
Existing data show that out of the 45 504 victims of domestic violence who reported violence reported to the police, only 1 512 (3%) had their case brought to court in 2020 (Robayo-Abril et al., 2023[30]). The government reports less pessimistic data. This data show that police issued provisional protective (restraining) orders for 13 009 female victims of domestic violence in 2023, and that the courts dispensed 11 083 protective orders that same year. In Romania, a victim of domestic violence can apply for a provisional protective order to be issued by the police and confirmed by the courts, but victims of domestic violence do not always file criminal charges against perpetrators. Since 2020, a person applying for a protective order must receive legal assistance from the state. Before that date, in order to receive legal assistance, individuals must have filed an additional request first. Improved access to legal assistance might improve the situation over time, as of 2020, only 2 000 women survivors of domestic violence received services from public and NGO-based providers (Robayo-Abril et al., 2023[30]).
Romania has made substantial commitment to promote gender equality but there is substantial area for further improvements. In 2016, Romania ratified the Council of Europe Convention on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence (also known as the Istanbul Convention). The 2022 Recommendation on Implementation of the Istanbul Convention acknowledged Romanian progress in this area (Council of Europe, 2022[31]). Gender-related policies are co‑ordinated by the National Agency for Equal Opportunities between Women and Men. A 2021‑30 Strategy for Prevention and Combating Sexual Violence (SYNERGY) assumes responsibility for strengthening prevention and protection measures. The strategy includes creating specialised centres for victims of sexual violence (OECD, 2023[27]). In 2018, the definition of domestic violence was amended to fully comply with the Convention. In 2022, Romania’s High Court of Cassation and Justice recommended including new guidelines on the treatment of rape and sexual assault offences in annual prosecutor training programmes. In 2022, the Council of Europe (2022[31]) identified many areas for improvement in Romania. In particular, the council recommended that Romania: 1) better align definitions of family violence in the criminal code in accordance with the Istanbul Convention; 2) continue to address multiple forms of discrimination faced by women and girls from the Roma community; 3) improve the institutional framework; 4) improve the monitoring of policies related to gender-based violence; and 5) improve detection of all forms of violence. Romania is also implementing an information system to centralise data on offences collected by all prosecutor offices. This will allow quick and flexible statistical reporting on existing investigations, including by prosecution status, as well as preventive and precautionary measures. The implementation of this system is included in the government’s working programme for 2024.
Romania has outlined its plan for policy actions in the 2022‑27 National Strategy for Promoting Equal Opportunities for Men and Women and Preventing and Combating Domestic Violence. It includes actions meant to raise awareness about work-life balance and promote the uptake of paternity leaves. It also includes specific actions to prevent and combat gender stereotypes in the education system. The strategy also aims at increasing the provision of services for workers and the unemployed so that individuals can better balance their work and private life. To encourage women’s participation in STEM education, the government has undertaken communication campaigns, supported guidance and counselling services in schools and universities, and has financed educational fairs and tutoring programmes in companies. Additionally, the government has added STEM elements to the curriculum for primary and secondary education. The strategy also contains objectives related to gender equality in the labour market, including employment opportunities, participation in leadership and decision-making, and equal pay though improved transparency. The strategy envisages implementing the European Commission (EC) recommendation on strengthening the principle of equal pay between men and women, undertaking trainings for employment services and labour inspections, and carrying out public awareness campaigns.
Currently, the relative income situation of older people is similar in Romania and OECD countries on average. In 2021, the average disposable income of people aged 65 or more in Romania stood at 94% of the total population, which was higher than 88% on average among OECD countries (OECD, 2023[32]). The old-age income poverty rate in Romania stood at 16% in 2021, which was equal to the poverty rate of the population as a whole. Among OECD countries, the old-age poverty is slightly higher, at 14%, while the poverty rate for the overall population is 13% (OECD, 2024[33]).
The Romanian pension system includes two mandatory schemes: a pay-as-you-go earnings-related points scheme and a funded scheme. Low‑income earners are protected by a minimum pension financed by the state budget and a means‑tested Minimum Inclusion Income benefit. Mandatory funded pensions are maturing because they were introduced in 2008 and are compulsory for people born after 1973 and for those who join labour market at 35 or younger.
In 2023, a substantial pension reform was approved. This reform came into effect in September 2024. The reform equalises the retirement ages of men and women and links retirement age adjustments to life expectancy increases. The statutory retirement age of women at 62 in 2023 was set to gradually increase and equalise with that of men at 65 by 2035. While having been more widespread in the past, based on current legislation, only six OECD countries will have lower retirement ages for women than for men (OECD, 2023[32]). After 2035 in Romania, changes in pension qualifying conditions will be linked to half of increases in life expectancy. Based on UN demographic projections, this implies that the statutory retirement age would reach 67 for those entering labour market at 22 in 2022. The links between pension qualifying conditions and life expectancy will also apply to both the 15‑year minimum contribution period workers must complete to access any earning-related pensions and full-pension contribution period condition at 35 years for men and 32 years for women in 2023. Linking retirement ages to life expectancy is increasingly popular among OECD countries, and as of 2024, nine OECD countries have established such links. Finally, Romania’s reform increased low retirement ages for workers in hazardous or arduous occupations.
While the 2023 reform increased the statutory retirement age, it decreased the normal retirement age, i.e. the age at which a person starting an uninterrupted career at age 22 can claim pensions without penalties (OECD, 2023[32]). Indeed, the reform decreased the normal retirement age for men from 65 to 62 and for women from 62 to 59. A full pension at the statutory retirement age without any penalties is accessible after a 35‑year career for men and 32‑year career for women. At five years below the statutory retirement age, a full pension is available to men after a 40‑year career and to women after a 37‑year career. Before the 2023 reform, men were required to make a 43‑year contribution, while women had to make a 40‑year contribution to access the full pension at age 60 for men and 57 for women. That said, this contribution period included some so-called assimilated periods, e.g. years of higher education. The Romanian Government assesses that – given the current contribution histories of Romanian workers – narrower definition of the contribution period is likely to outbalance the shorter required contribution period. Based on UN demographic projections, the links to life expectancy will increase the normal retirement age in Romania to 64 for people starting their careers at age 22 in 2022. On average across OECD countries, the normal retirement age will remain higher as the current legislations envisages it to increase from 64 to 66 over the next four decades (OECD, 2023[32]).
Individuals with shorter careers of at least 35 years for men and 32 years for women who wish to retire no earlier than five years below the statutory retirement age face a penalty of up to 24% on pension benefits. Unlike many OECD countries however, the reduction in benefits is temporary and expires upon reaching the statutory retirement age. Hence, people with long careers can claim pensions very early – at age 57 for women and 60 for men. Accessing pensions below the statutory retirement age might become increasing popular as the average contributory period of new pensioners is projected to increase from 35 to 39 years between 2022 and 2040 (Gavril and Na, 2023[34]).
Romania’s 2023 reform has increased current and future pensions, increased the progressivity of the benefits and simplified their calculation. The benefit calculation has remained based on accumulated pension points, similar to the benefits design in Estonia, Germany, Lithuania and the Slovak Republic. Contribution-based points are proportional to earnings and accumulate for every month of work. Based on the 2023 reform, additional points are granted for working more than 25 years and for time outside the workforce spent studying, completing military service and taking parental leave. Additional points also apply for working in hazardous or arduous jobs. All of these additional points are independent from individual earnings, which increase progressivity of the system. The 2023 changes in pension calculation are supposed to increase all current pensions and accumulated pension entitlements. The average pension is expected to increase from 36% to 43% of the average wage between 2023 and 2025 (Gavril and Na, 2023[34]).
Indexing pension points to less than the average wage growth will help stabilise pension expenditure over time, but will create risks to pension adequacy. As was the case with the previous law, the value of a pension point is indexed to inflation plus 50% of the real wage growth. Upper and lower bounds to indexation apply, and they are set at inflation and the growth rate of total contributions, respectively. Accordingly, the EU Ageing Report projects that – after having increased from 8.5% to around 10% of GDP between 2022 and 2025 – pay-as-you-go pension expenditure will remain stable, peak at 10.6% in 2046 and decline thereafter. Yet, the ratio of the average pay-as-you-go pension to the average wage in Romania is projected to decline steadily from 41% to 28% between 2024 and 2070 (Gavril and Na, 2023[34]).
However, the mandatory defined-contribution (DC) scheme in Romania will mature and improve pension adequacy in the coming decades. Contributions to the DC scheme are deducted from the total social security contribution rate (25% in 2024), hence lowering both current revenues of the pay-as-you-go scheme and future pay-as-you-go pensions because benefits are prorated for the reduced contribution rate. The contribution rate to the DC scheme varied over the past 16 years. It was set at 2% in 2008 and was scheduled to increase to 6% by 2016, but the implementation did not follow suite, and the contribution rate reached 5.1% in 2016. Then, as a part of a broader fiscal reform which, among others, increased gross wages by shifting employers’ contribution to employees, the contribution rate decreased to 3.75% in 2018 and then increased to 4.75% in 2024. At present, no further adjustments are planned. As a result, a person who entered labour market in 2022 at 22, earns the average wage throughout their career and retires at the normal retirement age of 64, the DC scheme would increase the net replacement rate by 20 percentage points, to 77% in total, based on standard Pensions-at-a-Glance assumptions. This calculation assumes that the DC scheme provides lifetime income to its members while the current legislation envisages that the DC scheme pays out savings as lump sums or as monthly instalments for up to five years. Existing payment schedules increase the risks of inadequate income at older ages.
The future net replacement rate from all mandatory pension schemes in Romania is high for the average wage earners at 77% and very high for low earners at 95% (Figure 5.6). On average across OECD countries, the net future replacement rates are 61% for average wage earners and 73% for low wage earners. The 2023 reform has increased pensions of low earners more than for average earners because the additional points granted for longer careers are independent from individual earnings and thereby increase low pensions relatively more.
Net pension replacement rates as a percentage of previous earnings, 2022
Note: Net replacement rates give the theoretical future entitlements of a person entering the labour market in 2022 at age 22 and retiring at the earliest possible age without penalty. They assume that all legislated changes to the pension system have been implemented, and do not account for the recent high rates of inflation.
Source: OECD (2023), Pensions at a Glance 2023: OECD and G20 Indicators, https://doi.org/10.1787/678055dd-en,Table 4.4, and OECD calculations for Romania.
Supported by the EU, the Romanian Government has shown a strong commitment to improve the social inclusion of persons belonging to the Roma minority group (World Bank, 2018[35]). So far, some progress has been made towards social and economic inclusion of Roma communities, but disparities in living conditions, health, education, and employment between Roma and non-Roma remain staggering. In Romania and other countries, these inequalities are deep-rooted, perpetuated across generations and reinforced by discrimination in access to education, employment, healthcare and housing (FRA, 2019[36]).
Romania has undertaken a comprehensive policy approach to tackle social challenges faced by persons belonging to Roma community. But further effort is needed to radically improve the situation. The National Roma Integration Strategy 2022‑27 (NRIS) assumes many actions for persons belonging to the Roma community, including in education, housing and social services. To better co‑ordinate the implementation of the strategy, an inter-ministerial body has been created. The strategy aims to better engage local governments in solving issues affecting vulnerable Roma communities, while improving financing of such measures from the central government budget.
In the area of education, NRIS aims at reducing school dropout, increasing participation in lifelong learning programmes for all age groups, improving basic and digital skills, and diversifying professional opportunities. The strategy builds on previous actions. For example, in 2016, the government extended the criteria for targeting school segregation to disability and special educational needs, family socio‑economic status, place of residence and school performance criteria, in addition to ethnicity. In 2019, the government created a specialised expert body – the National Commission for School Desegregation – and adopted a methodology for monitoring school segregation. In 2022, the methodology was piloted in 42 educational establishments at all levels of education to collect data. In the period 2003‑22, the government trained over 1 200 Roma school mediators, who represent Roma communities in schools. Currently, about 450 school mediators (of which 75% are of Roma ethnicity) are working in the educational system. This compares to 170 727 Roma children aged 5‑19 years according to the 2021 census, which implies 380 Roma children per one mediator (NIS, 2023[37]). The Pre‑University Education Act, amended in 2023, prohibits segregation in education on the basis of belonging to the Roma minority, disability status, socio‑economic status, residential background or academic performance.
To support educational achievement of Roma students and to combat school dropout among them the National School Dropout Reduction Programme is being implemented over the course of 2021‑26. The Programme aims to: reduce the risk of school dropout by at least 25% in the participating schools, improve the test results of students, and increase the transition rate to upper secondary education. Participating schools are able to access grants to finance activities that identify and monitor students at risk of dropping out. The grant also funds pedagogical support, learning activities, counselling and guidance, psychological and special therapies and extracurricular activities. The programme includes schools with a large number of Roma children so that 24% of Roma students are covered. Additionally, the government supports teaching Roma language and topics related to Roma history by including them in school curricula. As of 2024, 263 teachers teach Romani language, 19 486 Roma students study the Romani language, and 918 Roma children learn in Romani in kindergartens and primary and secondary schools.
With regards to housing, NRIS highlights the need to secure decent living conditions for people belonging to the Roma minority group, as well as the need to regulate informal settlements (Government of Romania, 2023[12]). NRIS is charged with improving both the supply of community-based social services and access to social housing. Romania has developed a pilot project for building 300 houses for people belonging to the Roma minority group and living in vulnerable communities. As of 2024, the pilot project is being evaluated.
European funds have been important for financing social integration of Roma communities. The role of these funds is likely to increase because current plans explicitly assign funds for this purpose. The new Education and Employment Programme for 2021‑27 has a specific objective dedicated to promoting the socio-economic integration of marginalised communities such as the Roma. In 2014‑20, people belonging to the Roma minority group made up more than one‑third of approximately 80 000 beneficiaries of EU‑funded projects targeted at social and economic integration of people from marginalised communities. Moreover, people belonging to the Roma minority group made up 75% of approximately 40 000 beneficiaries of EU projects for people at risk of poverty or social exclusion from marginalised communities.
The process of appointing political representatives from Roma community is contested by some Roma organisations. Like other ethnic minorities, one seat in Romanian Parliament is reserved for persons belonging to the Roma minority group. In all elections since 1992, this seat has been won by a representative of the same organisation: Partida Romilor Pro Europa. Legal constraints on an organisation willing to compete for this seat are substantial. First, an organisation needs to be granted the status of “organisation of public utility”. Despite a few applications, no Roma organisation has been granted such status in the recent years, while no organisation has contested the rejection in the courts. Second, the law requires that the organisation has at least 15% of the community as members, which means almost 90 000 of people in the case of the Roma ethic minority. These constraints do not apply to the incumbent Roma party. In the case of the Italian ethnic minority group in Romania, a ruling by the European Court of Human Rights in 2020 confirmed that such requirements result in an unjustified disparity in treatment of ethnic minority organisations (HUDOC, 2020[38]).
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← 1. https://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/in-your-country/programmes/2021‑2027/ro/2021ro05ffpr001_en.
← 2. The amount of the MII is given by the difference between the total household income and the income threshold, which varies by household size. For a single‑person household, the income threshold is 9% of the median disposable income per equivalent person younger than 65 and 14% for an adult aged 65 or over in 2024 (As the median income for 2024 is not known, it is estimated based the median disposable income in 2021 in IDD multiplied by growth of the average wage set in the State Budget Law, which increased by 41% between 2021 and 2024.). For every consecutive household member, the income threshold is increased by 50% of the income threshold for a single person. The second component of the MII is equal up to 4% of median disposable income per first through fourth child. The income threshold to qualify for this benefit is roughly 2.5 times higher than in the case of the basic component of MII. The amount is lowered for household not qualifying for the basic component and it is increased for lone parents.
← 5. OECD Family Database.
← 6. It is up to three years in the case of a child with disability.
← 7. OECD Family Database www.oecd.org/els/family/database.htm.
← 8. www.worldbank.org/content/dam/Worldbank/document/eca/croatia/efc%20conference/russian/EFC%20Workshop%20Opatija%20Brief%20on%20Romania%20Benefits.pdf.
← 9. OECD Family Database.
← 10. OECD Family Database, www.oecd.org/els/soc/PF3_1_Public_spending_on_childcare_and_early_education.pdf.