This chapter presents the current state of internationalisation of research in Egypt, examines its achievements and challenges, and delineates future opportunities. It first provides a comprehensive assessment of international research collaboration in Egypt, analysing the performance of its bilateral and multilateral research networks. It then investigates the policy and support for internationalisation at the system level, examining institutional set-up and policies, as well as the infrastructure that facilitates international collaboration. Finally, it reviews international research mobility in Egypt, considering both inbound and outbound mobility.
OECD Reviews of Innovation Policy: Egypt 2026
Abstract
The process of internationalisation is a significant component of Egypt’s science, technology and innovation (STI) policy. This is underscored in the objectives set out in Egypt’s Vision 2030 and is echoed in the strategies of the Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research. Egypt has high expectations of the potential benefits and returns on investment from internationalisation. The number of higher education institutions engaging in internationalisation activities is growing rapidly, and the country aims to strengthen its position as an international destination for study and research.
Egypt has a long history of international co-operation in STI. The country has established numerous bilateral collaborations, particularly with the United States, the European Union, Saudi Arabia, and the People’s Republic of China (hereafter “China”). It also actively participates in multilateral research networks, such as CERN (Conseil Européen pour la Recherche Nucléaire) and SESAME (Synchrotron-light for Experimental Science and Applications in the Middle East). Egypt has also signed several significant agreements, such as the US-Egypt Science and Technology Joint Fund, which has supported over 500 joint initiatives.
Egypt needs a more systemic and strategic approach to international STI co-operation, utilising a whole-of-government approach. Against a background of growing geopolitical tensions that are challenging to international co-operation in STI, Egypt should develop a comprehensive internationalisation strategy that balances openness in research with emerging research security concerns. This strategy might also include a global research and development (R&D) strategic map that identifies key international partners and sectors of co-operation and the formation of a dedicated interministerial committee. Additionally, efforts should be made to address regulatory barriers, such as the laws restricting the employment of foreign talent, which limit the inflow of knowledge and expertise into the country’s STI ecosystem.
The sustainability of international STI collaborations should be ensured, particularly those with the European Union and other key partners in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region. Developing policies that foster long-term, stable relationships and joint initiatives will be crucial to enhancing the quality and quantity of research output. Egypt plays a key role in the MENA region and can lead the global agenda in STI in the region.
There is a need for more robust data collection and monitoring mechanisms to assess the effectiveness of Egypt's international research collaboration. The government needs to develop reliable data systems to track bilateral and multilateral agreements, financial flows, and the impact of international partnerships on research and innovation. By monitoring and evaluating collaboration, Egypt will be better positioned to capitalise on global STI opportunities and strengthen its role in international innovation networks.
5.1.1. International collaboration is relatively high in terms of co-authorship and co-patenting
The level of international co-operation, as suggested by co-authorship in scientific publications and patenting with overseas co-inventors, is comparatively high. In 2022, one-third of Egypt’s scientific papers (34%) were produced in partnership with international teams, a rise from one-fourth (25%) in 2013. This proportion exceeds the averages for both the European Union and the OECD, which are 31% and 27% respectively (OECD, 2024[1]) (Figure 5.1). This must be put in the context of the overall low number of publications in international comparison (as discussed in Table 6.2). Facing modest domestic funding for research, Egyptian researchers often seek international sources of financing, either through bilateral agreements (see Section 5.1.2 below) or through individual searches, facilitated by international mobility and diaspora contacts (such as those in Saudi universities). The quest for publication in top-tier journals to earn bonuses (see Chapter 6) also incentivises Egyptian researchers to initiate international collaboration.
Source: OECD calculations based on Scopus Custom Data, Elsevier, Version 1.2025.
Analysis of bilateral collaboration data shows that Egypt’s largest volume of collaboration is conducted with Saudi Arabia, followed by the European Union, the United States, China, India, and European and Asian countries (Figure 5.2, Panel A). When collaboration intensity is considered, it becomes easier to compare larger and smaller countries by measuring the proportion of joint publications. The collaboration with Saudi Arabia stands out even more. Collaboration intensity is also high with other Middle Eastern neighbours, such as the United Arab Emirates, Kuwait and Jordan (Figure 5.2, Panel B).
Note: Bilateral international collaboration intensity is normalised based on whole counts. The indicator of bilateral collaboration intensity between two economies is calculated by dividing the number of scientific publications by authors with affiliations in both economies (whole counts) by the square root of the product of the publications for each of the two economies (whole counts). This indicator is, therefore, normalised for publication output.
Source: OECD calculations based on Scopus Custom Data, Elsevier, Version 1.2025.
The percentage of patents with foreign co-inventor(s) was 26% in 2020, higher than the European Union (13%) and the United States (13%) (OECD, 2024[1]), (see Figure 5.3). Nevertheless, this must also be considered in the context of an overall low level of patenting, as discussed in Chapter 3. Purely domestic inventions are less frequently patented, whereas those involving an international co-inventor offer the potential for international commercialisation and result in a higher co-patenting ratio.
% of patents with foreign co-inventor(s)
Source: OECD Indicators of international co-operation, OECD Patent Statistics (database), https://doi.org/10.1787/data-00507-en, (extracted 8 July 2025).
International co-operation between Egyptian and foreign researchers constitutes one of the most important elements in Egypt’s intellectual production. The Science, Technology and Innovation Funding Authority (STDF) funds a large number of topics, including chemistry, engineering and medicine. STDF funding positively impacts the quality of Egyptian intellectual production compared to Egyptian intellectual production that is not funded. Specifically, research supported by the STDF is published in journals with higher impact factors, receives more citations (Anman, 2021[2])
5.1.2. Egypt has established significant bilateral collaboration with MENA countries, as well as globally leading countries in science and technology
In 2022, Egypt and Saudi Arabia produced 12 552 joint publications, surpassing the combined total of co-publications with Europe and the United States. Growing collaborations with China and India complement this strong bilateral partnership; joint publications with China increased fivefold from 2013 to 2022, surpassing those with the United Kingdom, its traditionally strong partner.1 Co-publications with African countries are much lower, including those with South Africa.
It is important to note, however, that although all the referenced data on international research partnerships indicate a similar trend, the databases do not capture all research outcomes in Egypt. They are mainly geared towards English-language publications originating from English-speaking countries (OECD, forthcoming[3]).
Furthermore, collaborations with Saudi Arabia are largely directly funded by Saudi universities, whereas co-publications with the European Union and the United States are primarily funded by national and European funding agencies. (El-Ouahi, 2024[4]). Challenges faced by Egypt, as well as strategies to strengthen partnerships with key countries, are addressed in Recommendation 10.
Collaboration with Saudi Arabia
The link between Egypt and Saudi Arabia is exceptionally strong in fostering regional research capacity growth in the Middle East (Adams et al., 2013[5]). Within the region encompassing the Middle East, North Africa, and Türkiye (MENAT), research collaboration between Egypt and Saudi Arabia stands out, as evidenced by the number of joint publications and several co-projects based on various agreements (Baker, 2021[6]).
Between 2001 and 2020, Egypt was one of the leading collaborators, accounting for 65% of Saudi Arabia’s scientific publications. Collaborative works often result in higher citation rates, indicating a positive impact on the visibility and impact of the research from both countries (Babour and Ohoud, 2022[7]). This is also facilitated through the presence of many Egyptian expatriate scholars in Saudi universities and substantial financial support from Saudi universities for joint research.
Saudi Arabia and Egypt signed 14 agreements in 2022, including the establishment of a “pharmaceutical city” (a project worth USD 150 million), and there are currently more than 150 bilateral agreements between the two countries (Hamad, 2022[8]). In 2023, they also signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) to improve ties between Saudi Arabian and Egyptian citizens by fostering collaboration in the domains of education, research and cultural heritage (D&B Bureau, 2023[9]).
However, many interviewees met during the OECD’s fieldwork mentioned that the collaboration between Egyptian and Saudi researchers primarily occurs at the individual level, with many Egyptian scholars seeking opportunities at Saudi universities due to better funding or advanced research facilities.
Collaboration with the United States
Egypt has always placed a high value on global co-operation in R&D, with the United States among its most frequent research partners, as indicated by the large number of co-publications between the two countries (Ekrem, 2020[10]). For instance, the US National Institutes of Health (NIH) supports international collaboration in the MENA region across all fields of biomedical and behavioural science through grant funding to US universities (NIH, 2024[11]).
The US-Egypt Science and Technology Joint Fund was established in 1995 as a partnership between the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering and Medicine and the STDF, and supports innovative, collaborative research projects involving US and Egyptian scientists in applied research and technology commercialisation, facilitating the transition of research from the laboratory to real-world applications. The Joint Fund has supported over 500 joint initiatives through its grant programme projects in different fields, such as health, engineering and water. Innovate Egypt helps researchers move their inventions from labs to market by offering training and support for pitching to investors. (USAID, 2024[12]) (see Chapter 4).
In addition to the Joint Fund, another impactful programme was the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) Strengthening Entrepreneurship and Enterprise Development project, which ran from 2015 to 2020. This initiative focused on building Egypt’s entrepreneurship ecosystem, particularly for micro, small, and medium-sized enterprises (MSMEs) (DT Global, 2020[13]). Launched in 2012 with a USD 25 million budget from USAID, the STEM School Project aims to improve science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) education by creating specialised schools with strong curricula and hands-on training. It focuses on teacher training and capacity building to sustain innovative educational practices (21PSTEM, 2012[14]; USAID, 2017[15]).
However, on 23 February 2025, USAID announced major restructuring, including staff reductions and programme closures (USAID, 2025[16]). As part of this, on 26 March 2025, USAID asked the US National Academies to end all work on the US-Egypt Science and Technology Joint Fund. Future inquiries about the fund are now managed by STDF (National Academies, 2025[17]).
More on USAID’s work with Egypt can be found in Box 5.1.
USAID has supported Egypt for over 40 years, contributing more than USD 30 billion since 1978 across several sectors.
Economic growth: Improved business climate, created jobs; expanded electricity.
Education: Built 2 000 schools, fostered interactive teaching and partnerships with US universities.
Health: Cut child mortality by 80% and maternal mortality by 78%; supported family planning.
Governance: Strengthened local governance and civil society engagement.
Humanitarian assistance: Provided monthly assistance to ~145 000 Syrian refugees in Egypt.
Women's empowerment: Promoted education, economic inclusion and protection from violence.
Contributions and impact: USAID supported Egypt’s development through infrastructure, education, and job creation, while also providing USD 136 million in humanitarian aid for Syrian refugees. These efforts align with Egypt’s Vision 2030, aiming to build a stable society and prepare youth for future opportunities.
Source: USAID (2024[18]); (USAID, 2024[19]); (USAID, 2024[20]).
In addition, a new agreement between the Naval Medical Research Unit (NAMRU) EURAFCENT (Navy Region Europe, Africa, Central) and the Egypt Centre for Research and Regenerative Medicine was signed on 19 August 2024. This collaboration focuses on a retrospective study of respiratory illnesses during the coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic. The partnership marks an important step in US-Egypt scientific co‑operation (Navy Medicine, 2024[21]).
The American University in Cairo (AUC) also plays a pivotal role in fostering international research collaboration. Established in 1919, AUC was Egypt’s first foreign university and has become a leading research institution in the Middle East. AUC drives state-of-the-art research with global reach, addressing complex challenges, such as climate change and public health. AUC’s Technology Transfer Office and Innovation Hub further support the commercialisation of research, promoting collaboration between academia and industry to develop solutions for critical challenges facing Egypt and the region (AUC, 2024[22]) (AUC, 2018[23]).
Most interviewees met during the OECD field work highlighted the significance of collaboration with the United States, confirming that this partnership greatly contributes to building research capacity for Egyptian scientists and supports the development of Egypt’s innovation system.
Collaboration with China
The strategic partnership between Egypt and China has seen significant growth and development across various sectors. Collaboration with China has also seen considerable growth, with co-publication between the two countries increasing dramatically – from just 261 in 2013 to 3 104 in 2023, representing more than a tenfold increase (OECD, 2024[24]) Since the signature of a joint communique in the early 2000s, Egypt and China have established a strategic partnership that has seen rapid development in economic, trade, military and cultural ties (Al-Anani, 2023[25]).
The Chinese-Egyptian Research Fund (CERF), founded in 2016, supports collaborative research between China and Egypt, offering scientists, including young researchers, a platform to explore novel scientific domains together (CERF, 2023[26]) (see Box 5.2).
Egypt and China are also preparing to establish a biosafety laboratory in Egypt, which is vital for advancing research and vaccine production, with the training programmes for Egyptian personnel in biosafety practices. This initiative reflects the strong strategic partnership between the two nations, supported by a grant of CNY 960 000 (Chinese yuan) (~USD 132 000) (State Information Service (SIS), 2024[27]).
CERF was established in 2016 during President Xi Jinping’s visit to Egypt, as a joint initiative between Egypt’s Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research and China’s Ministry of Science and Technology. Its goal is to support joint, application-oriented research projects in areas of mutual interest.
CERF promotes bilateral scientific collaboration and provides opportunities for researchers, including young scientists, to explore new fields. The programme is implemented by Egypt’s STDF and China’s Ministry of Science and Technology, each of which manages applications from its respective country.
The fund supports joint innovative, application-oriented research projects in the following fields: mitigating the effects of climate change, advanced manufacturing, information and communication technology, liquid and solid waste management, food and agriculture, renewable energy, health and water.
Source: CERF (2023[26]) and (Mansoura University, 2023[28]).
The National Natural Science Foundation of China and Egypt’s Academy of Scientific Research and Technology (ASRT) jointly fund research projects in fields such as microbiology, bioinformatics, agronomy, and earth sciences. Each project can receive up to CNY 2 million (~USD 278 800) from China, with matching funds from Egypt, supporting strong collaboration and innovation between scientists from both countries (GTIIT, 2023[29]).
Collaboration with Japan
Egypt has strengthened its collaboration with Japan by establishing the Egypt-Japan University of Science and Technology (E-JUST), which Japan sees as its gateway to the African continent. It has played a crucial role in fostering an environment conducive to innovation, research, and development in Egypt (JICA, 2024[30]).
E-JUST is a research university founded in 2009 through a partnership between Egypt and Japan. It is fully funded by the Egyptian government and supported by the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA), which provides experts to help with teaching, research, and university management. The university adheres to Japanese educational standards and aims to serve as a model for graduate education in Egypt, promoting collaboration between Egyptian and Japanese institutions (E-JUST, 2024[31]) (see Box 5.3).
There are recurring calls between STDF and Japan for joint Japan-Egypt scientific collaboration in fields such as water, energy, food/agriculture, health, and information and communication technology (ICT). The most recent (17th) call is open until September 2025 and supports exchange visits, co-ordinating joint seminars, and funding shared projects. Funding for each side is provided by their respective national agencies, and participation is open to researchers affiliated with state or private institutions (DARPE, 2025[32]). Additionally, the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) research centre in Cairo promotes international academic collaboration between Japan and Egypt, as well as with other Middle Eastern countries. The centre facilitates the exchange of academic information and supports joint research initiatives, thereby enhancing scientific co-operation between the regions (JSPS, 2024[33]).
E-JUST’s mission
serve as a model for graduate education in Egypt using Japanese standards
strengthen Egypt-Japan academic collaboration
provide internationally recognised degrees
support regional human resource development through quality education
promote ties between Japanese industries and regional partners.
Technical co-operation
First phase (2008-2010): Developed long-term plans, secured qualified staff, and prepared facilities.
Second phase (2010-2013): Enhanced research capacity and industry collaboration between Egypt and Japan.
Third phase (2014-2019): Established advanced graduate education and improved university management.
Grant aid projects
Education equipment: Over JPY 2.9 billion (Japanese yen) provided to support engineering education.
Solar power system: JPY 970 million granted to install a solar electricity generation system.
Source: JICA (2024[30]).
Collaboration with Germany
Egypt’s collaboration with Germany includes working with several German institutions and foundations, including a joint university – the German University in Cairo (GUC), the German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD), the Fraunhofer Institute, the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation (which finances 700 scholarships for academic exchanges every year), the German Archaeological Institute and the Orient Institute Beirut. The GUC is an independent, non-profit-oriented Egyptian private institution, managed by a consortium of Germans and Egyptians. It is a distinguished institution known for its excellence in education and research. It operates under the patronage of the Egyptian Ministry of Higher Education and the Ministry of Science, Research and Arts, State of Baden-Württemberg, Germany. The university receives support from various German entities, including DAAD, the German Embassy in Cairo, the Arab/German Chamber of Industry and Commerce (AHK), and the Federal Ministry of Education and Research (GUC, 2024[34]). In addition to GUC, the German International University (GIU) offers German bachelors, masters, and PhD degrees. Its mission is to empower Egypt and Africa by introducing a German research university focused on applied sciences. (GIU, 2019[35]).
The German-Egyptian Research Fund (GERF) is a long-standing programme co-managed by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) and Egypt’s STDF. The sixth joint GERF call was announced, with a deadline of 16 December 2024, to establish long-term innovation partnerships among universities, research institutions, and companies in both countries. Additionally, the German Research Foundation (DFG) and Egypt support joint research through programmes like the TWAS2-DFG Cooperation Visits, which offers Egyptian early-career researchers up to three months of funded research in Germany.
The Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) has supported Egypt since 1956 through development projects aligned with Egypt’s Sustainable Development Strategy. Its work focuses on climate protection, economic development, and vocational training, in partnership with Egyptian ministries and institutions. GIZ also collaborates with universities to improve education and training systems, helping develop skilled labour for local and global markets and strengthening research and innovation in Egypt (GIZ, 2024[36]).
Collaboration with Korea
Egypt has also strengthened its ties with Korea in various fields of modern technology and advanced applied scientific research.
One notable example of Egypt's collaboration with Korea is the establishment of the Egyptian Korean College for Industrial and Energy Technology at Beni Suef University in partnership with the Korean University. This initiative, supported by a USD 8 million Korean grant, is being implemented in two phases. The first phase, launched in 2016 with a USD 5.8 million grant, led to the college's opening in 2019 with programmes in information technology and mechatronics. The second phase, initiated in 2024, focuses on sustainable university operations, the development of specialised curricula, and the launch of innovative bachelor's programmes in fields such as mechatronics, ICT, autotronics and railway technology. This collaboration aims to enhance educational capabilities, strengthen ties between academia and industry, and boost graduate employability, reflecting the strong partnership between Egypt and Korea (Egypt Today, 2024[37]; Beni Suef University, 2024[38]).
Another example is the collaboration between the National Training Academy of Egypt (NTA) and the Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), which focuses on the requirements of the Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR) and aims to develop human capabilities in the state institutions. This partnership includes building start-ups and business incubators and creating job opportunities that meet market needs (SIS, 2023[39]).
Furthermore, Egypt and Korea have been working together to benefit from the Korean experience in technological fields and assist new technological universities, including the exchange of expertise in technical education, vocational training and preparing students for the labour market (Daily News Egypt, 2022[40]). For example, the ERRADA (Egyptian Regulatory Reform and Development Activity) initiative led a delegation to South Korea, co-ordinated by the EBRD (European Bank for Reconstruction and Development) and KDI (South Korea Institute for Development). During this tour, they launched the "Knowledge Management Project for Egypt – Start-up Ecosystem Development and Support" to share knowledge and best practices from the Korean start-up ecosystem for future collaboration (ERRADA, 2022[41]).
Collaboration with the United Kingdom
Egypt’s collaboration with the United Kingdom includes several initiatives supported by the British Council in partnership with Egypt’s Science and Technology Development Fund (STDF). A key programme is the Newton-Mosharafa Fund, a GBP 50 million (pounds sterling) (~USD 68 million) initiative that brings together British and Egyptian researchers to address shared challenges in economic development and social welfare. The fund promotes joint scientific research and innovation across various disciplines.
The Research Environments Grants provide financial support for capacity building and long-term collaboration between institutions in the United Kingdom and partner countries, including Egypt. These grants aim to strengthen institutional links and foster sustainable research partnerships that contribute to the development of strong academic environments.
The International Science Partnerships Fund, also supported by the British Council, facilitates strategic research co-operation between Egypt and the United Kingdom. It focuses on key areas such as health, technology, and environmental sustainability, encouraging multidisciplinary projects that enhance research capabilities and deepen bilateral scientific (British Council, 2024[42]).
Collaboration with France
Egypt has a strong history of scientific co-operation with France, resulting in over 500 joint publications annually. The French Embassy in Egypt co-ordinates various initiatives, including the Hubert Curien Imhotep Partnership (PHC) programme, co-financed with the ASRT, which supports research projects through expert exchanges and funding for PhD students. This collaboration not only fosters academic mobility but also encourages the establishment of dual PhD programmes, enhancing the educational experience for Egyptian researchers (Institut Francais, 2024[43]).
In 2025, the ASRT announced a call for research proposals under the Egyptian-French co-operation programme (Imhotep), which has been ongoing since its launch. This programme supports collaborative research in areas such as water, environment, health, mathematics, physics, earth and space sciences, chemistry, humanities, engineering, information technology, and agriculture. Each project receives EGP 300 000 annually for 24 months (ASRT, 2025[44]).
Egypt's involvement in global technology and innovation initiatives
Egypt's involvement in global technology and innovation initiatives is evident through various channels. These include scientific pacts with the European Union and membership in committees of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) (MHESR, 2023[45]).
5.1.3. A strategic partnership with the European Union could develop STI in Egypt
Egypt's partnership with the European Union in the southern Mediterranean has become increasingly significant in recent years. This is attributed to the profound instability experienced by numerous countries in the region and the multifaceted crisis affecting the overall regional dynamics (Soltan, 2021[46]).
The EU-Egypt Science and Technology Cooperation Agreement has been pivotal in shaping R&D collaboration between Egypt and the European Union. Established in 2005 and entering into force in 2008, the agreement set the main priorities of the EU-Egypt co-operation in research and innovation on food security and the water-food-energy nexus (European Commission, n.d.[47]).
Under the European Union’s Neighbourhood policy, the Research, Development and Innovation (RDI) programme has played a significant role in supporting academia-business projects in Egypt. Established in 2007 with an endowment of EUR 31 million in two phases, this programme supported major projects with unit values ranging from EUR 100 000 to EUR 500 000 and was supposed to be sustained by ASRT programmes when RDI phased out in 2018 (Kirby and El Hadidi, 2021[48]). However, ASRT programmes seem to have much less financing available. Interviewees confirmed during the OECD fieldwork that there is currently no programme similar to RDI, a crucial point that Egypt needs to address.
The European Union is striving to strengthen scientific co-operation between Egypt and the European Research Area, notably by enhancing Egyptian involvement in Horizon 2020 with a budget of EUR 80 billion (Kirby and El Hadidi, 2021[48]). Under the Horizon 2020 programme, Egypt collaborated with the European Union on 51 projects spanning sectors such as water, energy, food, agriculture, health, migration and cultural heritage (European Commission, 2021[49]) (Box 5.4).
Egyptian participants are particularly engaged in addressing societal challenges, international co-operation, and doctoral fellowships through the Marie Skłodowska-Curie Actions (MSCA) in the Horizon 2020 programme, the European Union's premier R&D initiative. There are 48 distinct Egyptian organisations involved in Horizon 2020 projects and 15 unique participants in the MSCA (Ekrem, 2020[10]).
Horizon 2020
Horizon 2020, the European Union’s largest research and innovation programme from 2014 to 2020, had a budget of approximately EUR 80 billion. It aimed to drive economic growth and create jobs by funding research and innovation projects that address major societal challenges.
Egyptian collaboration in Horizon 2020Egypt has been actively involved in Horizon 2020. The collaboration focused on enhancing research and innovation capabilities in Egypt, fostering co-operation between Egyptian and European researchers, and addressing common challenges. Key contributions and areas of collaboration include water management, health research and agricultural research.
RDI programme
The RDI programme is part of the broader EU-Egypt Innovation Partnership, aiming to strengthen Egypt’s research and innovation capacities. It focuses on fostering a culture of innovation, improving research infrastructure, and enhancing the links between research, education and industry.
Impact of the RDI programme
Industrial needs: The 51 awarded projects addressed various industrial needs and established links between academia and national/European industries.
RDI network: The establishment of an RDI network of focal points in Egyptian research and industry organisations enhanced research co-operation between Egypt and the European Union
FP7 participation: Egypt’s success rate in the European Union’s 7th Framework Programme for Research (FP7) increased from 7% in 2007 to 20% in 2010.
Source: European Commission (2024[50]), (European Commission, 2015[51]), (European Commission, n.d.[47]) and (Lubent Consulting, 2017[52]), (European Commission, 2024[53]).
In March 2024, Egypt and the European Union decided to upgrade their relationship to a comprehensive and strategic partnership, with the European Union pledging up to EUR 5 billion in investments in renewable energy, digital transformation, advanced industrialisation, and agriculture and food security, out of a EUR 7.4 billion co-operation package. Following this, in April 2025, the European Union struck a deal with Egypt, allowing it to associate with Horizon Europe. This association agreement was formally signed on 22 October 2025 on the sideline of the Egypt-UE Summit, making Egypt the second African country and the first Arab country to associate with Horizon Europe (European Union, 2025[54]). Nevertheless, to benefit from this status, Egypt needs to increase its absorption capacity to achieve higher success rates for proposed projects (see Recommendation 11).
Additionally, the review team’s fieldwork revealed stakeholder concerns that there was no information available about a follow-up programme similar to the RDI programme, and collaboration in STI is limited to the existing multilateral programmes, such as the Partnership for Research and Innovation in the Mediterranean Area (PRIMA), Horizon Europe and the Digital Europe Programme. In parallel, a technical assistance contract launched in August 2025 supports the Ministry of Higer Education and Scientific Research in strengthening institutional capacity and enhancing Egypt’s participation in Horizon Europe.
During the 8th EU-Egypt Joint Science and Technology Cooperation Committee meeting on 25 November 2021, t the two sides acknowledged the progress of research and innovation and EU-Egypt co-operation under Horizon 2020, the European Neighbourhood Instrument (ENI), PRIMA and BLUEMED (Mediterranean Blue Economy Initiative) (European Commission, n.d.[47]). The European Union is set to intensify its collaboration on research and innovation, aiming for sustained and increased involvement in PRIMA and Erasmus+ under Horizon 2020 (European Commission, 2024[55]). More recently, the 9th EU-Egypt Association Committee meeting held in 2025 reaffirmed both side’s commitment to strengthening co-operation across a broad range of areas, including research, education and innovation, in the context of their Strategic and Comprehensive Partnership (EU MedBridge, 2025[56]).
5.1.4. Egypt plays a key role in scientific research in the MENA region, while its role in Africa could be enhanced
Egypt plays a key role in scientific research within both the African and Arab regions. In 2020, it contributed approximately one-quarter of the research output for both areas. Over the years, Egypt’s share of Africa’s total research output has grown significantly, from 21% in 1996 to 26.82% in 2022 (MOSHER, 2024[57]). Recent geopolitical developments have highlighted Egypt’s importance as a crucial ally for peace in the Middle East. Within the African continent, Egypt stands as a leading force, on par with South Africa and Morocco. For instance, Egypt is one of the top three research producers on the continent and has established numerous international research partnerships (NIH, 2011[58])
Egypt's commitment to sustainable innovation is evident in its strategic alignment with continental goals. In its preliminary Innovation Policy for Sustainable Innovation, Egypt intended to align its strategies with the African Union Agenda 2063, serving as a key reference point. The African Union Agenda 2063 also offer awards and training opportunities for African scientists. Egypt also plays an important role in implementing the AU-EU Innovation Agenda, adopted in 2023, which aims to foster sustainable growth and job creation by translating research and innovation into tangible socio-economic benefits across both continents. Key priority areas include public health, the green transition, innovation and technology, and capacity-building for science. Additionally, Egypt has identified the gaps in partnership management within the Arab and African regions as one of the urgent issues that needs to be addressed (MHESR, 2023[45]).
In the Euro-Mediterranean area, Egypt has played a significant role since 1995 in the Barcelona process, which later evolved into the Union for the Mediterranean (UfM) in 2008. Egypt co-chaired the UfM with France from 2008 to 2012, highlighting the importance of research and innovation in economic and political co-operation across the Mediterranean. (European Commission, 2024[59]; State Information Service, n.d.[60]). Additionally, in October 2024, Egypt hosted the UfM High-Level Meeting on Science Diplomacy and the Euro-Mediterranean Innovation Marketplace, emphasising the importance of science diplomacy (UfM, 2024[61]). Egypt also hosted an extraordinary conference of the African Ministerial Council on Science and Technology (AMCOST) in Cairo in November 2006 (AMCOST, 2006[62]). Additionally, Egypt chaired AMCOST from 2010 to 2012 (Nordling, 2010[63]).
Egypt chaired PRIMA from 2018 to 2021 and allocates EUR 30 million to address agricultural sustainability and water management challenges, linking North Africa with Southern Europe. Egypt is involved in 56 projects that are run by 75 universities, Research Centres and small and medium-sized enterprises (Amin, 2022[64]). Egypt still co-chairs PRIMA and is also continuing its active participation and funding of PRIMA during its extended implementation period until 2027 (PRIMA, 2024[65]). Some interviewees emphasised that PRIMA has greatly strengthened the trend of collaboration with the European Union, alongside Egypt's strong initiative in the MENA region. Additionally, Egypt is emerging as one of the leaders in the renewable energy transition in the MENA region (Dorcas, 2024[66]).
Furthermore, Egypt has actively participated in various scientific and public health initiatives within several international collaborations. For example, it has assumed executive management roles at SESAME (Soror et al., 2023[67]). Second, as part of the Eastern Mediterranean Public Health Network (EMPHNET), Egypt enhances public health systems via co-operative epidemiological research and health advancements. (EMPHNET, 2024[68]).
Egypt also intends to enhance its role in the MENA region and Africa through initiatives such as the National Research Centre's Sixth of October branch. This branch is positioned to become a regional leader by broadening its focus to include sectors such as renewable energy, green technologies and advanced manufacturing (NRC, 2024[69]).
However, there have been several threats or barriers to Egypt expanding its influence in STI in the MENA region. First, emerging changes in the MENA region pose significant challenges (MHESR, 2019[70]). These dynamics underscore the region's complex and volatile landscape (Tarik, 2020[71]). Additionally, climate change is a particular concern, with the MENA region warming at twice the global average (Azmi, 2022[72]).
Second, International relations with donor countries are changing quickly. Many traditional western donors are rethinking aid and focusing more on their own national interests. This is reshaping the global aid system, with growing attention on climate change, humanitarian crises, Environmental, Social and Governance(ESG) standards, and the (Sustainable Development Goals)SDGs, as well as broader systemic issues like health, innovation, and security (Dan and Nikolai, 2022[73]). Recent geopolitical developments, including changes in the US administration and the war in Gaza, have further intensified these shifts and underscored the interaction between humanitarian, security and innovation-related priorities. For Egypt, this means tackling governance and globalisation challenges, while also realigning priorities to attract more development finance and strengthen long-term partnerships with donor countries, especially in STI. Regional co-operation within Africa and with Mediterranean countries also needs improvement (see Recommendation 11).
The recent US decision to cut back foreign aid, including USAID programmes, highlights these shifts. As aid from traditional donors becomes less reliable, Egypt must seek new sources of development finance and build stronger strategic partnerships. Adapting to global trends will be crucial for sustainable development and resilience (FRANKEL, 2025[74]).
Third, Vieira and Cerdeira (2022[75]) study the integration of African countries, and from their network analysis, it appears that Egypt is only loosely integrated into the African network, mostly so with North African countries, but even there, the links tend to be further apart than within sub-Saharan countries, which cluster very closely to the South African research system.
Lastly, when considering participation in Horizon 2020, Egypt has achieved a success rate of 14%, comparable to that of the benchmarked countries in Table 5.1. It is important to note that Tunisia and Türkiye have associate status, which provides them with full access in the role of project co-ordinator, while Egypt only gained this status in 2025. Until 2025 was like Morocco, Lebanon and Jordan and could only join projects as a partner. Nevertheless, when comparing the funding raised in proportion to gross domestic product (GDP), one can see that Egypt attracted about EUR 94 000 in Horizon 2020 support per USD 1 billion of GDP, the smallest ratio among the comparator countries with the same status: Morocco, Lebanon and Jordan secured three to ten times more on this basis, while associate countries Türkiye and Tunisia achieved even more (Table 5.1). These figures underscore Egypt’s relatively limited involvement in the programme (European Commission - Eurostat/GISCO, 2026[76]), and confirm the statement found in the National Strategy for STI 2030, saying that Egypt has not fully used the international funding and support available (MHESR, 2019[70]) (see Recommendation 11). This assessment reflects the situation prior to Egypt's association with Horizon Europe; since October 2025, Egypt has become an associated country, which is expected to support more active participation going forward.
Note: Data extracted in March 2026. Türkiye and Tunisia are associate countries in Horizon 2020, while Egypt is an associate since 2025, before that it was considered “third country eligible for funding”, just as , Morocco, Lebanon and Jordan. Ratios are calculated by dividing each country’s total Horizon 2020 net EU contribution (in EUR millions) by its 2023 nominal GDP in current US dollars, then expressing the result as EUR millions per USD 1 billion of GDP. Currency values are not adjusted for purchasing power; figures provide a simple comparative indicator of Horizon 2020 funding relative to economic size. The success rate shown is calculated by dividing the number of signed grants by the total number of applications, not by the number of eligible proposals. Horizon 2020 participation data (net EU contribution, signed grants, eligible proposals, success rate) from European Commission – Horizon 2020 country statistics.
Source: OECD calculations based on (European Commission - Eurostat/GISCO, 2026[76]) and (World Bank, 2026[77]).
Still, Egypt and other North African countries have many opportunities to build capacity through international partnerships. To achieve sustainable development, Egypt is creating research grant programmes, offering awards to Arab and African countries, and setting up permanent STI representation offices in the European Union and the African Union. These efforts need to align with African and Arab priorities and support joint financing of research projects (MHESR, 2019[70]).
Egypt can strengthen its leadership in the region by tackling global challenges that require international co-operation, developing shared research programmes, and building large scientific infrastructures with neighbours. Projects like SESAME in Jordan show how such initiatives can raise a country’s scientific profile. By doing the same, Egypt could become a regional hub for science, innovation, and collaboration in the MENA region and Africa.
SESAME (Synchrotron-light for Experimental Science and Applications in the Middle East) is the Middle East’s first major international research centre, located in Allan, Jordan. It is a third-generation synchrotron-light source that provides advanced capabilities for experimental science across a wide range of disciplines. The facility was officially inaugurated in 2017 and is operated under the auspices of UNESCO.
Scientific purpose and capabilities
SESAME produces synchrotron-light – intense beams of X-rays and infrared radiation – used to analyse the structure and properties of materials at the atomic and molecular level. It supports research in materials science and nanotechnology, biology and medicine, environmental science, cultural heritage preservation, and energy and chemistry
The facility currently operates five beamlines, including BM02 (Infrared Spectromicroscopy), BM08 (XAFS/XRF Spectroscopy). ID09 (Materials Science/X-ray Powder Diffraction), ID10 (BEATS – Tomography) and ID11L (HESEB – Helmholtz-SESAME Beamline).
Regional collaboration and science diplomacy
SESAME is governed by a council of member states from across the Middle East and neighbouring regions. The facility provides a platform for regional scientific collaboration, bringing together researchers form diverse backgrounds to work on shared scientific challenges. It is often referred to as the “CERN of the Middle East”.
Relevance for Egypt
Egypt is a founding member of SESAME and actively participates in its governance and research activities. The SESAME model demonstrates how regional scientific infrastructure can enhance scientific capacity and visibility and serve as a platform for innovation and diplomacy.
Source: SESAME (2025[78]) and (SESAME, 2025[79]).
5.1.5. Egypt is involved in most multilateral research networks
Egypt is also involved in most multilateral research networks and has established numerous collaborative agreements with various countries and organisations.
Egypt is the sole representative from both the Arab world and the MENA region that holds membership in all three research organisations: the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA), the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research (JINR) and SESAME (Soror et al., 2023[67]).
Since 2003, Egypt has been a part of the IIASA. Collaborative endeavours between IIASA and Egypt have involved 13 Egyptian institutions since 2010 and have led to the publication of 30 scientific papers on subjects ranging from demography to renewable energy. These efforts have significantly contributed to the professional development of young Egyptian scientists (IIASA, 2018[80]). In 2021, the ASRT and the IIASA launched the North Africa Applied Systems Analysis Centre, which should foster the culture of applied systems analysis and evidence-based decision-making in Egypt, through the training of policymakers.
Egypt maintains a robust partnership with the JINR. Indeed, Egypt transitioned from Associate Member to full Member State of JINR in November 2013. This co-operation has encompassed numerous scientific institutions in Egypt and has culminated in a variety of collaborative research projects (JINR, 2021[81]).
Egypt is an active participant in the SESAME project. SESAME is a major international scientific initiative based in Jordan that involves multiple countries from the Middle East and beyond. The project's goal is to foster scientific and technological excellence in the region and promote peaceful collaboration through advanced research facilities (Rabinovici, 2013[82]).
As previously mentioned, Egypt has a collaboration agreement with CERN, the European Organisation for Nuclear Research, contributing to two of the four largest experiments of the LHC (Large Hadron Collider), CMS (Compact Muon Solenoid) and ALICE (A Large Ion Collider Experiment), and also participates in the Worldwide LHC computing grid (CERN, 2024[83]; Elgammal, 2021[84]). CERN provides valuable training and educational opportunities for Egyptian students and researchers. By collaborating with CERN, Egypt aims to prevent brain drain by providing local scientists with opportunities to engage in world-class research without needing to leave the country. Egypt signed an international co-operation agreement with CERN in 2006. While Egypt is not yet an Associate Member, it has signalled interest in applying for this status, along with Morocco. Both countries are vying to become the first African Associate Member countries of CERN (Research Professional News, 2023[85]; CERN, 2024[83]).
5.2.1. A system-wide internationalisation strategy for STI is needed
International STI collaboration is only partially addressed in Egypt’s current strategies. The National Policy for Sustainable Innovation 2030 in its Executive Plan calls for: 1) developing professional academic leadership in innovation and technology in collaboration with international academic institutions; and 2) enhancing partnerships with international universities and Research Centres. The Blueprint for Sustainable STI mentions specific actions to motivate faculty to participate in international projects (MHESR, 2023[45]).
The current scope of STI internationalization provides a foundation to build on, and further broadening it would help bring Egypt closer to approaches commonly seen in OECD Member countries, which clearly delineates roles and responsibilities and assigns resources to support key stakeholders in the national STI system including universities, research institutes and companies. Moreover, the Ministry of Planning and Economic Development has detailed Egypt Vision 2030 and the National Structural Reform Programme. However, while internationalization is recognized as a priority across several national strategies and policy frameworks, including in higher education and broader development plans, it is not yet articulated through a dedicated and comprehensive strategy specifically focused on international STI co-operation. For example, Korea established the International Collaboration R&D Investment Strategy in 2021 and the International R&D Promotion Strategy in 2023. These strategies include a funding plan, a Global R&D Strategic Map, and the formation of an interministerial Global R&D Special Committee (see Recommendation 11.1).
There is a need for a nationwide strategy for internationalisation. Developing and implementing research policies that promote international collaboration at various levels is of utmost importance. Therefore, it is crucial to formulate strategies that enhance the quantity and quality of publications, attract international talent, upgrade research infrastructure and foster a collaborative research environment (Shehatta and Mahmood, 2016[86]).
The initial step should involve a comprehensive survey of current international activities, an evaluation of partnership portfolios and international commitments, and an assessment of their respective contributions and alignment with Egypt's Vision 2030 and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The overarching strategy for internationalisation should encompass guidelines for reaching out to potential institutional partners, strategies for international mobility, and Egypt's role in the evolution of other systems (OECD, forthcoming[3]). Creating a Global R&D Strategic Map could be highly beneficial for conducting a comparative analysis of technological advantages among countries, pinpointing key collaboration countries, and formulating technology-specific strategies as a guide for global R&D. The International R&D Promotion Strategy in Korea could serve as a useful example (MSIT, 2023[87]) (Box 5.6).
Against a backdrop of growing geopolitical tensions challenging international co-operation in STI, Egypt should develop a comprehensive internationalisation strategy that balances openness in research with emerging concerns about research security. In many OECD Member countries, research security has become a key concern, especially regarding sensitive technologies and intellectual property. Egypt’s strategy should balance openness in research with measures to manage risks in international collaboration.
Objective: Innovate global R&D systems to be the best in the world
Innovate global R&D investment
Strengthen global R&D leadership by organising more top-down, mission-driven international research programmes that align with government ministries
Expand global R&D investment to over KRW 5.4 trillion (Korean won) (USD 4 billion) within three years, raising the share from 1.6% to 6-7% of total government R&D spending.
Launch the Global Brain Network project, led by Korea, the United States and Japan, and involving Indo-Pacific countries and Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) members.
Establish a Global R&D Strategic Map.
Support the rapid and flexible initiation of global R&D projects focusing on 12 major national strategic technologies and 17 carbon neutrality technology areas.
Form a “Global R&D Special Committee” chaired by the vice minister of the STI office to consolidate global R&D capabilities across government departments.
Strengthen the global capabilities of domestic researchers
In conjunction with the Global R&D Strategic Map, collect information on globally renowned leading scientists and link/utilise it in personnel exchange projects and other initiatives.
Initiate a programme where domestic emerging researchers propose research ideas and collaborate with overseas Korean researchers on joint research.
Within individual basic research, establish or convert to a global R&D track for each category of leader, mid-career, and emerging researchers to advance the project.
Create a research ecosystem of global standards
Expand substantial co-operation at a deeper level, such as discovering joint advanced technology projects and establishing research infrastructure, through high-level channels (e.g. Korea-US CET dialogue).
Proactively develop and expand global technical standards that align with our technologies and actively support experts' international activities to pursue “Global Standard Leadership”.
Revise the Global R&D Guideline and laws
To proactively protect potential key technologies and establish an intermediate security level (sensitive) for both confidential and general projects.
Source: MSIT (2023[87]).
5.2.2. The institutional structure for supporting STI internationalisation needs to be improved
International collaboration in science and technology has a long history in Egypt but faces challenges that need to be addressed. International co-operation in science and technology was championed by the ASRT since its inception in 1972, and numerous collaborations already existed with the United States, France, Sweden, Tunisia, and other countries. More recently, bilateral grants in international co-operation are managed by the STDF.
Despite these agencies' active support for international research collaboration, interviewees raised concerns about the lack of institutional support in many partnerships. They noted that these collaborations often focus on a narrow set of activities within a specific study or research area and rarely involve the full institution or a combination of administrative, teaching and research elements (OECD, forthcoming[3]). Furthermore, the establishment of expert teams or organisations within universities or research institutes to bolster international research collaboration needs to be strengthened. The international collaboration support centres at Hanyang University in Korea and the University of Florida in the United States could serve as valuable examples of good practice.
For example, the US University of Florida International Centre’s Office for Global Research Engagement (OGRE) is dedicated to fostering international research partnerships and establishing co-operative agreements with foreign institutions. It supports collaborative research through joint proposals and access to global resources and provides funding opportunities, workshops, and resources for international research. Additionally, OGRE has played a crucial role in enhancing regional healthcare and attracting global talent through active international collaboration. By assisting faculty with funding searches, proposal preparation and connecting researchers, OGRE strengthens the University of Florida’s global presence and promotes a multicultural academic environment (OGRE, 2024[88]).
Similarly, the Global Innovation Cluster Centre (GIC) at Hanyang University's Institute of International Education (ERICA) campus in Korea exemplifies effective international collaboration. The GIC fosters industry-university co-operation by creating a robust ecosystem that promotes practical global R&D projects. It supports the development of innovative research and facilitates the dissemination of research achievements on a global scale. The centre also provides educational opportunities for students and researchers, offering hands-on experience with advanced technologies and methodologies (GIC, 2024[89]).
It is necessary to establish an international research exchange and co-operation platform within research institutions to facilitate the influx of foreign research talent, secure core technologies and promote joint research. The Asia Pacific Centre for Theoretical Physics, established at Pohang University of Science and Technology in Korea as an international research exchange hub among 16 member countries, can serve as a reference (APCTP, 2025[90]).
5.2.3. A whole-of-government approach or infrastructure to support international collaboration could be further enhanced.
Many interviewees expressed concerns about the collaboration among stakeholders, especially among government departments. To boost and enhance international research collaboration, it is essential to communicate among government bodies. However, the OECD team could not find a pan-governmental consultative body on international co-operation in R&D among several governmental ministries and bodies. The interministerial structures to support international R&D collaboration could be strengthened by forming a “Global R&D Special Committee” to consolidate global R&D capabilities across government departments [for reference, see MSIT (2023[87]) and (2020[91])]. Implementation of an STI internationalisation strategy should be based on a whole-of-government approach (OECD, forthcoming[3]).
Reliable data on international STI collaboration is lacking. The OECD review team has been unable to find systematic data about the existing bilateral agreements and membership in multilateral collaborations. Financing flows through the various international co-operation agreements are not documented, and no budget is available to support future international co-operation initiatives. Additionally, practical impact assessment for these partnerships is lacking.
The cases of Korea’s Integrated R&D Information System (IRIS) (Box 5.7) and Japan’s e-CSTI (evidence data platform constructed by the Council for Science, Technology and Innovation) (Box 5.8) could serve as useful references. These platforms promote international co-operation by providing insights into global technological trends and facilitating partnerships.
Korea’s IRIS is designed to streamline and standardise research management across various ministries and institutions. IRIS represents a significant step towards creating a more efficient and collaborative R&D environment in Korea.
Standardisation and integration
IRIS consolidates disparate research management regulations and guidelines into a unified system. This includes project management, researcher information and fund management systems.
Researcher-centric approach
The system aims to reduce administrative inefficiencies and inconveniences caused by multiple standards and systems. It fosters a researcher-centric environment, making it easier for researchers to manage their work.
Collaboration and co-ordination
IRIS facilitates better co-ordination and collaboration among researchers and institutions. It supports joint research activities and helps avoid duplication of efforts.
Digital technologies (IRIS 2.0)
The system incorporates advanced digital technologies like artificial intelligence (AI) and big data to enhance its functionality and efficiency.
Deployment and expansion
Initially deployed in key institutions, IRIS is being expanded to cover more organisations, ensuring comprehensive integration across the research ecosystem.
Source: IRIS, (2024[92]), (MSIT, 2022[93]) and (KERC, 2023[94]).
The evidence data platform (e-CSTI), developed by Japan's CSTI, is designed to support evidence-based policymaking (EBPM) and evidence-based management (EBMgt) in the fields of science and technology. e-CSTI is a comprehensive tool that enhances the efficiency and effectiveness of Japan's science and technology policies and management practices.
Data collection and analysis
e-CSTI collects and analyses data related to science and technology innovation. This includes information on research outputs, funding allocations, and the status of external fundraising and donations.
Visualisation tools
The platform provides visualisation tools to make science and technology-related budgets, research capacities, and the impact of government R&D investments more transparent.
Support for policymaking
By offering detailed analytical functions, e-CSTI aids in the formulation of policies based on solid evidence. This helps in making informed decisions about funding and strategic directions.
Enhancing management processes
e-CSTI also supports the management processes of national universities and R&D agencies, ensuring that their operations are aligned with the latest data and trends.
Source: e-CSTI (2024[95]) and (e-CSTI, 2024[96]).
5.2.4. There are regulatory issues that could constrain Egypt’s potential for extensive international collaboration
Some interviewees highlighted regulatory issues that could constrain Egypt’s potential for extensive international collaboration in innovation. Egypt’s laws require foreign employees to have a work permit, be sponsored by an Egyptian company, and maintain a ratio of ten local employees for each foreign one. Foreign board members and managers in companies also need to meet certain capital requirements. The Egyptian government has relaxed several regulations: for example, the requirement for managers in limited liability companies (LLCs) to be Egyptian nationals has been removed, and management can now be entrusted to one or more managers of any nationality in LLCs. In addition, there are no explicit legal restrictions on foreign ownership in limited liability companies. Management can be entrusted to one or more managers of any nationality, appointed by the partners Similarly, joint stock companies and partnerships limited by shares. These entities are governed by a legal framework that does not impose nationality restrictions on board members or managers, allowing foreign nationals to hold these positions.
5.3.1. Egypt needs to enhance its efforts to attract international academics
OECD fieldwork shows that Egyptian universities face significant challenges in attracting international academics. Salaries are generally not competitive internationally, especially compared to Gulf countries, with few exceptions like AUC and E-JUST. Economic devaluation and inflation have led to departures, as institutions struggle to adjust compensation or offer payment in foreign currencies. . Additionally, the process of securing work permits can be time-consuming, involving administrative procedures and approvals required under applicable labour regulations. Some interviewees also pointed to perceived challenges related to the research environment in certain discipline, which may affect the attractiveness of Egypt as a destination for international academics. . (Fahmy, 2025[97]).
Given the difficulties in recruiting international academics, universities have been exploring the idea of attracting academics for shorter-term assignments, such as semester-long visits, teaching or research stays, sabbaticals in Egypt, pre-retirement positions or remote work. Egypt could consider implementing a set of policies to facilitate academic mobility, aid in recruitment, simplify the approval and permission process, and introduce various programmes for both short and long-term stays (OECD, forthcoming[3]).
To develop lasting bonds between diaspora researchers and public research organisations in Egypt, the ASRT has introduced the JESOR‐Development initiative, which builds on earlier programmes to stimulate these relationships, such as the Tokten programme “Transferring Knowledge through Expatriates”. There are no pre-defined topics for collaboration, but relevance for Egypt’s economy is a main selection criterion. Diaspora scientists need to apply jointly with the hosting organisation in Egypt, which can be either a PRO, a firm, or an NGO. Funding is for a period of 24-36 months (ASRT, 2024[98])
Retaining top research talent is crucial to sustaining innovation momentum in Egypt. The National Research Centre calls for increased funding to research institutions, competitive salaries, and robust career development opportunities. Engaging the Egyptian diaspora through targeted programmes can also help attract highly skilled professionals back to the country. By creating incentives and support systems for returning academics, Egypt can mitigate brain drain and leverage the expertise of its diaspora to enhance its scientific and technological capabilities (NRC, 2024[69]).
Korea’s approach to addressing brain drain may serve as a helpful reference (Box 5.8).
Brain Pool Program
The Brain Pool Program brings talented overseas scientists, including Korean diaspora and international researchers, to work in Korean research institutes. It helps strengthen Korea’s research through joint projects, supports global networking, trains new researchers, and promotes international collaboration in the local research environment
Eligibility: 1) PhD holders living overseas or researchers with significant R&D experience; 2) in the case of a corporate or corporate-affiliated research institute being the host organisation, scientists with five years or more of on-site R&D experience in the industry overseas.
Support: Personnel costs (approximately USD 4 000/month, up to a maximum of USD 19 000/month); research material costs; research activity costs (housing, airfare, insurance premiums, relocation, children’s education).
Duration: 12 months to a maximum of 3 years.
Preference fields: 12 national strategic technology fields: 1) semiconductor and display; 2) secondary cells; 3) leading-edge mobility; 4) next generation nuclear energy; 5) leading-edge bio; 6) aerospace and marine; 7) hydrogen; 8) cyber security; 9) AI; 10) next generation communications; 11) leading-edge robotics and manufacture; 12) quantum.
Brain Pool+ Program
The Brain Pool+ Program builds on the original Brain Pool initiative by offering more comprehensive support to attract top-tier international researchers. This programme is particularly focused on long-term engagement and integration of these researchers into Korean institutions.
Eligibility: Overseas residing researchers who hold a PhD or who have more than five years of on-site R&D experience in the industry, regardless of a PhD with outstanding research capabilities.
Support: Personnel costs; invitation costs; research facility equipment costs; students’ personnel costs; material costs, etc. (Total support: maximum of USD 450 000/year).
Duration: Up to ten years (initial four years with a possible extension of six years).
Preference fields: 12 national strategic technology fields: 1) semiconductor and display; 2) secondary cells; 3) leading-edge mobility; 4) next generation nuclear energy; 5) leading-edge bio; 6) aerospace and marine; 7) hydrogen; 8) cyber security; 9) AI; 10) next generation communications; 11) leading-edge robotics and manufacture; 12) quantum.
New funding category for inviting outstanding scholars
In 2022, Korea created a new funding option to help government-funded projects hire excellent foreign researchers. Project leaders can now use part of their research funds to support international talent.
Usage: This includes all necessary expenses for attracting overseas researchers, such as incentives and living expenses, paid to researchers affiliated with foreign governments, institutions, or organisations who possess expertise related to the R&D project.
Source: MSIT (2024[99]), (MSIT, 2023[87]) and (MSIT, 2022[100]).
5.3.2. Outbound research mobility is a challenging issue for policymakers
Due to financial and workforce constraints, Egypt faces significant challenges in supporting outbound mobility. National scholarships and other forms of support for outbound mobility are being reviewed. The public funding for these scholarships has been reduced due to recent budget cuts, which continues to limit the scale of outbound mobility. However, Egypt has taken steps to mitigate some of these constraints, including updating the mission systems to account for inflation and expanding bilateral agreements with countries such as France and Germany. Nevertheless, the scale of outbound mobility remains difficult to sustain, given the shortage of academics in Egypt and the significant brain drain of the skilled workforce. Outbound research mobility is good for personal development of Egyptian researchers, but on the other hand, more than two-thirds of foreign doctorate holders in the United States tend to stay in the United States, ten years after completion of their PhD (Kahn and MacGarvie, 2024[101]). Despite the annual graduation of thousands of medical students, Egypt faces a significant shortage of physicians (Kabbash et al., 2021[102]) (see Recommendation 12).
In addition to the global impact of the pandemic on mobility, Egypt faces unique challenges, including relatively short-term student mobility (e.g. partial programmes, study abroad). Between 2015 and 2019, about 3 000 Egyptian students and staff participated in the Erasmus+ programme. This is a relatively low participation rate compared to other countries in the European Union-Southern Mediterranean co‑operation (European Commission, 2020[103]).
Students and academics frequently find themselves without sufficient information about potential opportunities. When they choose to pursue a course or semester overseas, they often face a complex recognition process. . Additionally, some administrative procedures related to international mobility can be time-consuming, which may affect participation in international exchanges. (Nagy, 2019[104]; OECD, forthcoming[3]).
Table 5.2 sets out the main achievements and challenges of Egypt’s internationalisation of research. The assessment was guided by three policy questions:
How conducive is Egypt's policy and regulatory environment to fostering internationalisation in science and innovation?
What steps need to be taken to enhance the capacity of researchers for international collaborations?
What factors make Egypt an attractive destination for international researchers?
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