This chapter reviews the achievements and challenges in strengthening Egypt’s research system, covering resources (human and financial) and research infrastructure. It draws on a combination of qualitative and quantitative analysis, along with a discussion of various international examples of reform. The final section is dedicated to government research centres, analysing their mandates, governance, and co-ordination, and outlining how to strengthen their role as research and technology organisations.
OECD Reviews of Innovation Policy: Egypt 2026
Abstract
Egypt’s research output is improving in both volume and quality. The country’s diverse research system includes universities and government research centres and has developed important specialisations in fields such as pharmacology, toxicology and pharmaceutics; veterinary; biochemistry, genetics and molecular biology; chemical engineering; agricultural and biological sciences; and mathematics. Egypt has increased its share of the world's 10% top-cited scientific publications, catching up with the OECD average.
Despite a large increase in global expenditure for research and development (GERD), resource constraints remain, and the translation of research priorities into resource allocation needs to be further developed. While official statistics show that GERD measured as a percentage of gross domestic product (GDP) has increased fourfold between 2005 and 2022, the situation on the ground is characterised by hiring freezes and limited spending on advanced scientific equipment. The process of identifying high-priority research areas and aligning them with resource allocation (human, financial, and research infrastructure) needs to be strengthened.
Egypt needs to further develop its workforce in science, technology and innovation. This is a policy priority for the country that will require addressing several challenges, including the implications of the hiring freeze in the public sector, the relatively small size of doctoral education, and the need to create attractive education pathways into fields into priority sectors.
Government research centres have untapped development potential. Some could clarify their mission-driven objectives, and the governance of public research centres could be further aligned to promote more coherent and efficient collaboration. They could evolve into research and technology organisations (RTOs), which typically play a key role in supporting industry's innovation needs. This will require reflection in terms of mandate, governance and co-ordination.
Collaboration among research centres and universities could be improved. Initiatives encouraging multidisciplinary research and collaborative projects need to be further developed, as well as exchange of good practice between research centres and universities.
High teaching loads and insufficient research support services can reduce time for research and impact; greater institutional investment is needed to close this gap.
Strengthening research integrity. Current efforts could be enhanced through a two-pronged approach: national authorities enact and monitor clear regulations against misconduct, and public research providers (PRPs) raise awareness, provide training, and offer support to researchers.
6.1.1. Both the volume and the quality of Egypt’s research output are improving
Worldwide, the largest producers of scientific publications in 2023 were the People’s Republic of China (hereafter “China”) (27%), the United States (13%), and India (7%), followed by Germany (3.3%) and the United Kingdom (3.1%). While Egypt’s share has surpassed that of Mexico, a country both more populous and classified as an upper-middle-income country, it is still below that of Türkiye and Malaysia (Figure 6.1).
Fractional counts
Note: Publications are attributed to countries based on the authors' institutional affiliations. Publications were fractionalised by contributing units so that reported figures added up to the total number of publications (each document had the same weight). Fractional counts can be aggregated.
Source: OECD calculations based on Scopus Custom Data, Elsevier, Version 1.2025.
Figure 6.2 shows the progression both in volume (horizontal axis) and a proxy for quality – the percentage of papers published in top 10%-cited journals (vertical axis). The share of global scientific publications authored by researchers affiliated with Egyptian institutions increased from 0.33% in 2009 to 0.69% in 2023, reflecting the country’s growth potential, while incentives for researchers to publish in international high-impact journals have contributed to an increase in the share of scientific publications published in the world's 10% top-cited journals from 6.2% in 2008 to 11% in 2022.
It is remarkable to see that Egypt’s share of top-cited publications surpasses the world average and that of many OECD Member countries. Nevertheless, it is important to interpret this performance in the overall context. Firstly, the volume of publications per million inhabitants is lower than in OECD Member countries as well as in developing countries such as Thailand and South Africa. This may be related to the low number of researchers, which probably results in a tighter selection of those who can pursue research careers, yielding a small but excellent researcher base. Also, high article processing charges may create barriers to publishing papers that are not accepted by highly cited journals, resulting in a low denominator. Finally, the bonuses for publication in highly cited journals provide an incentive to researchers to focus on excellent publications.
Source: OECD calculations based on Scopus Custom Data, Elsevier, Version 1.2025 and UN, World Population Prospects.
6.1.2. Public-sector research providers (PRPs) are increasingly productive
Egypt’s PRPs include higher education institutions, comprising also hospitals, which employ over half of all research personnel, as well as a number of government research centres. There have been increasing efforts to promote public-private partnerships with a strong focus on applied research, exemplified by various centres of excellence (Chapter 4).
All PRPs have increased their publication outputs (ASRT, 2019[1]). Table 6.1 lists the top five performers in terms of international publications for 2015-18. Although more recent data were not available for this review, the evidence suggests that publication growth is likely to continue.
Note: Ranked based on the number of publications in international journals in 2018.
Source: ASRT (2019[1]), Egyptian Science and Technology Indicators.
6.1.3. The portfolio of scientific disciplines shows specialisation and excellence in specific disciplines
An overview of the portfolio of scientific disciplines is shown in Figure 6.3, according to specialisation1 (horizontal axis) and excellence (vertical axis).2 In several fields of research, Egypt performs above the world average of excellence, which is set at 10%. This includes pharmacology, toxicology and pharmaceutics (20%), veterinary (14%), biochemistry, genetics and molecular biology (14%), chemical engineering (14%), agricultural and biological sciences (14%) and mathematics (14%). In Egypt, fields with high relative specialisation include veterinary (5.4), dentistry (3.8), pharmacology, toxicology and pharmaceutics (2.7), chemistry (1.7) and agricultural and biological sciences (1.5). Overall, fields with high specialisation also show strong excellence.
Note: The bubble size represents the number of scientific documents. All Science and Journal Classification (ASJC) 2-digit fields. Percentage of publications in the share of top 10% most-cited is the proportion of the 10% most-cited papers normalised by scientific field and type of document (articles, reviews and conference proceedings). This measure is a proxy indicator of research excellence. Estimates are based on fractional counts of documents by authors affiliated with institutions in each economy. Documents published in multidisciplinary/generic journals are allocated on a fractional basis to the ASJC codes of citing and cited papers. The relative specialisation indicator has been calculated as the ratio of a given field's share in a country's total scientific production, relative to the world's equivalent. A ratio greater than 1 indicates a high degree of specialisation, with the field's share in that country exceeding its relative importance in global scientific output, as captured by the Scopus database.
Source: OECD calculations based on Scopus Custom Data, Elsevier, Version 1.2025.
6.1.4. Publication bonus payments have stimulated output
Researchers in Egypt’s PRPs, who publish internationally in a top-cited journal, are eligible for a publication bonus payment. This can be equivalent to several months' salary. Both PRPs and the Science, Technology and Innovation Funding Authority (STDF) have bonus payment schemes, which consider academic seniority and citation impact. Postgraduate students can also apply for a bonus payment: EGP 50 000 (Egyptian pounds) (~ USD 1 000 in June 2025) for a publication in a 10% top-cited journal and EGP 40 000 (~ USD 800) for a publication in a 25% top-cited journal. Master’s students receive EGP 30 000 (~ USD 600) for a publication in a 25% top-cited journal, and EGP 20 000 (~ USD 400) for a 50% top-cited journal (STDF, 2024[2]). When compared to the low level of researchers’ base salaries (~USD 120 for a postdoc; USD 240 for a professor), this shows that the bonuses represent 2-8 monthly salaries.
Generally, offering individual scientists bonus payments for top-cited publications has both advantages and disadvantages. On the positive side, financial incentives can motivate scientists to aim for publication in top-tier journals and produce high-quality research. This can increase productivity and enhance the country’s research system's reputation as research outputs become more internationally visible. This effect is noticeable in Egypt, where the share of scientific publications ranked among the world’s top 10% most cited has increased, as discussed above. While publication bonuses and promotion criteria are intended to encourage research productivity and excellence, they can pose risks to research integrity.
International studies show that pressure to meet performance targets based on citation metrics and publication counts bear the risk of questionable research practices or misconduct (Biagioli et al., 2019[3]). When quality controls are weak and researchers face Strong incentives to publish highly cited work need to be accompanied by strong quality control in order to avoid the risk that corners may be cut to meet expectations. Also, the focus on producing top-cited publications can potentially divert researchers’ attention away from collaboration with industry. Prioritising highly cited academic outputs over engagement with industry potentially limits the translation of research findings into practical applications.
6.1.5. A greater emphasis on the need to safeguard research integrity
Concerns about research integrity in Egypt and other countries in the region have gained international attention (Aldeen AlRyalat et al., 2020[4]); (Menshawey, Menshawey and Mahamud, 2023[5]; Sabel et al., 2023[6]). Furthermore, studies highlighted the need for common guidelines, strengthening ethical oversight, and pursuing systemic reforms to balance incentives with robust practices that uphold research integrity (Ali, 2021[7]); (Elwy, 2023[8]). Efforts in this direction are already underway. The Supreme Council of Universities (SCU), the national-level body that oversees all governmental universities in Egypt (see Chapter 7), has introduced plagiarism detection tools and reinforced ethics training for researchers. Universities are implementing strict research auditing mechanisms and collaborating with international indexing databases to identify and address unethical practices. The quality of published papers is monitored by the digital libraries’ units of universities, and the SCU central digital library. There are penalties for misconduct, but little to no protection for whistleblowers (Elwy, 2023[8]).
Impact metrics can motivate researchers to increase their self-citation rates. A study analysing 50 countries from 1996 to 2019 using Scopus data found that 12 countries, including Egypt, showed anomalous increases in self-citation rates, which can be attributed to citation-based incentives that affect individual researchers' career progression and wages (Baccini and Petrovich, 2023[9]). When researchers operate within less connected communities, their chances of engaging with and being cited by a broader pool of peers are reduced, leading them to rely more heavily on citing their own previous work. This has been a challenge in Egypt, and initiatives to promote international collaboration are underway to address it (see Chapter 5).
Going forward, Egypt can strengthen its research integrity framework through a two‑pronged approach: national authorities should enact and rigorously monitor clear regulations explicitly prohibiting misconduct and malpractice, while PRPs prioritise raising awareness, providing comprehensive ethics training, and establishing effective support systems. An important step will be developing measures to encourage and protect whistleblowers and to foster a culture of transparency and accountability. The publication bonus policy could also be carefully reviewed in light of international good practice.
An example that highlights the vital role of PRPs in supporting individual researchers and research managers is the UK Committee on Research Integrity (UKCORI) (Box 6.1). UKCORI has developed a comprehensive self-assessment tool and requires PRPs to carry out standardised annual reporting on the policies they have implemented and the activities undertaken to support research integrity and promote good research practice (UKCORI, n.d.[10]). This structured, transparent reporting system fosters institutional accountability and continuous improvement in upholding research standards. By adopting tools akin to UKCORI’s self-assessment mechanism, Egyptian PRPs could further develop their research integrity policies and practices, identify areas for improvement, and demonstrate compliance aligned with international best practices.
The Concordat to Support Research Integrity in the UK is a national framework that was introduced in 2012 to safeguard and enhance the quality of research and its ethical standards. The Concordat has led to a more joined-up and proactive approach by defining broad responsibilities for the design, conduct, reporting and dissemination of research, as well as how research is funded/commissioned, managed, monitored/audited and reviewed to ensure that it is in line with ethical, professional, legal and other frameworks. In 2025, a five-year review process of the Concordat was completed (UKCORI, 2019[11]).
The Concordat is a set of principles and standards for researchers, their employers, and research funding organisations. The principles aim at: 1) maintaining the highest standards of research integrity; 2) embedding a culture of research integrity; 3) dealing with allegations of research misconduct; and 4) ensuring a commitment to strengthening research integrity (UKCORI, 2019[11]).
Implementation of the Concordat principles is a precondition for public funding. For this, there is an established monitoring and checking process, which is primarily based on self-assessment and institutional accountability, documenting compliance with Concordat principles, including publication of annual research integrity statements and proper investigation of misconduct.
The United Kingdom Committee on Research Integrity (UKCORI) is a nationally mandated committee composed of two co‑chairs and nine members drawn from across government, academia, publishing and research governance, and is supported through hosting and secretariat functions provided by UK Research and Innovation and its role in servicing the Research Integrity Concordat Signatories. UKCORI has developed tools and resources to support effective implementation of the Concordat. This includes a self-assessment tool to help institutions identify areas of their research practices, policies and culture that may need to be revised to comply with the Concordat. The self-assessment tool asks questions on different themes and for each provides indicators and possible sources of evidence (UKCORI, 2021[12]; UKCORI, 2024[13]).
Several PRPs in Egypt reported during interviews that they have measures in place to promote research integrity. Existing efforts could be strengthened through an effective combination of institutional responsibility and independent oversight. The example of the Netherlands’ Board on Research Integrity (LOWI) demonstrates an approach that respects institutional autonomy while providing an independent expert opinion on the adequacy, procedural correctness, and fairness of the institutional investigation to ensure adherence to shared standards and procedures (Box 6.2). LOWI’s role is to provide an independent assessment and advisory opinion to the boards of affiliated research institutions after they have conducted initial investigations into alleged integrity violations. LOWI evaluates whether the institution’s procedures were properly followed, whether research integrity principles were breached, and how any breaches should be classified.
Egypt can draw several lessons from LOWI. Establishing a comparable independent advisory mechanism could serve as an external check that strengthens public trust in the handling of misconduct cases. Such a body could act as a neutral peer reviewer of investigations carried out by institutional committees, publish anonymised case summaries to promote transparency, and encourage harmonisation of procedures across Research Centres and universities. By combining autonomy at the institutional level with oversight and guidance at the national level, Egypt could create a more coherent and robust integrity framework that not only addresses misconduct effectively but also supports a culture of continuous improvement in responsible research practices.
The Netherlands’ Board on Research Integrity (LOWI) is a joint initiative of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences, the Dutch Research Council, the Universities of the Netherlands, and the Netherlands Federation of University Medical Centres, launched in 2003 as a voluntary initiative. It became an independent non-profit organisation in 2019 with 19 affiliated PRPs.
Each affiliated research institution has its own internal research integrity committee, responsible for investigating allegations of misconduct, advising the institution’s governing board, and maintaining primary accountability. The assessment framework is based on the Netherlands Code of Conduct for Research Integrity, adopted in 2018, which outlines standards for good research practices. Research misconduct is defined as non-compliance with one or more of these standards, with the clearest examples being data fabrication, data falsification, and plagiarism. Some cases of non-compliance do not constitute misconduct and are instead classified as questionable research practices or shortcomings. Allegations submitted to LOWI must concern incidents that occurred within the past ten years.
LOWI provides second opinions when requested by parties dissatisfied with initial institutional decisions. It does not undertake a de novo investigation of cases or engage in dispute mediation, but delivers an independent expert opinion on the adequacy, procedural correctness, and fairness of the institutional investigation and its findings. LOWI may hold hearings if needed. After completing its review, LOWI issues a non-binding advisory opinion to the institution's board, which may lead to further local actions, such as additional investigations, if LOWI recommends them. Reports are published online in anonymised form, disclosing the names of the member institutions involved.
LOWI’s governance includes a chairperson with a legal background and members from diverse academic fields, including natural sciences, humanities, law, social sciences and behavioural sciences. LOWI offers procedural advice to affiliated and non-affiliated organisations. LOWI is financed by membership fees. The members and employees of LOWI are bound by a duty of confidentiality.
Source: ENRIO (2024[14]), Country report Netherlands and (LOWI, n.d.[15]).
6.1.6. Promising developments in open access
Egypt has taken on a pioneering role in publishing open-access journals among emerging economies. In collaboration with the Egyptian Knowledge Bank (EKB) and the publisher Springer Nature, STDF has taken a leading role in funding open-access publishing for PRO researchers. EKB was created in 2015 and has become the largest digital library and online knowledge hub in the country (UNESCO, n.d.[16]). An Open Access Agreement was signed in 2022, and STDF provides funding for researchers in Egyptian entities to publish their work through this agreement.
Capacity building is a major part of these efforts: STDF has been organising in partnership with the Research Academy of Springer Nature and EKB a workshop series with three parts: writing a research paper, research methodology, and grant writing. According to information provided by Egypt for the review, since January 2022, the promotion of open-access publishing has supported more than 29 000 researchers from over 370 PRPs.
EKB recently launched the Arabic Citation Index (ARCI), which is the first mapping of Arabic scholarly literature in the citation index, providing access to bibliographic information and citations of curated Arabic journals based on rigorous selection criteria, based on the Web of Science Citation selection process (Clarivate, 2022[17]). The aim is to increase the visibility and accessibility of research published in Arabic language.
Egypt has continued to grow its gross domestic expenditure on research and development (GERD) despite the economic downturn. According to official statistics, GERD as a percentage of GDP increased from 0.7% to 1.0% between 2018 and 2022, a fourfold increase since 2005. In international comparison, GERD is in line with countries of similar level of development, and below the most developed countries (Figure 6.4).
GERD as a percentage of GDP
Note: Figures for Egypt may not be fully internationally comparable. For further information, see OECD (forthcoming[18]), "OECD support towards STI statistical capability development in Egypt: Assessment and main recommendations".
Source: OECD calculations based on custom data provided by the Egyptian Science, Technology and Innovation Observatory (ESTIO) and OECD (2025[19]) (accessed March 2025).
6.2.1. Changes are expected in the allocation of public research funding
For higher education institutions, block funding is allocated to each university by budget lines to cover staff costs, investment and maintenance of core research infrastructure. There is no separate research budget allocation for government universities, and faculty can apply to calls for competitive funding that are regularly issued by the three public funding agencies, the STDF, the Academy of Scientific Research and Technology (ASRT), and the Innovators Support Fund (see Chapter 7). Some of these calls are based on bilateral or multilateral international cooperation (see Chapter 5).
Public funding for research is allocated to Research Centres annually by the Ministry of Finance. Detailed information about how Research Centres define priorities and allocate resources was not available for this review. At a high level, the five-year strategies of Research Centres are closely aligned with government priorities. For the period 2024-2029, these are set out in “Egypt Vision 2030” and the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The information available for this review on the allocation of public funding for PRPs was not sufficient to conduct an in-depth analysis.
The Egyptian counterparts informed the OECD that the country is advancing toward a performance-based and project-based budgeting. These reforms are designed to provide incentives for PRPs to strengthen their distinct strategic positioning and improve their performance and generate clearer insights into funding allocation, efficiency, and research outcomes. It is expected that the implementation of the Unified Budget Law (Law No. 6/2022), adopted in 2022 and amended in 2024, will lead to a transition to performance- and programme-based budgeting (PPBB). The aim is to increase the efficiency of public spending and overall budget performance. Rollout of this law started with pilots within ministries of health, education and transport, but not yet in universities and research centres. The overall timeline was extended by Law No. 18/2024 to allow more time for capacity building, strengthen monitoring and control systems, and ensure functional and administrative structures. Many OECD Member countries employ performance-based funding models to allocate resources; performance indicators and evaluation criteria usually vary by type of research organisation, reflecting their missions and context (OECD, 2019[20]).
In response to recommendations from the 2007 OECD Review of Innovation Policy, Luxembourg introduced a comprehensive system of performance contracts. These contracts are negotiated between the Ministry of Higher Education and Research, PRPs, the National Research Fund (FNR), and Luxinnovation. The four-year contracts clearly define each organisation’s objectives, thematic priorities, performance indicators, and budget trajectory. They also include future performance agreements and provisions for indicator monitoring and evaluation.
Performance contracts include indicator-based targets, and a failure to meet these can result in block funding cuts, enforced through contract amendments. However, the system avoids excessive competition, as no additional rewards are given for exceeding targets, and the indicators are realistic and tailored to each institution’s context.
Key lessons for policymakers are:
Strategic alignment: The approach provides a structured, forward-looking framework for aligning organisational objectives with national innovation goals.
Continuous improvement: Regular cycles and institutional learning have led to ongoing improvements in implementing the approach.
Institutional autonomy and accountability: Based on the principle of institutional autonomy, the approach is based on transparent evaluation and monitoring.
Balanced incentives: The approach avoids excessive competition and focuses on realistic targets.
Source: OECD (2016[21]).
Earlier efforts to introduce performance-based funding in Egypt have not been fully successful. A recent study analysed some challenges with a previous attempt and examined the readiness of Egyptian institutions to apply PPBB (Negm, 2025[22]). While the legislative framework is a potential strength, there are significant areas for improvement that need to be addressed. First, a comprehensive monitoring and evaluation system needs to be established as a precondition for the successful implementation of PPBB (see the discussion in Chapter 7). Second, both budgeting systems (line-item and PPBB) are being run in parallel, with no clear timeline for phasing out the legacy line-item system. These need to be addressed. Luxembourg’s experience offers valuable insights in this regard, demonstrating that a combination of well-designed performance contracts and PRO autonomy can drive progress, accountability, and collaboration in public research (Box 6.3).
6.2.2. Egypt needs to step up efforts in developing its human resource base for R&D
Research workforce development is a priority, but the research human resource base remains small
Egypt has a relatively small human resource base for research and development (R&D), with 829 full‑time‑equivalent (FTE) researchers per million inhabitants in 2022 (Figure 6.5)3. The leading economies, Korea and Denmark, had 9 434 and 8 735 respectively, representing a tenfold higher human resource base in R&D. Egypt’s research workforce is concentrated in higher education (52.6%) and the government sector (24.4%) (Figure 6.6). The share of researchers employed in business enterprises is 22.6%. Between 2018 and 2019, the number of researchers employed in Egypt’s business sector increased almost eightfold, from 5 340 to 42 056, and has continued to increase to 46 898 by 2021 (ASRT, 2022[23]). The notable increase in researchers employed in Egypt’s business sector between 2018 and 2021 may reflect factors such as growing private sector investment in R&D, stronger incentives for industry-academia collaboration, or the formalisation of previously informal research activities. However, the available sources do not provide definitive explanations, indicating an area for further investigation.
Note: Figures for Egypt may not be fully internationally comparable. For further information, see OECD (forthcoming[18]), "OECD support towards STI statistical capability development in Egypt: Assessment and main recommendations".
Source: OECD calculations based on custom data provided by the Egyptian Science, Technology and Innovation Observatory (ESTIO), OECD (n.d.[24]), and Nations (2024[25]).
Recently, the government introduced measures to raise wages above the inflation rate, with particular attention to academic staff. In addition, the national minimum wage was set at EGP 7 000 as of 2025, providing a baseline for broader wage adjustments for salaries which are traditionally very low in PRPs. Additional payments come from involvement in projects and external work. University professors can potentially triple their base salary through externally funded projects. In addition, private universities typically offer base salaries that are significantly higher than those at public institutions. Tenured university staff can get permission to take on additional employment either elsewhere in higher education or in industry (see Chapter 4). External work is not permitted for employees of government research centres.
As a percentage of total researchers
Note: Figures for Egypt may not be fully internationally comparable; for further information, see OECD (forthcoming[18]), "OECD support towards STI statistical capability development in Egypt: Assessment and main recommendations".
Source: OECD calculations based on custom data provided by the Egyptian Science, Technology and Innovation Observatory (ESTIO) and OECD (n.d.[24]).
Researchers in universities must balance teaching with research demands. This can be challenging, particularly in institutions with high expectations for both and limited research support services. Several public universities are large-scale organisations: three have more than 300 000 enrolled students; eight have more than 100 000 students; and another eight enrol between 50 000 and 100 000 students (CAPMAS, 2021[26]).
Research workforce development is a priority for Egypt, emphasised in all pertinent government strategies. There are several initiatives to support early-career researchers. STDF plays a key role in this, with a range of grant programmes of which many support international mobility. However, brain drain of young scientists continues to be a challenge for the country (see Chapter 2), also as neighbouring countries are developing their research systems. Furthermore, there are key challenges that need careful consideration: the public-sector hiring freeze, doctoral education, and the shortage of qualified laboratory workers and technicians. These are discussed in the following section.
A hiring freeze in the public sector
For more than a decade, Egypt has been implementing a hiring freeze in the public sector. This has also affected government research centres and public universities (Assaad and Barsoum, 2019[27]). While in the expected retirement related changes could be an opportunity to restructure employment in the public research sector, these measures are likely to increase pressure on early-career staff due to increasing contract instability and in terms of reduction in the recruitment of new talent, impacting age composition and skill diversity, as well as potential adverse effects on existing staff who may face increased workloads without the support of new hires.
There are indications that the human resource base in the government sector has been ageing. In the National Research Centre, which is after the Agricultural Research Centre the country’s second largest government research centre, 42% of the 2 866 researchers in 2024 were emeritus professors (Table 6.2). This group increased from 1 050 in 2014 to 1 200 in 2024. Over the same period, the number of research assistants dropped from 623 to 40 and the number of assistant researchers was more than halved from 954 to 400. There is temporary hiring of researchers for projects.
Source: An unpublished report provided to the OECD review team for this review.
Recent reforms are addressing recruitment practices at government universities in Egypt. The longstanding practice has been to identify talented students during their bachelor’s studies, guide them through subsequent academic stages to a tenured position, and send them abroad to partner universities for periods of international mobility. While this means intensive nurturing of talents, it also reduces the number of potential candidates entering an academic research career.
Recent reforms, along with hiring practices in newly established universities, have introduced some change to this (OECD, forthcoming[28]). To meet the skills needs of Egyptian industry, in 2019 a legal framework was put in place to establish technological universities, a new type of higher education provider whose offer is tailored to industry's immediate needs for technicians. Several technological universities are already operative, and while in this early stage, average enrolment rates are comparatively low, with rates of less than 10 000 students, the plan is to establish a technological university in each governorate.
Changes in recruitment practices put greater emphasis on research impact, teaching experience, and international exposure, shifting the focus away from institutional affiliation. This approach is expected to make academic recruitment more competitive. Also, the rapid growth in higher education providers has driven demand for teaching staff. These new universities offer attractive employment conditions, including higher salaries, smaller class sizes, and international connections. However, teaching demand might increase quickly, and further attention will be needed to support early-career researchers in balancing teaching and research.
Reform potential in doctoral education
Doctoral education remains a small part of postgraduate education in Egypt. According to the latest available data, in 2022, more than half of postgraduate students were enrolled in diploma programmes (53%), one-third in Master’s degree programmes (ISCED 7), and only 13% in doctoral studies (ISCED 8), accounting for 32 953 out of 250 081 students (ASRT, 2022[23]). In an international comparison, this is low. Türkiye, which has a similarly sized higher education sector, had a much steeper growth in doctoral education than Egypt. In 2004 both countries had similar enrolment numbers, with 25 588 in Egypt and 24 891 in Türkiye, a decade later, Egypt had 46 729 students enrolled in doctoral education, its peak point for the period 2004-2022, while Türkiye continued to grow from 67 157 in 2014 to 109 540 in 2022 students enrolled in doctoral degree programmes (ISCED 8) out of 652 511 (UNESCO, 2024[29]). Growing enrolment in doctoral studies would only be justified if there is market demand for such skills. At the time of writing, no data about such market demand were available.
Different factors contributing to the small and decreasing pool of doctoral students were highlighted in interviews. It will be important to reform doctoral education and address current challenges including the high costs of postgraduate studies for self-funded students, outdated curricula, inadequate research facilities, inadequate supervision that exist in some fields. Greater collaboration in doctoral education among universities in Egypt could help to increase the quality and relevance of doctoral studies positions, also through more interdisciplinary and inter-PRP collaboration (OECD, forthcoming[28]).
Domestic job prospects for doctoral graduates are largely in PRPs, where the majority of researchers hold doctoral degrees: according to the latest available data from 2018, around 75% of researchers in government research centres and 57% in universities (ASRT, 2019[1]). Instead, industry employment of researchers with a doctoral degree remains low at only 2%; most business‑sector researchers have a bachelor’s degree (ASRT, 2019[1]). Several skills development initiatives are underway in the private sector, including the development of industry-recognised credentials and tailored degree programmes (Chapter 3 and the section below). As discussed in Chapter 4, it will be important to make doctoral education more attractive for industries that need advanced R&D skills.
Efforts are underway to increase the supply of qualified laboratory workers and technicians
A critical challenge facing Egypt’s R&D system is the shortage of qualified laboratory workers and technicians. This is compounded by current enrolment trends and educational pathways. The current distribution of students in higher education by field of study is heavily focused on social sciences and cultural and literary sciences, which together account for 56.6% of all enrolled students (Table 6.3).
Number of students per discipline and its major programme groups
Note: For enrolment trends and gender distribution by disciplines, see (OECD, forthcoming[28]).
Source: Authors based on data published in (Government of Egypt, 2024[30]).
These are the fields of study with low entry requirements. Interviews highlighted a lack of human resources in process engineering, product development, as well as a lack of qualified laboratory workers and technicians. According to the national definition, technicians and equivalent staff are persons who participate in R&D by performing scientific and technical tasks involving the application of concepts and operational methods, generally under the supervision of researchers (ASRT, 2019[1]).
As discussed above, the new technological universities are tailored to the growing needs for technicians. In addition, international branch campuses offer study programmes closely aligned with industry demand. These new higher education providers are expected to improve the alignment between educational provision and labour‑market needs [see the analysis in (OECD, forthcoming[28])]. Furthermore, the recently initiated establishment of a national Sectoral Skills Committee aims to ensure human capital development to sustain the current transformation of key economic sectors. This is an initiative by the Ministry of Planning, Economic Development , in collaboration with the European Training Foundation and the International Labour Organisation. Related is the 2026 system-wide transformation initiative of the Ministry of Education and Technical Education to strengthen Egypt’s education system, including the knowledge and skills acquisition prior to entry into higher education, and widening the range of post-secondary education pathways.
6.2.3. Dedicated research support services could boost research activities in universities
More than half of Egypt’s research workforce works in universities (Figure 6.6), where many researchers must balance demanding teaching responsibilities with advancing their research. A 2019 survey by the ASRT found that early-career researchers, particularly, have to cope with heavy teaching loads while seeking to advance in their research careers. In public universities, those who reported spending more time on research were teaching assistants and lecturers (around 18 hours). In comparison, assistant and full professors reported spending about eight hours on research. In private universities, the difference is less pronounced, with 10 and 12 hours, respectively (ASRT, 2019[31]).
Dedicated research support services in Egypt’s universities could help researchers to advance their research while accomplishing their teaching responsibilities. Research support services typically include helping researchers find funding opportunities, preparing grant proposals, managing research budgets, providing guidance on research integrity and ethics, and assisting with research output dissemination, including science communication with the wider public and relationships with industry partners. Universities typically offer these services to support researchers in building research teams and managing external funding. Research support services are common across the OECD. The nature of these services is institution-specific; some may focus on supporting scientists to achieve greater societal impact with their research in their local environment. Research support services also play an important role in strengthening research quality and integrity.
Since competitive funding for research was introduced in Egypt in 2007, continuous efforts in capacity building have been underway, targeted at individual researchers and PRPs (e.g. STDF’s capacity building programmes), and according to the 2019 ASRT survey of universities and research centres, nascent forms of research support services exist (ASRT, 2019[31]). Further institutional investment in these services could raise efficiency and free up precious time for research.
6.2.4. Promising developments in research infrastructure can be enhanced through co‑ordination and shared use
Egypt has made notable progress in research infrastructure; Table 6.4 provides a non-exhaustive overview. Efforts are underway to achieve greater co-ordination and shared use of national research infrastructure. It was mentioned in the interviews that there have been attempts in this direction, which, however, have remained largely unsuccessful, not least due to tensions between public and private sources of financing and regulatory barriers to the use of research infrastructure by externals. The National Research Centre’s (NRC) recent efforts to promote shared use of research infrastructure are a promising step in this direction. Already in 2015, the Supreme Council for Universities initiated in 2015 the National Bank for Scientific Laboratories and Equipment, which at present covers information about 2 722 registered laboratories in 29 universities and 3 government research centres. The aim is to develop an up-to-date information system cataloguing core facilities that facilitates researchers' access and promotes shared use of resources and collaborative research (SCU, n.d.[32]).
Government research centres could take on the role of RTOs, which typically play a key role in supporting the innovation needs of industry. This is an area for further development, and some efforts are underway in this direction, as discussed in Section 6.4.
Source: Authors’ compilation based on (EgSA, n.d.[33]), (Elshambakey et al., 2024[34]), (Clarivate, 2019[35]), and (Egyptian Cancer Research Network, n.d.[36]).
Egypt has several research sites of wider regional and global relevance, including ecological field stations, astronomical observatories, and biosafety level 3 (BSL-3) laboratories, which play a crucial role in studying and containing dangerous pathogens (Box 6.4).
Ecological field stations
The Desert Research Center (DRC) operates eight stations distributed across different ecosystems in Egypt. There are 24 declared protected areas covering almost 10% of the country's land and marine area with field stations for research purposes (Government of Egypt, 2006[37]).
Helwan Observatory
The equipment includes a 74-inch Qatameya astronomical telescope to conduct Galactic and extragalactic research and study stellar variability. The Helwan Observatory continues to play a crucial role in astronomical research and Earth science studies, leveraging its strategic location and advanced instrumentation (Blažej, n.d.[38]).
Biosafety level 3 at Alexandria University
In 2020, Alexandria University launched the first BSL-3 laboratory in Egypt and the Middle East. Housed in the Medical Research Institute of Alexandria University, research is carried out on coronavirus (COVID-19), avian and swine influenza, severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), Brucella, and tuberculosis-resistant microbes. Together with other BSL-3 laboratories in the country, the aim is to advance the country’s biosafety infrastructure and capabilities in handling dangerous pathogens, contributing to both national and regional health security (WHO, n.d.[39]).
Research infrastructure requires long-term strategic investment and careful planning. Particularly in fields that require expensive infrastructure, for example, nanotechnology, an area where Egypt seeks to advance, it will be crucial to raise the efficiency of use and maintenance, particularly in fields that require expensive infrastructure. The operation and use of research infrastructure require careful balancing and optimisation: very large, international research infrastructure and smaller core institutional facilities each need specific strategies adapted to their characteristics (OECD/Science Europe, 2020[40]). Box 6.5 presents a set of guiding principles for effective management processes for national research infrastructure, covering strategic planning, managing access for researchers and industry, monitoring, and optimising the user base, and funding. Considering these principles can help Egypt to increase co‑ordination and shared used of research infrastructure.
The OECD’s Global Science Forum's longstanding work on research infrastructure (RI) identified guiding principles that can aid the development of effective management processes, recognising that there is no single model that suits every country's research infrastructure.
Strategic planning: A robust process that collects bottom-up and top-down inputs, reflecting relevant societal challenge perspectives, is a crucial input to define a forward-looking planning of the needs of the RI, either a single site or the entire ecosystem. The whole portfolio should be considered so that new and existing RIs can be examined together, which may require a process that assesses both capital investment and operating (including personnel) costs. Co operation should be encouraged through a clustering approach.
Understanding, monitoring, and optimising the user base: An RI should have a clear understanding of its overall user base, and appropriate measures for the continuous monitoring of its user base; these measures should be reappraised whenever the strategy of an RI is adapted. In this regard, RI managers should consider automating user monitoring processes when feasible. Where an RI has some or unlimited capacity to expand, further consideration of the potential to optimise by broadening its user base by attracting new user groups may be beneficial.
Access mechanisms and pricing: An RI should be clear and transparent about its access mechanisms and the conditions that apply to different access modes and users. RIs should ensure that their pricing policies for all access modes are clear and cost-transparent, and that academic usage is provided openly and ‘free-from-costs’, when possible.
Funding process: The full life cycle costs of the RI should be recognised and funding allocated for adequate periods to enable the RI to achieve its planned goals. Resource allocation should ensure that the highest-priority RIs are properly funded. This may be through centralised allocation or competition.
Source: OECD/Science Europe (2020[40]).
Current efforts are limited to alignment with high-level strategies, without corresponding implementation plans that translate research priorities into resource allocation. This is also matter for governance, as discussed in Chapter 7.
6.3.1. Strategic roadmaps for specific fields of science
The ASRT, through its Specialised Scientific Councils (SSCs), plays a leading role in developing roadmaps for specific research fields, prioritised in the national development strategy, Egypt Vision 2030 (ASRT, 2020[41]). Each SSC specialises in a field of science (see Box 6.6 for an example in the pharmaceutical sector) and includes 15 outstanding scientists in Egypt and abroad. Membership selection for these councils prioritises high-level expertise and a strong publication record, with a quota of 20% of membership reserved for high-performing young researchers. Membership is renewed every three years by the Minister of Higher Education and Scientific Research.
As part of this, the SSCs provide policy advice on critical issues commissioned by ministries, such as the “Strategy for Climate Change Mitigation in Egypt” and the “Ethics of Artificial Intelligence”. Box 6.6 provides an example of the roadmap for advancing the country’s pharmaceutical industry. Egypt is the leading producer and consumer of pharmaceuticals in Africa (The African Development Bank Group, 2024[42]).
The roadmap aims to leverage Egypt’s scientific and technological research community to modernise the pharmaceutical sector and increase its competitiveness at regional and international levels. The aim is to enhance the quality of pharmaceutical products and to reduce reliance on imports. The roadmap emphasises the need for better co-ordination between researchers and pharmaceutical manufacturers, self-reliance in developing innovative products, and strategic investments.
Efforts include establishing key centres, such as a National Advisory Centre for Pharmaceutical Industries and a Bioavailability Centre with international accreditation. These centres are expected to facilitate better integration with university hospitals and Ministry of Health facilities, further strengthening the country’s pharmaceutical ecosystem. This is expected to stimulate collaboration between PRPs and private-sector firms to drive innovation in medicine and life sciences.
Source: Information provided by ASRT in December 2024 and ASRT (2020[41]).
6.3.2. Strengthening the process of identifying high-priority areas
While roadmaps have the potential to further develop and leverage research capabilities, there is a risk that they remain purely strategic tools without implementation. An analysis of the available information on existing roadmaps suggests that while these strategic documents describe the overarching vision and long-term objectives, they often lack quantifiable targets, milestones, and metrics for monitoring and evaluation, as well as information on funding, including broad estimates of the required funding for major initiatives. Such arrangements could provide incentives for implementation across the various levels of PRPs: institutional, departmental and individual researcher level.
Egypt’s government is dedicated to advance reforms and transform its economy. Going forward, a systematic process is needed to identify and adequately resource high-priority research areas. Current efforts remain limited to high-level strategic planning and lack an implementation plan. There is the risk of a missing link between research priorities and research practice. Building synergies and pooling resources requires effective translation of research priorities into resource allocation and research assessment criteria. A whole-of-government approach is needed with comprehensive foresight activities, towards a mission-oriented research system. This is discussed in Chapter 7.
How research systems elsewhere are supporting the effective translation of research priorities into research practice can provide relevant insights for Egypt. The first example is from Korea, where technological and sectoral priorities are set through central, mission-oriented agendas (OECD, 2025[43]). These include a nested framework of strategies: a ten-year vision, the presidential agenda, the five-year Basic Plan in Science and Technology, the mid- to long-term R&D Investment Strategy, and annual ministry plans, plans reporting on their past and planned implementation of the priorities, complemented by ad hoc technology-focused strategies. These strategies are embedded in law with regular review cycles, ensuring continuity beyond election terms. Chapter 7 discusses how these elements can be developed in Egypt.
Korea uses well-established foresight exercises and stakeholder consultations to shape its strategies. This process has led to the identification of 12 key national strategic technologies, for which the government allocates substantial R&D budgets to enhance national competitiveness and secure future growth drivers (Box 6.7).
The Ministry of Science and ICT in Korea has identified 12 key national strategic technologies, including semiconductors, secondary batteries, advanced mobility, next-generation nuclear power, advanced biotechnology, aerospace and marine technology, hydrogen, cybersecurity, artificial intelligence, next-generation communications, advanced robotics and manufacturing, and quantum technology. To foster these technologies, the ministry allocates substantial R&D budgets, aiming to enhance national competitiveness and secure future growth drivers. For instance, in 2025, approximately KRW 6.8 trillion (Korean won) (USD 5 billion) will be invested in R&D projects related to these strategic technologies, promoting collaboration among universities, research institutions, and industries to accelerate technological innovation.
In 2022, the Ministry established a Special Committee on Strategic Technologies to create strategic roadmaps and specify private-government cooperation strategies. This committee is responsible for developing detailed plans and ensuring that both public and private sectors work together effectively to advance these critical technologies. These initiatives are part of Korea’s broader strategy to secure a competitive edge in the global technology landscape and drive sustainable economic growth.
The strategic roadmaps cover various aspects, including R&D, commercialisation, and international cooperation. For instance, the ministry has focused on semiconductors and secondary batteries to develop more efficient and powerful next-generation chips and enhance energy storage solutions. Additionally, the Ministry emphasises the importance of advanced biotechnology in addressing health challenges and improving the quality of life. Artificial intelligence and advanced robotics are being developed to enhance automation and productivity across various sectors. Quantum technology is another critical area, with efforts aimed at achieving breakthroughs in computing and communication.
Source: PACST, (PACST, 2022[44]), (MSIT, 2024[45]), and (MSIT, 2025[46]).
Involving key industries in strategic planning at the research-system level is essential to identify and properly resource research priorities. A relevant example in this regard is the Top Sector initiative in the Netherlands, introduced in 2011 and revised in 2018 (Box 6.8). This mission-oriented policy initiative offers insights on: 1) how to translate objectives into measurable goals; 2) how to create synergies between public and private actors to develop a shared vision, prioritise key areas for intervention, and reflect these in the allocation of resources (Larrue, 2021[47]).
The Top Sector Initiative in the Netherlands is a policy initiative that was introduced in 2011 as a new form of industrial policy to connect research and innovation. It was revised in 2018 and renamed the Mission Driven Top-Sector and Innovation Policy. The Ministry of Economic Affairs leads this initiative that aims to strengthen public-private collaboration in research, development and innovation. The scope covers a set of defined Knowledge and Innovation Agendas (KIA), which are revised every four years. The next revision is planned for 2027. The process of defining the KIAs is highly participatory and involves science, the private sector and the government.
For each KIA, an interdepartmental group of civil servants is in charge of the co-ordination and monitoring of the interventions. This process is data-driven as translating the objectives into measurable goals depends on the availability of data. For some KIA aspects, data are available, such as CO2 emissions and the use of fertilisers, whereas for others, data are not readily available. This has implications for the definition of targets and key performance indicators and requires continuous accompanying research to advance concepts and methods in the definition of metrics.
The Knowledge and Innovation Covenant (KIC) 2024-2027 outlines a total budget of EUR 5.7 billion, with EUR 1.4 billion contributed by companies and EUR 4.3 billion from public funding. The highly participatory process of defining the KIAs, and the involvement of private-sector actors is reflected in their contribution to the overall budget.
Source: European Commission and OECD, STIP Compass, (2025[48]), Mission Driven Top-Sector and Innovation Policy.
6.3.3. Advancing interdisciplinary research and promoting collaboration among PRPs
Interdisciplinary research is a policy priority for Egypt. To address complex and pressing societal challenges, for example, in health, climate change and renewable energy, efforts are underway to promote cross-disciplinary collaboration through awareness-raising initiatives, and the inclusion of specific evaluation criteria, in certain funding calls, designed to encourage the formation of research teams spanning multiple fields (Government of Egypt, 2024[30]).. In this context, the distribution of researchers across PRPs reveals opportunities for collaboration (Figure 6.7).
Note: Fields of science follow OECD (2015[49]).
Source: ASRT (2019[1]).
The distribution data are the most recent available but, being nearly a decade old, should be interpreted with caution; nevertheless, they still offer useful insight, as the long‑term nature of discipline‑specific research structures provides readers with a sufficiently stable perspective to identify opportunities for greater collaboration.
Generally, governments can support collaboration between universities and government research centres in priority areas through targeted funding, joint appointments, shared RI, and governance mechanisms, as discussed in Chapter 7 and below, with a focus on government research centres. Importantly, signing co-operation agreements is just the starting point; interdisciplinary research and collaboration among PRPs need continuous support. Current practice in Egypt illustrates this. Calls for funding promote cross-sectoral team building. These initiatives should be strengthened to promote collaboration in the public sector research to its full potential.
Promising examples of collaboration between universities and government research centres exist in priority fields. The Egyptian Genome Project (2021-2032) is a national flagship initiative to establish Egypt as a reference hub in the Middle East and Africa for personalised medicine, genetic healthcare and gene therapy (Box 6.9).
The Egyptian Genome Project is a flagship initiative of the government which aims to construct a contemporary reference genome and investigate the Egyptian gene pool's evolutionary trajectory. Understanding the human genome is vital for advancing precision medicine and incorporating genomic data into healthcare enables personalised therapeutic approaches, disease management, and long-term preventive care.
Under the oversight of the ASRT, the Egyptian Genome Project is led by the Egypt Center for Research and Regenerative Medicine and involves several public research centres, government agencies and foundations. Collaborations with genome initiatives in the wider region and internationally are underway.
The project established a national genome sequencing core facility, a biobank, a health database, and high-performance computing infrastructure with data storage and encryption across multiple sites, facilitating secure and scalable data management and analysis. In its initial phase (2022-2027), the Egyptian Genome Project aims to sequence the genomes of 20 000 healthy individuals and 8 000 with diseases, scaling up to 100 000 healthy genomes by 2032, alongside sequencing 200 ancient Egyptian genomes.
Source: Amer et al. (2024[50]) and (Elmonem et al., 2024[51]).
Generally, funding is a main policy lever to promote interdisciplinary approaches, collaboration among PRPs, and applied research. A relevant example is the Convergence Accelerator programme of the National Science Foundation in the United States, which funds three-year projects that are expected to yield high-impact deliverables (Box 6.10).
The Convergence Accelerator programme of the National Science Foundation (NSF) has a multidisciplinary approach. It was launched in 2019 and funds research teams that are composed of diverse disciplines, expertise, and organisations. Teams have no size limits and are expected to evolve as a project advances. Funded projects are intentionally focused on sustainability and national-scale impact. At the end of the fixed three-year term, teams are expected to provide high-impact deliverables that address complex challenges and enhance the country’s competitiveness.
Source: NSF (n.d.[52]), Convergence Accelerator programme.
Korea’s Global TOP Strategy Research Groups focus on achieving world-class research outcomes through large-scale projects. These initiatives enhance collaboration among PRPs and universities.
The government allocates a separate budget for this purpose (USD 110 million in 2024) (MSIT, 2023[53]). Key dimensions are:
National mission-oriented collaboration: Open collaboration frameworks are established to address national missions, removing silos between public research institutes (PRIs).
Diverse research fields: Teams are formed in various fields, such as secondary batteries, hydrogen, advanced biotechnology, nuclear energy and semiconductors.
Strengthened industry-academia collaboration: Joint research with universities and technology exchanges with industries aim to commercialise research outcomes and produce tangible benefits for society.
Source: MSIT (2024[54]).
The Convergence Accelerator programme provides relevant lessons for Egypt, where current research funding mechanisms tend to overly focus on promoting individual researchers. While some degree of competition may be necessary to stimulate individual productivity (e.g. publications), the government's priority to stimulate collaboration and interdisciplinary research has not yet materialised to its full potential. There are a few large projects that address societal challenges in a multidisciplinary way. These hold high potential, as such projects, which mobilise large research infrastructures and teams, necessitate collaboration between PRPs.
Another example is Korea’s approach to prioritise large-scale, multidisciplinary teams that can adapt and evolve, supported by stable funding and infrastructure concentrated in government-led multidisciplinary research consortia with a clear focus on global excellence and high-impact outcomes: the Global TOP Strategy Research Groups (Box 6.11). A main goal is to facilitate open collaboration among government research centres, universities and industry focusing on a specific technology such as hydrogen technology. For example, the Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology collaborates with Seoul National University and other institutions to develop innovative gene and cell therapy technologies, aiming for commercialisation (Herald Economy, 2024[55]).
6.4.1. History of government research centres in Egypt
Source: Desk research.
Research centres have developed rapidly in Egypt over the past 70 years. In 1956, the National Research Centre was founded as the first public research institute and primarily focused on applied research (Disrupt Africa, 2021[56]). Subsequently, parts of the NRC spun off to become independent research centres. Today, Egypt has a large number of public R&D centres in different scientific disciplines (Table 6.5). About 12 are affiliated with the Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research, 15 are under other ministries, and over 100 centres are part of government universities (Sari, 2015[57]; MHESR, 2019[58]). In addition, there are research centres that are part of international organisations (e.g. Theodor Bilhiarz Center), and around 300 research centres in the private sector (MHESR, 2019[59]).
6.4.2. Performance of government research centres
A recent SCImago study undertook a comprehensive benchmarking of public research centres across the Arab region (SCImago, 2024[60]). The overall ranking shows very good performance of Egyptian centres, five of which are ranked among the top ten, with the NRC in the top position, the ARC at Rank 4th, the AEA 6th, SRTA City 7th, and EPRI 9th. This is an improvement compared to 2022, when four Egyptian centres were among the top ten.
Comparing the scores for innovation and research, it can be noted that the performance is weaker on the innovation score, where the NRC performs second behind Qatar Foundation, ARC is 6th, Petroleum RI 11th, SRTA City 12th, and the AEA 13th (see Figure 6.8). On the SCImago “excellence” indicator (Figure 6.9), the Egyptian Network of High Energy Physics is the top-ranked centre, 2nd in the region, behind the United Arab Emirates’ Inception Institute for Artificial Intelligence, followed by the Egyptian ASRT (3rd), the Scientific Research Group (6th), the Environment Natural Materials Research Institute (7th) and the Advanced Technology and New Materials Research Institute (9th).
Note: The overall score is computed by SCImago as a composite, of which 40% comprises research (performance, productivity, openness and collaboration), 40% comprises innovation (technical impact), and 20% comprises society (web visibility, social networks, SDG contributions).
Source: SCImago Research Centres Ranking: MENA Region ,https://www.scimagorc.com/mena/index.php (accessed on 11 September 2025).
Note: This SCImago indicator “excellence” is the ratio of the amount of an institution’s scientific output included in the top 10% of the most-cited papers in their respective scientific fields and the total number of documents published in scholarly journals indexed in Scopus. More information on https://www.scimagorc.com/mena/help.php?year=2023.
Source: SCImago Research Centres Ranking: MENA Region, https://www.scimagorc.com/mena/index.php(accessed on 20 June 2025).
With regard to citation of patents, the top-ranked Egyptian institution is the Nanotechnology Centre (9th), followed by the Advanced Technology and New Materials Research Institute (14th) and the Scientific Research Group in Egypt (15th); NRC ranks 28th (see Figure 6.10).
Note: Patent citations refer to the number of citations from patents (patent families citing a document) received by the institution's documents.
Source: OECD calculations based on (SCImago, 2024[60]).
Egypt is lagging in industry co-authorship of scientific publications (Figure 6.11). The top-ranked centre is the National Hepatology and Tropical Medicine Research Institute (10th), with 6.7% of publications authored in collaboration, followed by the Metallurgical Research and Development Institute (25th) with 2.5% of industry co-authorship and NRC (39th), with less than 1% of industry collaborations. The top-ranked centre, the Etisalat British Telecom IC (United Arab Emirates), has industry co-authorship on all its publications.
Share of research output with at least one industry (corporate) organisation listed in the authorship
Note: Share of scientific research output from an institution with at least one industry (corporate) organisation listed in the authorship byline. The ratio of such collaborations is represented over the total number of documents published in scholarly journals indexed in Scopus.
Source: OECD calculations based on (SCImago, 2024[60]).
6.4.3. Increasing the impact of research centres on the Egyptian economy
It is common in OECD Member countries to differentiate between government research centres that are set up to advance research in priority areas and research centres that act as RTOs whose mission is to enhance firm-level innovation activities (Arnold and Bell, 2010[61]). For example, the Korean government set up public research institutes (PRIs) in the 1960s as RTOs with the primary goal of transferring technology to the Korean private sector (OECD, 2023[62]).
Egypt’s research centres were originally set up more as government labs, with the notable exceptions of SRTA City and the Central Metallurgical Research and Development Institute, both of which have been established with some capacity to collaborate with industry. However, collaboration with industry is largely funded by the government; for example, SRTA City collaborates with industry based on 100% government financing (ASRT and STDF grants).
Community services are also an integral part of research centres' work. They are a key pillar in the Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research’s Blueprint, alongside education and research, which encompasses innovation, entrepreneurship and career development. It aims to turn research outcomes into practical applications, fostering economic growth and supporting entrepreneurial ecosystems (MHESR, 2024[14]). For example, in the NRC Strategy, this includes a range of activities contributing to human health, water, food, energy, and climate nexus. Innovative research for industrial development is also noted, albeit in last position on the list. It should be noted that the new role of community service could be best fulfilled by serving the business community, building their absorptive capacity, and transferring tailor-made technologies to make those businesses more competitive. Several hospitals and medical research centres operate community buses to deliver public health services and run awareness campaigns. The NRC example suggests that community services cover a wide range of activities.
Efforts to commercialise research outcomes do not reach their full potential. The Egyptian government's current strategy is centred on a science-push model (see the discussion in Chapter 4). The idea is straightforward: with a strong foundation of research findings, it is anticipated that a substantial portion of these findings will be transformed into commercially viable technologies, products, and services. In this, the technology innovation and commercialisation offices (TICOs) are projected to play a pivotal role. They are expected to facilitate technology transfer via licensing agreements, establish commercial firms as subsidiaries of the research centres, or assist researchers in creating their own spin-off companies. However, based on international experience, this model has limited chances of success, primarily because: 1) research outcomes may not always align with market demands; 2) the skills required for developing technologies and products differ from those needed for upstream research. These challenges are also evident in Egypt.
The key to successful technology diffusion lies in involving private partners very early and engaging in co-creation rather than relying solely on a science-push approach. This collaborative model ensures that research aligns with market needs and that the necessary skills for commercialisation are developed alongside the research. Successful RTOs perform highly specialised technology tasks in close contact with industry, covering a range of technology monitoring, development and diffusion tasks (Arnold et al., 1998[63]). For example, the Korean government established government research institutes (GRIs) in the 1960 to facilitate the transfer of advanced technologies from abroad to the private sector, aiming to accelerate industrialisation and economic development. The GRIs played a vital role by assimilating foreign technologies, supporting industrial growth through technical expertise, and training a skilled workforce. They organised extensive training programmes to build a workforce capable of understanding and implementing these technologies. Additionally, GRIs focused on adapting and improving the imported technologies to suit local needs, involving significant R&D efforts to innovate and enhance them. By collaborating closely with private companies, GRIs ensured effective technology transfer and implementation, thereby enhancing productivity and innovation in Korean industries (Seth, 2017[64]) (Kim, 2021[65]).
Interviews conducted for this review suggest that the mission of research centres could evolve towards an RTO positioning. For example, SRTA City clearly states its role in bridging the gap between science and industry, while other research centres do not have that role (SRTA City, 2024[66]). The NRC established a dedicated unit in the Sixth of October City for conducting contract-based research with industry (The Arab Republic of Egypt Presidency, 2018[67]). Others have similar centres. These are promising, even if overall efforts are still modest in scope and scale. If the aim is to evolve research centres in Egypt towards an RTO positioning, this will require reflection in mandate, governance and co-ordination. These aspects are discussed in the following sections with relevant lessons learned from the approach taken in Korea.
6.4.4. Aligning the mandates of public research centres with strategic objectives
To enhance the effectiveness of public research centres in Egypt, it will be essential to revise their mandates to align with specific objectives. This can be achieved by migrating the mandate of some research centres to become RTOs, which focus on transferring technology to industry in alignment with the national industrial strategy. This approach fosters innovation and strengthens the connection between research and practical applications in the market. Conversely, other centres should be established as government laboratories with a clear mandate to develop specific domains of science and technology. These laboratories can focus on critical areas such as renewable energy, biotechnology and information technology, which are vital for national development.
Setting clear, mission-driven objectives – focusing on solving urgent problems, fostering innovation and driving economic growth – will be essential for guiding the activities of research centres. Measurable goals are needed to evaluate impact and adjust strategies accordingly, and sufficient funding is necessary to ensure that research centres operate efficiently and meet their objectives.
In this regard, Korea's Ministry of Science and Information and Communication Technology published in 2018 guidelines to define the roles and responsibilities of GRIs. These guidelines emphasise aligning research with societal needs through three key areas: public value, addressing uncertainty and risk, and achieving excellence. Each institute was expected to redefine its mandates and identify specific research areas that contributed to national development, focusing on future technologies, public safety and regional growth, aiming to enhance technological competitiveness and foster sustainable innovation in the country (MSIT, 2018[68]). Table 6.6 provides an overview.
6.4.5. Improving the governance and co-ordination of public research centres
Public research centres in Egypt are under the supervision of various ministries: 11 are under the Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research, and 14 are under other ministries National subject-matter experts have pointed out for some time that there is room for improvement in co-ordination (Bahgat, 2016[69]), and this was confirmed in the interviews conducted for this review. Chapter 7 discusses this at the research-system level. Key aspects relevant for the discussion here are the following.
The research centres under several ministries report only to their respective ministries, and there is room to enhance co-ordination among these research centres. There is an ongoing policy discussion on reform needs, funding mechanisms, and better cross-ministerial collaboration.
The orchestrating role of the Supreme Council of Research Centres is limited to the research centres under the Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research, and the precise role in determining strategic objectives, research priorities, budgetary allocations, and evaluation is unclear.
An example that illustrates what can be achieved through co-ordination is the National Research Council of Science and Technology (NST) in Korea, whose role is to oversee and co-ordinate the activities of various public research centres, including the Korea Institute of Science and Technology (KIST) and the Electronics and Telecommunications Research Institute (ETRI), which are under different ministries. NST’s role is to guide the strategic directions of GRIss, evaluate research performance, building capacity, promote collaboration among GRIs, strengthen convergence in priority research areas, and promote collaboration with industry (NST, 2022[70]).
The RTO role of a research centre is typically reflected in its governance, involving industry and civil society. In Egypt, the private sector and civil society play a relatively marginal role in the governance of research centres. For example, the NRC board has a large majority of 14 heads of departments, two from the ministry, and three other external members. Instead, greater private-sector and civil society representation on the board could help align their research activities with industrial needs. The societal relevance of R&D related to water management, desertification, and broader questions of climate change also warrants greater involvement of civil society organisations in the governance and funding of (applied) scientific research.
The Korean government implemented several reforms of the GRIs governance to adapt to the changing needs of the country’s society and economy. economic development and scientific advancement (Box 6.12).
The history of the reform of Korean GRIs is marked by strategic changes and developments.
Research Council (Basic, Public, Industrial + Economic, Humanities)
In 1999, the Act on the Establishment, Operation, and Fostering of Government-Funded Research Institutions was enacted, unifying the supervision of 42 government-funded research institutions under the Prime Minister’s Office. This led to the establishment of five research councils, including the Basic Technology Research Council, the Public Research Council and the Industrial Technology Research Council.
In 2004, considering the changes in the times, the three research councils in the field of science and technology (Basic, Public, and Industrial Technology Research Councils) were transferred from the Prime Minister’s Office to the Ministry of Science and Technology.
Research Council (Basic, Industrial + Economic and Humanities)
In 2005, the Economic and Social Research Council and the Humanities and Social Research Council under the Prime Minister’s Office were integrated into the Economic and Humanities and Social Research Council.
In 2008, the Public Technology Research Council was dissolved, the Basic Technology Research Council was transferred to the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology, and the Industrial Technology Research Council was transferred to the Ministry of Knowledge Economy.
In 2013, with the inauguration of the Park Geun-hye government, the Basic Technology Research Council and the Industrial Technology Research Council were transferred to the Ministry of Future Creation and Science.
Research Council (National Research Council + Economic and Humanities Council)
In June 2014, the two research councils were integrated into the National Research Council of Science and Technology.
Source: NST (2024[71]) and (OECD, 2023[62]).
The publication output of Egypt’s research system has expanded significantly, supported by a broad network of PRPs across diverse specialisations and an emphasis on interdisciplinary research in priority areas such as health, climate change, and renewable energy. Incentives such as publication bonuses have helped almost double Egypt’s share of the world’s top 10% most-cited papers, bringing output levels close to the OECD average.
Egypt’s research system demonstrates strong momentum, but realising its full potential will require better translation of research priorities into resource allocation, strengthening the human resource base, and fostering collaboration between universities and government research centres, as well as clarifying the roles of government research centres in terms of mandate, governance, and technology transfer. Efforts in these areas will be needed to strengthen the capacity of Egypt’s research system and to leverage the country’s research excellence for innovation and growth.
Table 6.7 summarises the main achievements and challenges discussed in this chapter and serves as the basis for the recommendations in Chapter 1.
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← 1. Relative specialisation refers to the ratio of a field’s share in a country’s total scientific output compared to its share in global scientific production. A ratio above 1 indicates that the field is more prominent in the country than it is globally.
← 2. The percentage of publications in the 10% top-cited journals is often used as a proxy for excellence.
← 3. We note that this statistic is quoted as 1120 per million inhabitants in 2024 by the UNESCO 2024 report in UIS Data Browser, but such data have not been submitted to the OECD