Finite time to learn and play

1. Introduction

Teenage digital recreation, such as video gaming and social media, is a topic of on-going debate in education policy. In several OECD countries and beyond, there have been increasing proposals to limit teenagers’ use of digital devices for non-learning purposes (see Box 1.3). Some studies and official advisories suggest that leisure use of digital devices may be linked to challenges in adolescents’ cognitive development and well-being (Firth et al., 2019[1]; The U.S. Surgeon General’s Advisory, 2023[2]). At the same time, digital leisure is widespread among adolescents and plays an important role in adolescents’ socialization and leisure, making it difficult to regulate or restrict access without coordinated efforts among policymakers, schools, and caregivers. PISA 2022 data throw light on the relationship between digital leisure and 15-year-old students’ learning outcomes and well-being. This policy paper analyses these relationships and explores potential mechanisms behind the observed patterns.

Section 1 describes students’ digital leisure habits outside of school and the trade-offs between digital leisure time and other usage of time outside of school. We categorise users of digital leisure activities outside of schools in three categories based on the intensity of use. Low users of digital leisure are defined as those spending up to two hours per day on digital leisure activities outside of school, moderate users are those who spend more than two and up to four hours a day on digital leisure activities outside of school, and excessive users are those who spend above four hours. The relative intensities were defined based on the OECD average time spent on digital leisure before or after school (2.6 hours) and on weekend days (3.9 hours).

Box 1.1. Digital leisure outside of school in PISA

PISA’s definition of digital leisure time

PISA 2022 defines digital leisure time as the self-reported time students spend on digital devices for leisure purposes. Digital devices include equipment capable of receiving, sending, and storing digital content, such as laptops, tablets, or mobile phones. In the PISA 2022 student questionnaire, students reported the number of hours they spend on digital devices for leisure using a categorical time variable. They provided separate estimates for time spent on digital devices for leisure on school days (before or after school) and on weekend days.

Additionally, in countries and economies that administered the optional PISA 2022 ICT questionnaire, students also reported the number of hours spent on specific digital leisure activities—such as playing video games, browsing social networks, surfing the internet, and communicating or sharing digital content. As in the PISA 2022 student questionnaire, students self-reported their time using a categorical time variable, distinguishing between usage during school days and weekend days.

Other measures of digital leisure time

Other studies use different definitions and approaches to measure how much time adolescents spend on digital devices for leisure. “Screen time” is a concept often used in research on digital leisure and is defined more broadly than the PISA definition of digital device use. For example, the 2019 Canadian Health Survey on Children and Youth measures recreational screen time, which refers to the time children and adolescents spend seated in front of a screen—such as a mobile device, computer, tablet, video game console, or television (Toigo et al., 2025[3]). Similarly, a report commissioned by the French Government in 2024 on the children’s screen time includes in the discussion, time spent on television (French Expert Group on screen time and youth, 2024[4]).

Source: (French Expert Group on screen time and youth, 2024[4]) (Toigo et al., 2025[3])

How much time do 15-year-olds spend on digital leisure activities?

Fifteen-year-old students spend an average of 16% of their waking time on a weekday on digital leisure activities when not in school

On a typical school weekday, a 15-year-old in an OECD country spends an average of 16% of their non-sleeping time on digital devices for leisure outside of school (assuming an average sleep time of eight hours) (See Figure 1.1). This equates to half of the time they spend on regular lessons in school which is 30% of the total awake time. On average, this outstrips time spent on homework. On average across OECD countries, and across high-income countries and economies participating in PISA, adolescents spend 2 hours and 40 minutes a day on digital devices for leisure before or after school, while the average time spent on homework is an hour and a half. On weekends, the average amount of leisure time spent on digital devices increases by half, reaching almost four hours a day in both OECD and high-income countries and economies (See PISA 2022 Volume II Table II. B1.5.62).

The average amount of time spent on digital devices for leisure is slightly lower among PISA-participating middle-income countries and economies (2 hours a day before or after school in the school week; 3.3 hours a day on the weekend) (See PISA 2022 Volume Table II. B1.5.62). This might be explained by differences in access to some types of digital devices between countries (OECD, 2024[5]).

The prevalence of digital leisure in adolescents’ life is also apparent in national surveys across many PISA-participating countries and economies. For example, in the United States, nearly all teens (96%) surveyed by the Pew Research Centre in 2024 reported using the Internet daily and nearly half of them reported being online almost constantly. Studies covering various countries have shown the importance of the digital medium in adolescents’ social life as a means of expression and communication, and an outlet for play and creativity (Hales and Hampton, 2025[6]; Pew Research Center, 2024[7]; Pew Research Center, 2022[8]; Burns and Gottschalk, 2020[9]).

Figure 1.1. Share of non-sleeping time a 15-year-old student spends on different activities per day in hours

Based on students' reports; OECD average

Note: The computations assume a total awake time of 16 hours per day.

Source: OECD, PISA 2022 Database, Tables II.B1.5.52, II.B1.5.56 and II.B1.5.62.

Box 1.2. Gender differences in digital leisure habits

While difference in the overall time spent on digital leisure activities outside of schools between boys and girls is relatively small (see Table 1.2), the type of digital leisure activities varies considerably by gender across PISA-participating countries and economies. While 70% of boys, on average across OECD countries, spend at least one hour in a typical school day playing video games before or after school, only 38% of girls reported doing so (see Figure 1.2). In Czechia, boys spend almost 2 hours more per school weekday playing video games than girls, the widest difference among countries and economies with available data. In Panama and Jordan, boys spend only about forty minutes more playing video games during a school weekday than girls, the narrowest difference across countries and economies with available data (see Table 1.3).

On the other hand, girls reported more time browsing social media before or after school than boys: 43% of girls spend more than 3 hours a day compared to 32% of boys on average across OECD countries (See Figure 1.2). In Israel, the country with the widest gender gap in time spent on social media, girls report on average spending one hour more on social media in a school weekday than boys. In contrast, in Albania and Jordan, boys spend slightly more time than girls browsing social media during a school day (26 and 14 minutes respectively) (see Table 1.7).

Figure 1.2. Gender differences in time spent on digital devices activities on week day

Differences between boys and girls (boys - girls) in time spent on the following activities on week day; based on students' reports; OECD average

Notes: Statistically significant differences between boys and girls are shown in a darker tone (see Reader’s Guide).

Differences between boys and girls for play video-games, browse social networks and communicate and share digital content are all statistically significant.

Source: OECD, PISA 2022 Database, Tables 1.4, 1.5, 1.6 and 1.7.

One in four students in OECD and high-income countries and economies spend the majority of their non-sleeping time outside of school on digital leisure activities

On average, across PISA-participating countries, 25% of students in OECD and high-income countries and 20% in middle-income countries and economies spend more than 4 hours before or after school on digital leisure activities (See Table 1.1). In most PISA-participating countries and economies where a school day typically ranges from four to eight hours (OECD, 2023[10]), this amounts to over half of awake time spent outside of school. This will be referred to in the remaining pages of this policy paper as “excessive time-use of digital devices for leisure”1. As we will see in subsequent sections, excessive digital leisure time relates to lower performance and well-being at school.

The share of students who spend excessive time on digital leisure varies across PISA participating countries and economies. In Cambodia, Japan, Peru, Paraguay and Viet Nam, less than 10% of students spend more than 4 hours a day on digital leisure activities before or after school. At the other end of the distribution, more than 40% of students in Poland and Estonia spend more than 4 hours a day on digital leisure activities before or after school (see Figure 1.3).

Figure 1.3. Leisure time spent on digital devices before or after school

Percentage of students, by leisure time spent on digital devices before or after school

Note: Only countries and economies with available data are shown.

Countries and economies are ranked in descending order of the percentage of excessive users.

Source: OECD, PISA 2022 Database, Table 1.1.

Socio-economically disadvantaged students are more likely than their advantaged peers to spend either no leisure time at all or an extreme amount of leisure time on digital devices

In over half of the countries and economies participating in PISA 2022, there are notable differences in the socio-economic status of students in terms of the amount of leisure time they spend on digital devices. On average across OECD countries, 12% of disadvantaged students spend over 6 hours a day on digital devices for leisure before or after school compared to 9.5% of advantaged students (See Table 1.9 and Figure 1.4). In six countries, about one in five of the most disadvantaged students spend an extreme amount of time (over six hours a day) on digital leisure before or after school. These countries are Estonia, Bulgaria, Romania, the Slovak Republic, Poland and Latvia. In all these countries with the exception of the Slovak Republic, more disadvantaged students than advantaged students spend an extreme amount of time on digital leisure activities (see Table 1.9).

Some students spend no time at all on digital recreation outside of school: socio-economically disadvantaged students in PISA-participating countries and economies reported spending no time at all on digital devices for leisure to a greater extent than advantaged students (See Figure 1.4 and Table 1.9). On average across OECD countries, 20% of disadvantaged students reported spending no time at all on digital leisure compared to 10% of advantaged students. This could be explained by differences in access to digital devices or more trade-offs between time on digital leisure, and other tasks and obligations such as part-time work or care (see PISA 2022 Volume V Tables V.B1.7.13, V.B1.7.14 and V.B1.7.15)

In almost all PISA participating countries and economies, a greater share of advantaged students spends a more moderate amount of time on digital leisure activities than disadvantaged students. On average, across OECD countries, a third of advantaged students spend between 2 and 4 hours a day on digital leisure before or after school compared to 23% of disadvantaged students (see Figure 1.5).

Socio-economic differences in terms of time spent on digital leisure are particularly concerning, given the negative relationship between excessive use of digital devices and students’ learning and well-being (See Section 2).

Figure 1.4. Socio-economic differences in time spent on digital devices for leisure outside of school

Differences between disadvantaged and advantaged students (advantaged – disadvantaged), OECD average

Notes: The categories of time are delimited such that the lower limit is not included and the upper limit is included. For instance "1 to 2 hours" means "above one hour and up to two hours of use"

A socio-economically disadvantaged (advantaged) student is a student in the bottom (top) quarter of the PISA index of economic, social and cultural status (ESCS) in his or her own country/economy.

Statistically significant differences between advantaged and disadvantaged students are shown in a darker tone (see Reader’s Guide).

Source: OECD, PISA 2022 Database, Tables 1.9 and 1.10.

Figure 1.5. Moderate use of digital devices for leisure before or after school, by socio-economic status

Percentage of students who reported to spent between 2 and 4 hours a day on digital devices for leisure before or after school, by socio-economic status

Notes: Only countries and economies with available data are shown.

A socio-economically disadvantaged (advantaged) student is a student in the bottom (top) quarter of the PISA index of economic, social and cultural status (ESCS) in his or her own country/economy.

Statistically significant differences between advantaged and disadvantaged students are shown in a darker tone (see Reader’s Guide).

Countries and economies are ranked in descending order of the difference in the percentage of students who spent between 2 and 4 hours a day on digital devices for leisure before or after school between advantaged and disadvantaged students (advantaged minus disadvantaged).

Source: OECD, PISA 2022 Database, Table 1.9.

Are there trade-offs between dedicating time to digital leisure and learning time outside of school?

Countries and economies in which students spend more time on digital leisure outside of school have lower average homework time

Countries and economies where students spend more time on average on homework tend to report lower average time on digital devices for leisure before or after school. This indicates trade-offs in how students allocate their time outside of school hours. One possible explanation could be that in countries and economies where the homework load is limited, students have more leisure time overall during weekdays, including for digital leisure. The European Nordic countries, Finland, Norway and Sweden reported some of the lowest average amounts of time spent on homework per day among PISA-participating countries (0.8 hours, 1.16 hours and 1.25 hours respectively) but some of the highest average amounts of time on digital devices for leisure before or after school (3 hours, 2.74 hours and 2.68 hours respectively). On the other hand, Panama and Colombia reported some of the highest average amounts of time spent on homework per day (2.52 hours, 2.61 hours respectively) but some of the lowest time spent on digital devices for leisure before or after school (1.80 hours, 1.73 hours respectively) (See Figure 1.6). The negative correlation between average homework time and digital leisure time also holds once accounting for countries’ GDP per capita (the R² coefficient becomes lowers but remains positive).

Figure 1.6. Time spent on homework and on digital devices for leisure before or after school

Based on students' reports

Note: Only countries and economies with available data are shown.

Source: OECD, PISA 2022 Database, Tables II.B1.5.62 and 1.2.

Students who spend an excessive amount of time on digital leisure activities before or after school spend slightly less time on average on homework than those who spend less time on digital leisure activities

In almost half of the countries and economies participating in PISA 2022, students who spend more than four hours on digital leisure activities before or after school reported spending slightly less time on homework than those who spend between two and four hours on digital leisure activities. On average, across OECD countries, students who spend 4 hours or more on digital leisure activities spend slightly less time (-0.12 hours) on homework than their peers who spend between 2 and 4 hours on digital leisure activities (See Figure 1.7). In Viet Nam, Chinese Taipei and Greece, excessive users of digital devices for leisure spend 15 minutes less on homework per day than their peers who spend more than 2 hours and up to 4 hours on digital leisure per day before or after school (see Table 1.11).

An hour increase in time spent on digital leisure activities before or after school relates to a higher likelihood of spending excessive time on digital leisure at school

In all PISA participating countries and economies, excessive digital leisure activities before or after school per day is associated with an increased likelihood of spending over two hours on digital leisure at school. On average across OECD countries, excessive users of digital device before or after school were 5 times more likely to spend over 2 hours on digital leisure at school after accounting for students’ socio-economic status and mathematics performance (see Table 1.12). The excessive time spent on digital leisure at school in turn relates to lower mathematics performance and distraction from learning (OECD, 2023[11]).

Additionally, on average across OECD countries, over a third of students (37%) who spend an excessive amount of time on digital leisure outside of school (4 hours or more before or after school or on weekend days) also spend more than two hours on digital leisure activities at school. The share of students who are both excessive users at school and outside of school is highest the Philippines (71%) and Thailand (68%) (see Table 1.13).

Figure 1.7. Time spent on homework per day, by the time spent on digital devices for leisure before or after school

Based on students' reports; OECD average

Source: OECD, PISA 2022 Database, Table 1.11.

Are there trade-offs between digital leisure activities and other uses of non-learning time outside of school?

Non-learning time serves many functions in a teenager’s development. Non-learning time can be dedicated to recreational activities online or offline that help teenagers socialise and develop new skills. Physical exercise contributes to adolescents’ physical and mental well-being, while helping out at home and having a job enhance one’s material well-being.

PISA 2022 shows some trade-offs between some uses of non-learning time and digital leisure. When students spend most of their waking hours at school and more than four hours on digital leisure outside of school, there is little time left for other activities. Alternatively, when students spend more time on non-digital activities, they may have less time left for digital leisure activities. Students who spend more time on average on digital leisure activities outside of school (more than four hours) exercise less than their peers who spend less time online. Students who spend above-average time on digital leisure activities are also less likely to help out at home. In some countries and economies, they spend less time working for pay or doing creative things. These trade-offs do not suggest a direct cause-and-effect relationship. It is possible that external factors—such as a more sedentary lifestyle, the availability of leisure options, or students’ socio-economic background—may influence both their digital and non-digital use of time outside school.

Students who spend over four hours a day on digital leisure activities are exercising slightly less before and after school

In half of PISA-participating countries and economies, and across the OECD countries, on average, a small but significant trade-off is observed between spending above-average time on digital devices for leisure and weekly exercise before or after school. Students who spend over four hours on digital devices for leisure on average across OECD countries reported exercising before or after school slightly less frequently than does who spend up to 2 hours (4 times against 4.56 times respectively). The difference is greatest in Chile, Latvia Lithuania and New Zealand, where students who reported spending less time before or after school on digital leisure activities, exercise almost once a week before and school more than those who spend more than four hours doing the same (See Table 1.14).

Students who spend more than four hours on digital leisure activities help out at home before or after school slightly less often

In most PISA-participating countries and economies, there is a small trade-off between digital devices for leisure before or after school, and how often students help with household chores or take care of family members. For example, in Malta and Hong Kong (China), students who spend up to two hours on digital devices for leisure before or after school reported helping out at home approximately one time more before or after school than students who spend more than four hours on digital leisure activities (see Table 1.14).

A small trade-off between digital leisure and part-time employment is observed in some countries and at the OECD average

Students who spend more than four hours a day on digital devices for leisure before or after school reported working part-time slightly less per week than those who are limited users of digital leisure activities before or after school (-0.18 points on the index of working for pay on average across OECD countries). This difference is statistically significant. This trade-off is highest in some Latin American countries: Chile, Brazil, Mexico and Peru and Paraguay. In nine countries and economies, however, students who spend more than 4 hours on digital devices for leisure reported that they worked for pay before or after school more often. In the Philippines, students who spend more than 4 hours on digital devices for leisure work on average about one time more before or after school than those who spend less time on digital leisure activities (see Table 1.14).

In some PISA-participating countries and economies, students who spend more than four hours a day on digital leisure activities participate slightly less in weekly creative activities

While in most PISA-participating countries and economies there is no statistically significant difference in students’ participation in weekly creative activities such as arts, theatre and music by time spent on digital devices, a small but significant difference is observed in 24 countries and across OECD countries on average. The share of students who do weekly creative activities and spend over 4 hours on digital devices for leisure before or after school every day is 1.6 percentage points lower than among those who spend between 2 and 4 hours on digital leisure activities on average across OECD countries. This difference is the highest in Germany (8.6 percentage points) and the Slovak Republic (7.9 percentage points) (see Table 1.14).

Exploring the relationship between digital leisure and students’ academic performance and well-being

While this paper opens by looking at the time 15-year-olds spend on digital leisure outside of school every day and the subsequent trade-offs this brings about with activities like doing homework and exercising, the next sections turn to examining its relationship with students’ learning outcomes and well-being at school. The paper focuses on how different intensities of digital leisure relate to students’ outcomes. It compares the relatively moderate and excessive uses of digital leisure. It investigates the mechanisms that help explain some of the variations in the relationship between digital leisure and students’ outcomes (see Figure 1.8). It aims to provide some insights into the policy debate on the restriction of students’ digital leisure time. This ranges from policies recommending controlling the amount of time spent on social media or video gaming to more radical policies banning access to digital devices such as smartphones (see Box 1.3).

Figure 1.8. The relationship between digital leisure time outside of school and students’ learning and well-being outcomes

Box 1.3. National Guidelines on Adolescents’ Leisure Use of Digital Technology, examples from Norway and Sweden

Across Europe, public health bodies and governments have issued over the past five years guidance on the leisure use of screens, smartphones, social media, and gaming among children and adolescents under the age of 18. These guidelines typically outline age thresholds, recommend usage patterns and necessary protections to support healthy digital habits.

Governments have introduced such measures in response to growing concerns about the excessive screen time, online safety risks, sleep disruption, mental health issues, and potential impacts on academic performance. National regulations and recommendations are designed not only to guide adolescents’ digital leisure time but also to support parental supervision and informed decision-making.

Age-based thresholds and restrictions in Norway

Countries differ in how they define or promote minimum age standards for the use of digital technologies. These thresholds may apply to smartphone ownership and use, access to social media platforms, independent internet use, or video gaming.

In 2025, Norway proposed legislations to ban social media access for users under 15. Norway set the digital age of consent at 15, meaning that children below this age cannot legally consent to online platforms collecting and processing their personal data without parental approval. This would make Norway one of the countries with the highest digital age of consent in Europe. The initiative aims to address concerns about mental health, online safety and algorithmic content exposure. It includes mandatory electronic age verification and has broad public support. Despite newly proposed age limits, over 50% of 9-year-olds and 72% of 11-year-olds in Norway already use social media, highlighting the gap the policy seeks to close.

Screen time recommendations in Norway and Sweden

In addition to age-based thresholds, several countries have issued public health guidelines recommending limits on daily screen time for children and adolescents.

In 2025, the Norwegian Directorate of Health published national screen time guidelines covering children and adolescents from birth to 18 years. These recommendations aim to promote healthy development and well-being. They apply outside of school and work contexts and are intended to guide both children and their guardians. The guidelines set age-specific limits:

• Children under 2 should avoid screen time altogether.

• Children aged 2-5 should limit screen time to 30 minutes to 1 hour per day.

• Children aged 6-12 should limit screen time to 1-1.5 hours per day.

• Adolescents aged 13-18 should limit screen time to 1.5-3 hours per day.

Similarly, in 2024, Sweden’s public health agency advised that children aged 6 to 12 should be limited to no more than 2 hours of recreational screen time per day. The recommendations, while not legally binding, are part of a broader push to reduce negative health impacts such as poor sleep, decreased physical activity and mental health concerns. The Swedish guidelines also advice parents to avoid screen use before bedtime, and to keep devices out of children’s bedrooms.

Source: (familiedepartementet, 2025[12]; Bryant, 2024[13]; Caglar, 2021[14]; Norway Health Directorate, 2025[15]; Bryant, 2024[16]).

Scope limitations

This paper focuses on digital leisure time outside of school. The relationship between digital leisure time at school and students’ academic performance and well-being was discussed in previous PISA 2022 reports and papers (OECD, 2023[11]). As shown in this section, there is a strong relationship between excessive time spent on digital leisure outside of school and excessive time spent on digital leisure at school.

This paper focuses on school-related outcomes (i.e. students’ learning outcomes and sense of belonging at school). The relationship between digital leisure and students’ mental health is not explored in detail. However, the paper shows a negative association between digital leisure time and students’ overall self-reported life satisfaction with even just one hour of digital leisure outside of school every day (see Section 2. ).

Finally, as is the case with all PISA analyses, this paper does not establish causality between digital leisure time outside of school and school-related outcomes. Further analysis and study are needed to understand the causes of the observed relationships between digital leisure time and students’ performance and well-being.

Note

← 1.  “Excessive users” are defined as students who spend over four hours a day on digital leisure activities. “Moderate users” are defined as those spending more than two and up to four hours and “limited users” are those who spend up to two hours and “extreme users” are those who spend over six hours on these activities outside of school. The relative intensities were defined based on the OECD average time spent on digital leisure before or after school (2.6 hours) and on weekend days (3.9 hours) The three relative levels also follow the curved relationship between time spent on digital leisure before or after school and mathematics performance in PISA 2022.