Enhancing Compactness, Connectivity and Accessibility in Korea

4. Toward compact and connected urban development in Korea - recommendations

Abstract

This chapter presents a series of recommendations based on the analysis of the preceding chapters. These recommendations are further supported by international experiences from cities and regions that face similar demographic challenges and have implemented strategies to promote more compact and connected development, enhancing accessibility to public services and urban amenities.

Recommendations toward compact and connected development in Korea

In Korea, tackling demographic challenges requires co-ordinated policy action on several fronts to ensure social cohesion, boost economic growth, and encourage sustainable urban development. Population concentration in the SMA, ageing and decline call for practical solutions to maintain a robust labour force in all cities, attractiveness and quality services in urban and rural regions. Small cities can act as very important aggregation and centres of development for the rural economy if they are linked to larger metropolis. To promote compact and connected development, Korea may wish to consider the following recommendations:

Develop a package of policies that promote compact development and improve connectivity within and across cities. To this end, Korea has different channels of action:

• Take stock of the policy interventions already in place such as the Innovation Cities and the Decentralisation and Balanced Development Master Plan and identify opportunities to adopt further actions that lead to compact and connected development. Policies could aim at strengthening service provision and connectivity in the 37 regional hub cities identified in the analysis of this report, with a particular focus on the smallest cities that showed the largest gaps. This could be done as part of the current revision of the Comprehensive National Territorial Plan that MOLIT is conducting.

• Encourage the use of Downtown Cohesion Zones (DCZs) more widely and frequently allow other cities to participate, as long as their projects have a clear transport component to improve mobility within the city and with their neighbouring towns. DCZs proposals could include strategies to build synergies with neighbouring communities and be based on several dimensions related to population dynamics: accessibility, economic growth opportunities, public facilities and services, natural amenities, and degree of urbanisation.

• Ensure that transport plans, land use plans and housing policies, although separated policy areas, work in tandem. This includes eliminating elements that could prolong the status quo such as promoting the construction of more new towns in the outskirts of metropolitan cities.

• Balance incentives and disincentives to bundle complementary policy interventions. For example, transport subsidies for the elderly, students and disable people are likelier to have a more positive impact than building parking spaces or even more roads.

• Develop a roadmap or strategy for building compact and connected structure across the country that details how to provide support to industries located on hubs and incentives to companies investing in hubs; a more coordinated and frequent use of the four special zones detailed in the Decentralisation and Balanced Development Master Plan; the promotion of work-live-play-learn functions at hubs; how hubs and surrounding areas will be connected, and promote enhancing the connections between regional rail services and other transport services such as buses.

• Facilitate and incentivise the formation of inter-regional partnerships, particularly in depopulation regions, to enable cities and their surrounding areas to share infrastructure and services and conduct joint investments. The central government via the Ministry of Land Infrastructure and Transport (MOLIT) and the Ministry of Interior and Safety (MOIS) could request local authorities to include these initiatives into their master plans, which may imply the promotion of combined authorities.

• Encourage the co-ordination and collaboration between the Metropolitan Transport Commission and the Presidential Committee for Decentralisation and Balanced Development. These two committees are working in siloes and their co-ordinated efforts would facilitate achieving the regional balanced development objectives. These could be achieved through periodic consultations on inter-city transport related issues in the constitution of megacities. Moreover, national authorities could consider expanding the responsibilities of the Metropolitan Transport Commission to promote more inter-city transport linkages in regional cities, not only metropolitan cities, so that they create linkages between their urban core and their surrounding areas.

Adopt an implementation strategy for the four special zones that foster a comprehensive approach for regional development allowing for building synergies. To advance this, Korea can consider:

• Strengthening the multilevel governance arrangements that promote a coherent approach in the implementation of the four special zones. To this end, the Presidential Committee for Decentralisation and Balanced Development could set up high level coordinating mechanisms (e.g. inter-ministerial committees) intended to guide implementation of the Decentralisation and Balanced Development Master Plan (DBDMP) and the four special zones, and foster synergies and maximise benefits across the environmental, social and economic dimensions of regional development. The Presidential Committee with the support of the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport (MOLIT) could design mechanisms of co-ordination with sub-national levels of government to enhance coherence across levels of government such as building development agreements between national and subnational governments to build capacity to implement the projects of the special zones.

• Designing a package of fiscal incentives to foster compact and connected cities. The national government, through MOLIT, has a key role to play to ensure that spatial development and locational decisions are based on true costs to society and stop providing direct or indirect subsidies for dispersed urban development. It is also crucial to operate within national limits for the amount of greenfield land that can be converted to urban use, while providing more flexibility for the intensity of land use. Housing policy actions, such as those conducted by the Korea Land and Housing Corporation (LH) are likely to be needed to help ensure that any such changes do not reduce access to affordable housing or lead to increased costs of accessing urban opportunities. Thus, the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport (MOLIT) in co-ordination with the Ministry of Economy and Finance (MEF) and the Ministry of Interior and Safety (MOIS) could design fiscal incentives to encourage compact urban development by: revising property taxes to incentivise more efficient land use through higher-density housing development and greater differentiation of property taxes to encourage desirable developments; discouraging low-density housing construction at the periphery by adopting a development tax or impact fees to internalise the real cost of sprawl for property developers; using land use regulations to promote more proactive policies for densification, such as the introduction of transferable development rights and incentives for compact development on brownfields.

Enhance urban-rural partnerships to foster growth and competitiveness and tackle depopulation through TOD. These partnerships could be an important tool for better co-ordinating rural-urban interactions, particularly those between regional hub cities and their surroundings in the context of depopulation, as highlighted in the case of Cork City (Ireland). Critically, they can be used to better design and implement policy at the appropriate scale (place-based approach), providing a flexible and inclusive approach that bridges different but interdependent interests. Both the OECD urban and rural policy principles suggest that it is necessary to leverage the spatial continuity and functional relationships between rural and urban areas to inform public investment and programme design through joint strategies (OECD, 2019[1]). Korea could use the new inter-metropolitan development plans to support these interdependencies and promote a stronger co-operation between urban and rural areas. Moreover, the concepts of city-regions and centre-periphery could be leveraged as a unit of policy planning, particularly in planning investment in transport infrastructure. The case of Poland could provide useful lessons for Korea on how to promote urban-rural partnerships. Like Korea, Poland has gone through a marked process of economic activity mainly concentrated in large functional urban areas. The use of municipal association, territorial agreements and supra-local municipal development plans have assisted Poland to build those partnerships (Box 4.1). To enhance urban-rural linkages, particularly between regional cities and surrounding areas is essential to ensure connectivity by reorganising inefficient and unprofitable bus routes, determining the optimal scale for alternative transport services to assess the sustainability of financial support.

Box 4.1. Urban-rural partnerships in Poland

In Poland, economic growth has mainly been concentrated in large functional urban areas (FUAs). However, the majority of the population lives in small and mid-sized FUAs and rural areas leading to an unbalance and unequal growth. Around 100 small and medium sized cities are losing their socio-economic functions. The Polish authorities are thus promoting urban-rural partnerships to unlock growth opportunities around population hubs and to help spread the wealth of large FUAs. Local governments have engaged in urban-rural partnerships in domains such as public transport (e.g. Lublin, Warszawa, Jelenia Góra and Bydgoszcz), business promotion in cooperation with the private sector (e.g. Grudziadz and Bydgoszcz), and tourism (e.g. Jelenia Gora agglomeration).

Public transport is the most frequent policy area of co-operation within FUAs in Poland, as it is regarded as a pre-condition to access other services and foster urban-rural synergies. Local governments use different mechanisms to establish partnerships in transport, such as bilateral agreements between the core municipalities and the surrounding ones or municipal associations to revitalise the public transport system. In general, the core city in the FUA becomes the co-ordinating actor by taking a leadership role in the organisation and management of public transport infrastructure in the FUA. The aim of the partnerships is to give smaller municipalities the possibility to access transport services they would otherwise not be able to provide due to funding and capacity limitations.

Poland has some metropolitan governance arrangements to encourage these partnerships. The supra-local development strategies which enable urban and rural municipalities to jointly adopt a functional approach to planning. The supra-local development plans include a model of the functional and spatial structure, which illustrates the lines for action set out in the strategy. Another instrument are the territorial agreements that enable local governments to come together to specify priority projects for the development of a given area, in line with the objectives of a development strategy. These agreements can be signed with the region or the national government.

Source: OECD (2022[2]) Urban-Rural Linkages in Poland, OECD Publishing, Paris.

Strengthen public transport infrastructure for regional growth and integration. Strengthening investment in public transport infrastructure between regional hub cities and neighbouring communities can act as a powerful driver of economic growth, job creation, and cultural exchange. A modern and well-functioning transport system is essential for economic and social integration, supporting business, trade, travel, and tourism. This type of investment can foster economies of scale through shared transport infrastructure, coordinated land use planning, joint economic development strategies, and resource pooling—as seen in Toyama City (Japan), and Cork City (Ireland)..

While transport infrastructure has been a key focus for Korean authorities, this report identifies several gaps, including missing transport links and a lack of efficient connectivity between regional hub cities and their surrounding areas. Although road investment has been extensive, the absence of frequent and reliable public transport services limits the effectiveness of this infrastructure. As a result, regional connectivity—particularly with smaller cities and hinterlands—remains constrained. Improved transport access could support temporal mobility and service accessibility, potentially helping to curb depopulation in rural and semi-urban areas. At a different scale, the STRING Megaregion offers valuable lessons in leveraging transport infrastructure for development. Its approach highlights several actions that may inspire Korean policy makers, including the need for planning that transcends political and administrative borders, the development of joint action plans, and the implementation of short-term solutions to complement long- and medium-term strategies (Box 4.2).

One practical option for enhancing connectivity between small and medium-sized cities and their surrounding areas is to strengthen interregional bus services. Buses offer a more affordable and quicker-to-implement solution compared to rail. In many rural areas, the lack of accessible and affordable transport deprives non-drivers of independent mobility, restricting their economic opportunities. As demonstrated in the accessibility analysis in this report, efforts to boost interregional transit ridership should be accompanied by improved integration with local transport services, enhanced walkability, especially for populations with limited mobility, and the adoption of transport demand management incentives. High-quality interregional transport benefits innovation, tourism, and industry. It can also help retain and attract residents, reduce traffic congestion, and improve road safety. Enhancing accessibility through interregional transport infrastructure is therefore a crucial enabler for regional cities to become highly connected, liveable places, encouraging population growth and sustainable urban development (Pokharel, Bertolini and Brommelstroet, 2023[3]).

Box 4.2. The experience of the STRING Megaregion on improving connectivity via transport

The STRING Megaregion is a political cross-border organisation that consists of seven cities, nine regions spanning four countries (Norway, Sweden, Denmark, and Germany). Its goal is to position the megaregion as a global green hub for investment in Europe by joining forces beyond local, regional and national borders. To this end, the megaregion has been encouraging investment in infrastructure, in particular railway infrastructure as it is regarded as a means to reduce transport costs for businesses, offer safe and reliable transport services, and therefore, stimulate regional trade and economic growth while alleviating congestion and contributing to the reduction of CO₂ emissions.

However, to achieve its goal, STRING needs to face several barriers, for example discrepancies in fiscal and regulatory frameworks across the four member countries that restrain or complicate collaboration on issues such as transport and energy efficiency. These differing frameworks also hinder labour and residential mobility, limiting the exchange of skilled workers and the potential of innovation throughout the megaregion. Another barrier is the narrow focus on national, regional and local priorities. This has often led to missed opportunities to yield broader benefits through cross-border collaboration. Some possible ways forward for the Megaregion to move forward include: strengthening cross-border transport planning and governance at the megaregional level through the creation of a cross-border transport commission; developing a joint action plan assessing and developing alternative financing opportunities for cross-border transport infrastructure; and implementing short-term sustainable transport solutions in addition to medium- and long-term projects.

Source: OECD (2021[4]) Building the STRING Megaregion as a green hub in the wake of COVID-19.

Enhance the central part of regional hub cities functionally and economically by concentrating public projects. This involves long term strategic planning and proactive land management to sustain investment and growth, tackle climate change, care for community members (especially women and old-age people) and neighbourhood development and protect and enhance the cities’ natural and built heritage. The policy to decentralised public facilities to suburban areas needs to be reconsidered. Korea may wish to strengthen urban regeneration and revitalisation in central parts of cities by reusing obsolete urban infrastructure, repurposing brownfield, rehabilitating existing housing stock, enhancing energy efficiency in renovated buildings, and restoring natural environment. Focusing on the construction of new or on the rehabilitation of deteriorated or decaying housing, infrastructure and services could contribute to good living conditions, preserve the urban fabric, increase vibrancy in central neighbourhoods and decrease underutilised buildings and sites. Downtown Cohesion Zones have the potential to increase the stock of adequate housing for people of all ages, making it accessible to a broader range of residents and move towards more resource-efficient systems. However, this needs to be part of a comprehensive strategy of urban regeneration and revitalisation. Korea has embarked in urban regeneration projects in the past and has an extensive regulatory and planning framework that allows working on regenerating and revitalising central areas. Korea may wish to continue with the Regional Revitalisation Town (RRT) projects led by the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport (MOLIT) with the support of the Korea Land and Housing Corporation (LH) and complement them with a transport component. At the very least, these projects should include an assessment of how transport will impact RRT projects. OECD has made some recommendations to Korea on how to leverage investment in urban regeneration that involve:

• Addressing complexity and duplication of planning across levels of government,

• Streamlining the planning system to avoid overlaps and administrative inefficiencies,

• Evaluating the outcomes and impact of urban regeneration projects,

• Ensuring the availability of long-term investment strategies, and

• Using urban regeneration as a catalyst for job creation (OECD, 2019[5]).

Use TOD as a catalyst for urban renewal and revitalisation in transit hub areas and central areas of regional hub cities. Improving transport services is essential for the successful regeneration of urban cores and economically underperforming areas near transit stations. In Korea, TOD can be leveraged not only to optimise the public transport system, increase ridership, promote active mobility, and reduce environmental pollution, but also to support the integrated development of station-adjacent areas in small and medium-sized cities. This approach can help reshape urban spatial patterns and drive the renewal of key urban zones, as demonstrated in successful examples from Île-de-France (France), Cork City (Ireland), Metro Vancouver (Canada), and Toyama City (Japan). In particular, TOD initiatives linked to Korea’s Downtown Cohesion Zones have strong potential to stimulate high-density development in suburban areas and revitalise neighbourhoods surrounding metro stations. Previous New Town developments within the Seoul Metropolitan Area (SMA) have incorporated TOD-supportive policies, which have contributed to improved public transport performance in major station areas (ITF, 2023[6]). Some changes in land uses are to be expected, especially near the peripherally located stations.

In transport corridors of regional hub cities, TOD should also be used to foster walkable environments within both new and existing commercial and residential developments. Walkability is especially important for children and older adults who may have limited access to other modes of transport. Measures to improve walkability could include the provision of diverse housing types to accommodate different household sizes, the construction of dedicated bicycle lanes and parking facilities, and the development of off-street pedestrian pathways and trails. The overarching goal should be to enhance the connectivity and density of transport corridors, thereby reducing the distance residents must travel to access public services through active modes of mobility.

The experience of cities and regions in OECD countries undertaking urban renewal through a Transit-Oriented Development (TOD) approach offers valuable lessons for Korea (Table 4.1). While each case differs in context, focus, and level of progress, these lessons are grounded in empirical evidence of what works—and what does not—when implementing TOD projects.

• Use TOD as a tool to address demographic and economic challenges and promote sustainable urban development. Many of the regions and cities highlighted in this report face challenges such as population decline and ageing (e.g. Cork City, Toyama City), limited connectivity between urban cores and hinterlands (e.g. Cork City) , low-density and single-use developments (e.g. Metro Vancouver), deteriorating infrastructure in central areas (e.g. Toyama City, Cork City), and weak connectivity among surrounding neighbourhoods (e.g. Île-de-France, Metro Vancouver). Additionally, several regions face an affordable housing crisis (e.g. Metro Vancouver, New South Wales, Cork City) and high concentrations of economic activity in core urban areas (e.g. Greater Copenhagen). TOD has been used in these contexts to promote sustainable urban development and address these pressing challenges.

• Coordinate of interests of multiple stakeholders: Successful TOD requires alignment among key stakeholders—residents, local/regional authorities, and private developers—each with distinct priorities. Developers typically seek to protect their commercial interests through high-density developments; residents value improved public spaces, safety, and access to facilities; and governments often rely on private investment to address funding constraints. Examples of effective stakeholder coordination can be found in the Île-de-France region (France), Cork City (Ireland), and the Copenhagen Metropolitan Area (Denmark).

• Prioritise public transport and its integration with land use. Across the case studies, prioritising public transport is central. Key actions include expanding coverage, enhancing performance, and offering multimodal transport choices. Cities have reorganised transport systems around urban functions and public spaces, ensuring that the street network and urban design are closely integrated with transit systems. This is evident in Metro Vancouver (Canada), New South Wales (Australia), Toyama City (Japan), and Cork City (Ireland).

• Intensify and mix land uses around transit hubs. The case studies demonstrate the value of high-density, mixed-use development in areas around rail transit stations. Such developments should accommodate future urban change and maximise agglomeration benefits while fostering a flexible and efficient spatial layout, particularly in older urban areas. Examples include New South Wales (Australia), Île-de-France (France), the Copenhagen Metropolitan Area (Denmark), and Cork City (Ireland).

• Place the rail station at the core of urban development. In all examples, rail stations are positioned as the focal point of urban development, surrounded by mixed-use urban functions that generate synergies. The goal is to build vibrant, inclusive communities with a variety of housing options and easy access to jobs, services, schools, and public transport. At the same time, development should be guided toward existing communities to help preserve green spaces, farmland, and environmentally sensitive areas. This approach is well demonstrated in the Île-de-France region. In Korea, greater efforts could be made to improve station accessibility and inter-regional connectivity, enabling regional hub cities to play a more prominent role in the future.

• Promote mixed-income communities and affordable housing. Most TOD projects incorporate affordable housing, offering various tenures and catering to diverse social and demographic groups. Korea could consider expanding the construction of "Happy Housing" units in TOD zones as a safeguard against gentrification. This approach has proven effective in New South Wales (Australia), Île-de-France (France), and Metro Vancouver (Canada). Given Korea’s ageing population, TOD projects can also be designed with a demographic lens, ensuring that older adults have convenient access to essential services and amenities.

Table 4.1. Summary of lessons for Korea from international experience on improving compact and connected development

Region or City	Features of the region or city	Lessons
New South Wales (Australia)	A highly suburbanized region that needs to deliver more high quality, well-located homes near transport, community services and open spaces. Lack of affordable housing in in proximity to transport areas. A master plan for each accelerated precinct selected. People’s preference for living in detached housing in the suburbs and use of private car.	Transit-oriented development (TOD) should be planned around affordable and diversity housing tenure. The need to promote a more proactive, high intensity land use as part of strategic planning. TOD areas should provide spaces for leisure. TOD projects should be planned under a place-based approach and be future oriented.
Île-de-France (France)	A highly administratively fragmented region. Predominance of the city of Paris. Construction of the Gran Paris Express to connect all suburbs in the region. Station area to be equipped to provide access to affordable housing, retail, shops, and other services.	The need for all levels of government to work together and commit to the project over a long period of time. Use transport stations as departing point for urban revitalisation due to their impact in real estate value, commuting and people’s life dynamics. The inclusion of social policy components as part of a TOD. The need for adequate governance arrangements from the construction to the operation of the project. The provision of green areas for a healthy lifestyle. Applicability of the principles underpinning the model to all metropolitan areas regardless of their size.
Toyama City (Japan)	A compact city with considerable investments in public transport to deal with population ageing and shrinkage. Over dependence on cars and deterioration of the public transport network due to decreased ridership. Hollowing-out of the city centre.	The need of an integrated approach to urban and transport development to deal with depopulation. The relevance of using existing assets (i.e. infrastructure) to reduce costs. Urban planning and transport planning play a critical role in determining a city’s physical structure and are highly dependent on each other. TOD requires effective leadership and a long-term vision. Collaboration across levels of government is essential. City centre revitalisation as part of the TOD.
Metro Vancouver (Canada)	A partnership of 21 municipalities forms the metropolitan area. Historical underinvestment in public transit and road infrastructure. Poor housing affordability. Land scarcity for expansion. Low level of productivity.	The need to work on land use, transport planning and social policy to build walkable, mixed-use, transit-oriented communities. Promote accessibility as a top-level outcome that requires cross-sectoral collaboration. The need to plan accessibility at the neighbourhood and regional levels. The adoption of a people centred approach to pursue TOD projects.
Copenhagen Metropolitan Area (Denmark)	Urban planning in the context of reconstruction after war. High concentration of economic activities in the city of Copenhagen. Acknowledged that people wanted to move out of the overcrowded city they would have to travel back into the city for accessing urban opportunities	Underlines the need for policy complementarities. Transport objectives can be addressed through other means such as regulation. Value station proximity and access to green areas. Use of transport to guide development. Adopt a bottom-up approach to planning. Inclusion of the foresight element into planning.
Cork City (Ireland)	A context of depopulation and ageing. Designated as a driver for national economic and urban growth. Degradation in central areas. Limited transport links with neighbouring towns and villages. Need to create a livable environment to attract investment and people.	The need for strategic planning and have a proactive land use management approach. Include neighbouring areas in the strategic planning. Pursue an urban regeneration and revitalisation strategy. Adopt a transport-oriented approach to build an integrated multimodal transport system connecting the urban core and the surrounding areas. Use the SDGs as a framework for planning compact development.

Source: Author’s elaboration

Develop a transport corridor with a specific smart growth plan for each station. The experience of Metro Vancouver (Canada), Toyama City (Japan), and Copenhagen Metropolitan Area (Denmark) suggest the need to plan for transport corridors that connect different small villages or towns. These corridors concentrate high-density and mixed-use development while preserving the existing residential neighbourhoods. These examples suggest that achieving the benefits of TOD is a long-term process that requires visioning and planning; making development decisions predictable, fair and cost-effective; creating walkable neighbourhoods; and encouraging community and stakeholder collaboration. In the case of Korea, this may imply the amendment of the appropriate regulation such as the Railway Construction Act and the Station Area Act to ensure that rail stations and surrounding areas are defined as functional areas where socio-economic functions and facilities can be developed (i.e. retail, culture, residential, office space). It is important that these plans include the provision of health services and adequate housing for older people. National and local policy makers should consider the type and size of communities from which older people are migrating and the places to where they are migrating. Whilst the probability of moving to a lower density area increases with population ageing, it is important to consider the number of older people ageing in place and the needs they will have. Research shows that there is a tendency for older people to move to higher density areas where it may be easier to access urban services and living amenities (Kim and Han, 2014[7]).

As part of the TOD projects, it is necessary to consider the characteristics of various tenants including the elderly and university students, in areas close to stations. This means that the characteristics of the area where Happy Housing will be supplied can be carefully around these places. The experience of New South Wales (Australia), Île-de-France (France), and Metro Vancouver (Canada) suggests that in developing TOD there should be a social component that not only provides affordable housing to low-income households or to the most vulnerable ones but identifies and addresses the weaknesses of low-income households compared to other income-class households. Ensuring accessibility to services and amenities in transit hub areas is a way of achieving more inclusive growth.

To foster investment in regional rail transport, Korean authorities may wish to improve the level of sophistication of feasibility studies to include indicators such as network completeness, detour, punctuality, accessibility, environmental impacts, reliability, water pollution (KOTI, 2024[8]). It may be desirable to implement station area development projects and rail infrastructure projects jointly and retrieve development profits and use them for rail infrastructure investments.

Adopt a multifaceted approach to tackle overconcentration, suburbanisation and population decline in small and medium-sized cities. To attract people and improve liveability Korean cities require a broader agenda with a balanced mix of social (including cultural), economic, and environmental considerations. Particular attention should be given to improving transport systems within cities and inter-regional transport networks, foster transit-oriented communities that privilege walking and cycling, encourage mixed land uses, and align transport and land use policies. To achieve this, the institutional framework should provide a stronger voice to citizens on the future of the city/region where they live. One way of doing it is through a Public Partnership Network as those developed in Ireland, a country that also faces population decline and ageing and seeks to promote local development for balanced growth (Box 4.3). Korea could organise these PPNs in every Innovation City allowing the participation of different community groups. The advantage is that they could provide a wide range of views on how the city could or should develop based on the local context.

Box 4.3. Enhancing community participation in decision-making through partnership networks - Ireland

The Public Participation Networks (PPNs), created after the enactment of the Local Government Act 2014, are collectives of environmental, social inclusion, community and voluntary organisations in a county / city. These Networks enable the participation and representation of communities through the environmental, social inclusion, community and voluntary sectors on decision making bodies; strengthen the capacity of actors involved to contribute to the community where they reside; and act as a hub around which information is distributed and received. The Department of Housing, Planning, Community and Local Government (DHPCLG) and the local authorities provide the funding for the PPNs.

By joining a PPN an organisation has access, among other things, to: relevant information on funding and grants; capacity building and training events, information on decisions and proposals being made in their county / city and the ability to comment on and input to them; networking, and be part of a Linkage Group for a Board of Committee of interest.

Source: DHPCLG (2017[9]) Public Participation Networks (PPNs). A User Guide

Apply the four special zones included in the DBDMP in a more coordinated manner. The four special zones included in the DBDMP are designated separately from each other. To use them in revitalising core urban centres and areas around stations, it would be more efficient and effective if at least those cities designated as Downtown Cohesion Zones (DCZ), for example, could also benefit from the advantages Opportunity Development Zones (ODZ) provide. To renew a degrading urban area, or revitalise areas around stations, cities may need to attract investment from private sector stakeholders to increase the commercial and services and housing supply and for that, fiscal incentives, provided under ODZ, may be required. The use of the four zones could complement each other. For example, participants in TOD projects in DCZ cities may be eligible to benefit from density bonuses to increase the number of units allowed in a given project in exchange for including more affordable housing units or incorporating transit stations into the project. Other benefits may include tax credits, abatements, grants, and subsidies which could be made regionally available to help implementing TOD projects. The same benefits could be granted to those investors in promoting the creation of commercial districts with local identity in collaboration with local small business and local creators.

Enhance compact and connected cities and TOD projects through strategic foresight. The experience of the Copenhagen Metropolitan Area (Denmark), and Toyama City (Japan) suggests that cities need have enough foresight to be able to adapt possible future developments. This requires having a vision of what the ideal development would be and considering the possible barriers or changes in context that may deviate from this goal. Having enough foresight does not mean to be a tool for speculating on land prices around station areas, but to prepare the city for possible ‘futures’. For example, the use of autonomous vehicles may require changing the way cities are configured, and TOD areas may need to be adapted. A holistic view of the future and a broad range of trends and factors must be considered when assessing TOD projects, regional policies, and transport investments. This is because, as mentioned above, TODs are usually influenced by the wide array of stakeholders and distinct networks, there are deep links between transport and other economic sectors; and the increasing need for investments that influence behavioural changes and impact challenges like gender inequality or climate change require an integral view of possible future developments.

References

[9] DHPCLG (2017), Public Participation Networks (PPNs). A User Guide, Department of Housing, Planning, Community and Local Government, https://www.corkcoco.ie/sites/default/files/2022-02/public-participation-networks-user-guide-pdf.pdf (accessed on 3 November 2024).

[6] ITF (2023), “Accessibility in the Seoul Metropolitan Area: Does Transport Serve All Equally?”, International Transport Forum Policy Papers No.117, https://www.itf-oecd.org/sites/default/files/docs/accessibility-seoul-metropolitan-area.pdf (accessed on 1 October 2024).

[7] Kim, J. and J. Han (2014), “Myths of migration on retirement in Korea: Do the elderly move to less dense areas?”, Habitat International, Vol. 41, pp. 195-204, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.habitatint.2013.08.003.

[8] KOTI (2024), Transportation infrastructure, service and policy in response to demographic changes, presentation given to the OECD.

[4] OECD (2021), Building the STRING Megaregion as a green hub in the wake of COVID-19, https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/building-the-string-megaregion-as-a-green-hub-in-the-wake-of-covid-19_40c840c3-en.html (accessed on 27 October 2024).

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[3] Pokharel, R., L. Bertolini and M. Brommelstroet (2023), “How does transportation facilitate regional economic development? A heuristic mapping of the literature”, Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives, Vol. 19, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trip.2023.100817.