Across OECD countries, the vast majority of students enrolled in general upper secondary education – 90% on average – attend programmes that lead to a full qualification and access to tertiary education.
On average, 42% of students from general upper secondary tracks who start a bachelor’s programme complete it on time, compared to 39% from vocational tracks, suggesting vocational students may struggle more with the academic demands of tertiary education.
Although overall bachelor’s completion rates improve significantly after an additional three years, differences by programme orientation persist. The average completion rate across OECD countries rises to 72% for students from general programmes and 65% for those from vocational programmes.
Education at a Glance 2025
Context
An upper secondary qualification (ISCED level 3) is often considered the minimum credential for successful entry into the labour market and essential for pursuing higher education. Young people who leave school before completing upper secondary education tend to have worse employment prospects (see Chapters A3 and A4).
For many students, the transition from lower to upper secondary education involves choosing between general education and vocational education and training (VET). These different programme orientations vary in both their duration and educational focus: general programmes typically prepare students for tertiary education, while vocational programmes are designed to develop occupation-specific skills for direct entry into the labour market. However, education systems increasingly offer pathways that allow students to move between tracks, so that early choices do not necessarily limit future educational or career opportunities. Ensuring that students are well informed about the structure and implications of different educational pathways is crucial to supporting successful transitions and minimising the risk of students dropping out.
As well as upper secondary education, some countries offer post-secondary non-tertiary programmes, which provide advanced vocational qualifications or alternative pathways into further education. These programmes are distinct from upper secondary programmes as they usually require prior completion of secondary education and offer more specialised content.
After completing upper secondary education, students can choose among several options: entering the labour market, continuing into further education or taking a gap year. Taking a gap year can bring benefits such as greater maturity, clearer academic goals and improved academic performance upon entering tertiary education. However, it can also present risks, particularly for students from vocational tracks who may face stronger financial pressures or lose academic momentum.
In per cent
For data, see Table B3.2. For a link to download the data, see Tables and Notes section.
Other findings
Despite the benefits of work-based learning, its use in vocational programmes varies widely. In some countries, work-based learning is widespread, with 90% or more of students enrolled in combined school- and work-based programmes, mostly through apprenticeships.
Across OECD countries, female students enrolled in vocational upper secondary programmes are, on average, two years older than their male counterparts (22 years compared to 20). The gender age gap exceeds four years in Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Iceland, New Zealand, Spain and Sweden, indicating significant gender differences in the timing of enrolment.
Vocational programmes dominate provision at the post-secondary non-tertiary level across almost all OECD countries. In systems offering programmes at this level, vocational pathways account for a large majority of enrolments, often exceeding 80%.
Across OECD countries, 44% of new tertiary entrants had taken a gap of at least a year after completing upper secondary education, with the rate higher among graduates from vocational programmes. While 42% of general track students delayed entry, 58% of vocational track students did so.
Upper secondary education differs from earlier levels of education, as it offers students more varied, specialised and in-depth instruction and content. It typically lasts three years, but the duration ranges from two years (as in Australia, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ireland, Lithuania and Peru) to five years (as in Bulgaria and Italy). The typical starting age is 15, but in some countries, students start earlier, at age 14 (as in Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Chile, Hungary, India, Italy, the Republic of Türkiye and United Kingdom), or far later, at 17 (as in Lithuania). Although students complete upper secondary education at the age of 17 or 18 in most countries, they do so at 16 in Colombia, Costa Rica and Peru and at the age of 19 in Iceland (Annex Table X1.3).
Participation of 15-19 year-olds in education
Enrolment patterns among 15-19 year-olds vary considerably across countries, both in terms of overall enrolment rates and the level at which students are studying. The average enrolment rate across OECD countries is 84% – and in seven OECD and partner countries, at least nine out of ten teenagers in this age group are enrolled in education. However, at the other end of the spectrum, there are five countries where less than two-thirds of 15-19 year-olds are in education (Figure B3.2).
The level at which 15-19 year-olds are enrolled reflects the different structures of national education systems. Students in this age group might be pursuing lower secondary, upper secondary, post-secondary non-tertiary or tertiary education, although the majority are enrolled in upper secondary education. Enrolment in lower secondary education is also relatively common in Australia, Denmark, Estonia, Germany, Lithuania and South Africa, where over one-quarter of 15-19 year-olds are studying at this level (Figure B3.2).
In 13 OECD and partner countries, vocational programmes account for the largest share of upper secondary enrolment among 15-19 year-olds. In these countries, VET is the main initial upper secondary education pathway. In contrast, the very small share of vocational upper secondary students in this age group in New Zealand reflects the fact that vocational education is delivered outside the initial education system. Students typically complete general upper secondary education and then might pursue a vocational programme at upper secondary level, as an alternative to post-secondary or tertiary education (Table B3.1).
Mainly vocationally oriented, post-secondary non-tertiary programmes are relatively less common among OECD countries than other levels of education. About 1% of 15-19 year-olds were enrolled in post‑secondary non‑tertiary education in 2023 on average, with 11 OECD and partner countries not offering this level of education at all. In New Zealand, which has the highest share of this age group studying at this level (6%), post-secondary non-tertiary education consists of apprenticeships where some off-the-job learning is offered to students (Table B3.1).
Enrolment in tertiary education is limited among this age group: it accounts for only 11% of 15-19 year-olds on average across OECD countries. However, rates do vary significantly, ranging from 1% in Denmark and Luxembourg to 31% in Korea, where enrolment in tertiary programmes typically starts at an earlier age (Table B3.1) and a large majority of young adults attain a tertiary qualification (see Chapter A1).
In per cent
1. Year of reference differs from 2023.
For data, see Table B3.1. For a link to download the data, see Tables and Notes section.
Profile of upper secondary students
General programmes
General programmes at the upper secondary level are primarily designed to prepare students for tertiary education, emphasising theoretical knowledge across a broad range of academic subjects. These programmes typically do not include vocational training components and are structured to facilitate progression to higher education.
Gender and average age
In 2023, on average across OECD countries, 54% of students enrolled in general upper secondary programmes were female, indicating a higher participation rate among women in these academically oriented tracks. Among OECD and partner countries, this trend is particularly pronounced in Croatia, Italy, Poland and Slovenia, where women constitute over 60% of enrolments. At the other end of the scale, in Israel and the United States, the gender distribution is in favour of men, with women making up only 47% of students (Table B3.2).
Across OECD countries, the average age of students enrolled in general upper secondary programmes is approximately 17 years for both women and men, indicating minimal gender differences in age at this educational level. However, in a few countries, there are notable differences. In Belgium, Costa Rica and Sweden, the average age of female students exceeds that of male students by more than one year. These three countries, along with Iceland and Türkiye, also have a higher average age of all students at this level – over 19 years for both male and female students except in Belgium, where the average age of male students is slightly below 19. Older average ages in these countries could be explained by the enrolment of adults pursuing upper secondary general qualifications through dedicated programmes, such as the Académica Nocturna (Evening Academic Programme) in Costa Rica, the Secundair volwassenenonderwijs (Secondary Adult Education) in the Flemish Community of Belgium, the Komvux (Municipal adult education) in Sweden and the Açıköğretim Lisesi (Open High School) in Türkiye. These types of programmes tend to attract a higher share of women than men, as men without qualifications are generally less disadvantaged in the labour market than women, both in terms of employment prospects and earnings (Table B3.2).
Access to higher levels of education
The type of completion offered by general upper secondary programmes plays a crucial role in shaping students' educational and professional opportunities. Across OECD countries, the vast majority of students enrolled in general upper secondary education – 91% on average – attend programmes that lead to full level completion and grant access to tertiary education. These programmes are designed to provide students with a comprehensive academic foundation and a qualification formally recognised for entry into higher education. In contrast, a notable share of students – 8% on average – are enrolled in programmes that result in partial completion or provide insufficient credits for full upper secondary completion, and 1% are enrolled in programmes giving full level completion without access to tertiary education (Table B3.2).
Several general programmes classified as offering insufficient level completion share similar characteristics across countries. The category “insufficient for level completion” refers to programmes that are too short to meet the requirements for full or partial level completion (OECD/Eurostat/UNESCO Institute for Statistics, 2015[1]). These programmes provide students with a recognised certificate or diploma after the first phase of upper secondary education but do not grant full completion nor eligibility for direct entry into tertiary education. Students holding such certificates can generally continue their education either by entering more advanced general academic programmes or by transitioning to vocational education and training. However, the initial qualification alone does not provide eligibility for direct entry into tertiary education (see the Definitions section for a more detailed explanation of these different types of completion).
In particular, six countries stand out with more than 40% of students enrolled in programmes leading to partial or insufficient completion: Belgium, Bulgaria, Chile, Peru, Spain and the United Kingdom (Table B3.2). In these countries, upper secondary education is often structured in two or more stages: students typically complete an initial phase that awards them a qualification and may pursue further learning opportunities afterwards. Those who wish to access tertiary education must continue to gain full completion of upper secondary education and comply with the necessary academic requirements for higher education entry. This structure contributes to the higher share of students temporarily recorded as completing only part of upper secondary education. In the Flemish Community of Belgium, this high share also reflects the structure of upper secondary education, which is divided into several stages. Many students are still in an intermediate stage (tweede graad) that does not yet lead to a qualification giving access to higher education, although most of them continue to the final stage (derde graad). n the French Community of Belgium, students are awarded the Certificat d'Études du Deuxième Degré (CE2D) upon completion of the second degree of secondary education (after the fourth year). While the CE2D certifies the acquisition of basic competencies, it does not confer full upper secondary graduation nor direct access to tertiary education pathways. In Spain, students complete the Educación Secundaria Obligatoria – Segundo ciclo (4º curso) at the end of compulsory education; however, further studies in general’s or vocational tracks are required to qualify for tertiary education entry. In the United Kingdom, students typically obtain the General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) around the age of 16. The GCSE marks the completion of lower secondary education. To access tertiary education, students must obtain further qualifications, such as A-levels or equivalent vocational programmes. In Chile, the Ciclo General de Enseñanza Media represents the general cycle within upper secondary education; however, students must complete an additional cycle of specialisation to achieve full secondary graduation. Similarly, in Bulgaria, students complete the First High School Stage of General and Profiled Secondary Education after grade 10, which certifies partial completion of upper secondary education but requires progression to a second stage to obtain a full diploma.
Ensuring that students successfully complete upper secondary programmes with eligibility for tertiary education remains a key priority for education systems. Policy makers should pay particular attention to supporting students in transitional phases, strengthening guidance mechanisms and offering flexible pathways that allow for the continuation of studies without unnecessary barriers. Facilitating smoother progression from partial qualifications to full upper secondary completion can help improve overall educational attainment and equity in access to tertiary education.
Vocational programmes
Vocational education and training programmes represent an important pathway at the upper secondary level, offering students practical skills and preparing them for entry into the labour market. In 2023, on average across OECD countries, 44% of upper secondary students were enrolled in vocational programmes. Participation in VET is particularly prominent in some countries, with more than two-thirds of upper secondary students following vocational tracks in Austria, Croatia, Czechia, Finland, the Netherlands, the Slovak Republic and Slovenia. Overall, the share of students enrolled in vocational programmes has remained relatively stable across OECD countries since 2013. However, notable national trends have emerged. In Hungary, the proportion of students enrolled in VET programmes has doubled over the past decade and now represents more than half of the upper secondary cohort. Part of this increase is due to the reclassification of some general programmes as vocational, but a significant share is also attributable to a genuine rise in the number of students choosing vocational pathways. Similarly, Brazil has recorded significant growth in VET enrolment, although the share was still only 14% in 2023, well below the OECD average. This increase is linked to recent reforms aimed at expanding access by making vocational education an optional component of upper secondary programmes and allowing more flexible, locally adapted programmes. However, progress has varied across states and municipalities (OECD, 2023[2]). Conversely, some countries have experienced declines in the share of vocational students: in Sweden, for instance, the proportion of students enrolled in VET programmes has fallen from 47% to 37% over the past ten years (Table B3.2). This decline is partly due to the reclassification of some programmes, such as media studies, from vocational to academic. More selective entry into higher education and the removal of automatic eligibility from VET programmes to higher education introduced by the 2011 reform may also have discouraged students - particularly high achievers - from choosing this track (Kuczera and Jeon, 2019[3]). However, a reform implemented in autumn 2023 reinstated automatic access for vocational graduates: all national VET programmes were expanded to include core courses in Swedish and English, providing grundläggande behörighet -the basic eligibility required for tertiary education - without needing additional elective courses (The Swedish Parliament, 2022[4]).
Gender and average age
In 2023, on average across OECD countries, 45% of students enrolled in vocational upper secondary programmes were female, indicating lower female participation than in general programmes. This trend is particularly pronounced in countries such as Germany, Iceland, India and Lithuania, where women account for 35% or less of enrolments. In Saudi Arabia, the Technical and Vocational Training Corporation (TVTC) offers upper secondary industrial programmes that are almost exclusively reserved for men, reflecting very limited female participation. Conversely, a few OECD and partner countries, including Brazil, Ireland and New Zealand, report a significantly higher share of women than men in VET programmes (Table B3.2).
Gender differences are also reflected in the average age of students. Across OECD countries, female students enrolled in vocational programmes are, on average, about two years older than their male counterparts (22 years old compared to 20). In several countries, the difference is particularly large: in Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Iceland, New Zealand, Spain and Sweden, the average age of female students exceeds that of male students by more than four years. These patterns may reflect the participation of older women returning to education through adult VET programmes or differences in pathways between general and vocational education streams (Table B3.2).
Access to higher levels of education
Vocational upper secondary programmes aim to prepare students for entry into the labour market by providing them with practical skills and occupation-specific knowledge. At the same time, it is important to ensure that vocational programmes, particularly those at upper secondary level, also allow for progression to higher levels of education. This matters for the attractiveness of VET, as without such opportunities, bright young people will not consider VET as an option. It also matters for equity, as nobody should be locked out of further learning because of a choice made in initial schooling. It also encourages lifelong learning, as access to tertiary education can allow VET graduates to upskill or reskill later in their careers. However, progression opportunities must be paired with adequate preparation. To succeed in tertiary education, students need the academic and transversal skills necessary to complete their programmes. Without this, formal access may not translate into successful outcomes. This issue is further discussed in the section on tertiary completion rates below. Countries have taken different approaches to structuring upper secondary education and VET, as well as associated progression opportunities.
Most vocational students are enrolled in programmes providing direct access to tertiary education. In 2023, 77% of upper secondary vocational students were enrolled under such arrangements (Figure B3.1). Within this broad category there are some nuances in access arrangements. In many countries, VET graduates are eligible for any type of tertiary programme, subject to the same selection processes that apply to general upper secondary graduates. In some countries, however, there are distinct progression routes for VET graduates. For example, they may only have access to short-cycle tertiary programmes, which are typically viewed as part of higher VET. This is the case for example in Austria, where graduates of three-year vocational programmes (in higher technical colleges) may progress to short-cycle tertiary programmes within the same institutions. Similarly, graduates of upper secondary VET in Norway and Spain have direct access to higher vocational programmes but not to universities. In some countries, VET graduates have access to some, but not all bachelor’s level programmes. For example, in the Netherlands and Slovenia they have direct access to professional bachelor’s programmes, but not academic ones (Kis, forthcoming[5]).
Most countries have at least one upper secondary vocational programme that leads to full level completion without direct access to tertiary education. This category refers to programmes that meet the requirements for graduates to be considered “upper secondary graduates” but the qualification obtained does not make them eligible for any type of tertiary education. Such programmes represent a very high share of vocational upper secondary enrolment in countries where vocational programmes tend to build on completed initial schooling and commonly enrol adults. For example, in Ireland and New Zealand the average age of upper secondary VET students is 30 or over. Enrolment in such programmes is also relatively high in countries with multiple vocational tracks at upper secondary level, such as Hungary, the Netherlands and Slovenia. In these countries, one vocational track has stronger emphasis on general skills and preparation for higher level studies and gives direct access to tertiary education. Another track focuses on occupational preparation and its graduates do not have direct access to tertiary education.
Some OECD countries and economies have vocational programmes that do not lead to full completion of upper secondary education. These categories do not mean that students do not complete their studies or only complete some study at these levels. These programmes lead to a recognised qualification but are not the final programme in a sequence of programmes. This is the case for more than one-third of students in Belgium, Bulgaria, Estonia and the United Kingdom. In the Flemish Community of Belgium partial completion programmes include the second stage of technical or vocational secondary education which is connected to a third stage leading to full level completion. In Estonia, in contrast, programmes in this category target adults and, unlike vocational programmes for youth at the same level, include limited general education and are deliberately focused on occupational skills (Table B3.2).
Use of work-based learning
Including an element of work-based learning in vocational programmes has multiple benefits. Workplaces are powerful environments for the acquisition of both technical and soft skills. Students can learn from experienced colleagues, on the equipment and technology that is currently used in their field. Soft skills like conflict management are easier to develop in real life contexts than in classroom settings. Delivering practical training in work environments can reduce the cost of training in schools, as equipment is often costly and quickly becomes obsolete. Similarly, including a strong element of work-based learning in VET can help tackle teacher shortages if students are learning from experienced skilled workers in companies. Finally, work-based learning creates a link between schools and the world of work, as well as between students and potential employers (OECD, 2018[6]).
Despite the recognised benefits of work-based learning, its use in vocational programmes varies widely. In Denmark, Hungary, Ireland, Latvia and Switzerland, work-based learning is widespread, with 90% or more of students enrolled in combined school- and work-based programmes, mostly through apprenticeships. However, work-based learning opportunities remain limited in 11 OECD and partner countries, where less than 25% of vocational students are enrolled in such programmes. Over the past decade, the share of students enrolled in combined school- and work-based programmes has increased in many countries, with particularly significant growth in some. In Norway, for instance, the share of students enrolled in such programmes more than doubled, rising from less than one-third of all vocational students in 2013 to over two-thirds in 2023 (Figure B3.3).
The types of programmes offered vary across countries: in total, 11 OECD countries and 4 partner countries do not offer combined school- and work-based programmes at all. In several countries, they co-exist with school-based options. In some of them this reflects the existence of alternative routes to the same qualification. In France, for example, upper secondary vocational qualifications may be acquired either through apprenticeships or through a school-based route with a smaller work-based learning component. In some other countries, apprenticeships and school-based programmes lead to different qualifications. In Austria, for example, upper secondary vocational programmes include both apprenticeships and programmes in higher technical and vocational colleges.
In per cent
For data, see Table B3.2. For a link to download the data, see Tables and Notes section.
Profile of post-secondary non-tertiary students
Programmes at the post-secondary non-tertiary level occupy a unique position within education systems, sitting between upper secondary and tertiary education. They are often designed either to provide further specialisation after the completion of upper secondary education or to offer alternative pathways to employment or tertiary studies. Across OECD countries, post-secondary non-tertiary programmes remain relatively less common than upper secondary or tertiary ones, and their organisation, purpose and target population vary considerably from one country to another.
General programmes
Across OECD countries, a limited number of general education programmes are classified at the post-secondary non-tertiary level. They are found in the Flemish Community of Belgium, Colombia, Czechia, France, Germany, Iceland, Israel, Japan, New Zealand, Sweden and Switzerland and typically serve as a bridge between upper secondary education and tertiary education or specialised vocational training. In general, these programmes are accessible to students who have successfully completed an upper secondary education programme but seek to either deepen their general education or meet specific admission requirements for tertiary education. They are often used to consolidate academic skills, fulfil prerequisites not covered during secondary education, or to provide additional orientation before choosing a specialised field of study. In most countries, they can provide a route into tertiary education from vocational upper secondary programmes.
The typical duration of post-secondary non-tertiary general programmes is around one year. Examples include the Passerelle programme in Switzerland, Enseignement pré-universitaire in France and Mechina Kdam- akademit (Pre-academic preparatory programme) or handasaim (Associate engineering studies) in Israel. In Germany, various Fachoberschule and Berufsoberschule/Technische Oberschule pathways offer additional qualification options beyond secondary education. Graduates of these programmes in Germany are entitled to enter first degree studies at Fachhochschulen and universities. While general programmes are not as widespread as vocational programmes, they play an important role in facilitating smoother transitions to tertiary education for students who may not yet meet all academic requirements, or who wish to enhance their academic profile. Their relatively short duration and focused curriculum make them an efficient tool for addressing gaps in academic knowledge, supporting lifelong learning and promoting access to higher education.
Women account for the majority of students enrolled in general programmes at this level, although their share varies significantly between countries. On average across OECD countries, women represent 58% of enrolments in general post-secondary non-tertiary programmes. Students enrolled in these programmes tend to be relatively old compared to those in other education levels: the average age is 29 years for both men and women. However, age patterns vary significantly across countries, ranging from 22 years in Colombia and Switzerland to nearly 50 years in Belgium. In Belgium, the high average age is largely due to the fact that the majority of students enrolled at this level are in adult education programmes. Most students in general programmes at this level complete qualifications that are equivalent to those providing access to tertiary education, often serving as alternative pathways to tertiary entrance examinations (Table B3.3).
Vocational programmes
Vocational programmes at the post-secondary non-tertiary level are far more widespread than general ones. These programmes cater not only to recent graduates from upper secondary education but also to adults already in the labour market who wish to deepen their vocational skills and knowledge. Participants in these programmes often view them as direct pathways into the labour market or as preparation for further tertiary education. Typically, the duration of post-secondary non-tertiary vocational programmes ranges from six months to three years, depending on the country and field of study.
In most cases, access to these programmes requires the successful completion of an upper secondary education programme. Students entering these programmes have already acquired a broad base of general or vocational education and are looking to specialise further, improve their employability or obtain additional qualifications recognised on the labour market. However, entry requirements vary across countries and in some cases, students who have only completed lower secondary education can enrol in upper secondary programmes. This is the case, for example, in Germany, where Full-time Vocational Schools (Berufsfachschulen) and Specialised Upper Secondary Schools (Fachgymnasien) offer both access to tertiary education and a vocational qualification, these qualifications combined lead to an allocation to post-secondary non-tertiary education. In Austria, this was possible in programmes such as the School for Health and Nursing (Schule für Gesundheits- und Krankenpflege), although this pathway is currently being phased out. These pathways offer young people early specialisation opportunities and help individuals of all ages bridge the gap between initial education and professional careers.
While many post-secondary non-tertiary programmes offer a bridge to tertiary education, not all of them provide access to higher levels of learning. The Framework Programme for Initial Vocational Training (Рамкови програми) in Bulgaria, the Entrepreneurship Training Programme (Ondernemersopleiding) in the Flemish Community of Belgium, 2 and 3 years programmes in Health and Social Professions (Zwei- und dreijährige Programme in Gesundheits- und Sozialberufen)) in Germany, and the Post-secondary School (Szkoła policealna) in Poland, are primarily oriented towards preparing students for direct entry into the labour market without offering a formal pathway to tertiary education.
Vocational programmes dominate provision at the post-secondary non-tertiary level across almost all OECD countries. In systems offering programmes at this level, vocational pathways account for a large majority of enrolments, 92% on average across OECD countries, and 100% in 18 of them. Women tend to be under-represented in vocational post-secondary non-tertiary programmes compared to general education, reflecting gender differences in fields of study. Work-based learning opportunities are a significant feature of vocational programmes at this level in many countries. On average across OECD countries, 42% of students are enrolled in programmes that combine school-based learning with structured work placements, although participation rates vary considerably across countries. Nevertheless, there has been no consistent increase in the share of students enrolled in work-based learning over time. In Austria, for example, the proportion of students in such programmes fell sharply from 61% in 2013 to 28% in 2023, whereas in Sweden, the share grew substantially over the same period, from 61% to 96%. These contrasting trends highlight the varying dynamics of work-based learning across countries. Caution is warranted in interpreting these changes, as the absolute number of students enrolled in work-based learning programmes often remains relatively small, making the share sensitive to short-term fluctuations. Ensuring the sustainability and attractiveness of work-based learning pathways remains a key policy challenge in many systems (Table B3.3).
Students in vocational post-secondary non-tertiary programmes tend to be older than those in general ones. On average, the women enrolled in vocational programmes are 32 years old, compared to 30 years old for men. Germany and South Africa have the youngest students, with an average age of 23 years, while Finland and Spain have the oldest students, with an average age of around 40 years. These differences reflect the specific nature of vocational programmes in some countries, where provision is targeted towards particular groups rather than the general student population. For example, in Spain, Professional Certificates, Level 3 (Certificados de Profesionalidad de nivel 3) are often designed for adults seeking to upskill or reskill, while in Finland, the Specialist Vocational Qualification (Erikoisammattitutkinto) caters to experienced professionals aiming to further specialise in their fields. Programmes like these contribute to raising the average age of students enrolled in vocational education (Table B3.3).
Taking time between school and tertiary studies
Taking time between upper secondary and tertiary education is a widespread practice in many OECD and partner countries and economies, although its prevalence varies considerably. In Brazil, Finland, Israel and Sweden, more than 70% of new entrants into bachelor’s programmes took a gap of at least a year or more before starting their tertiary studies. In contrast, in the Flemish and French Communities of Belgium and the Netherlands, the share is 15% or less (Figure B3.4). These differences reflect a range of factors, including national admission systems, labour-market structures, cultural norms regarding transitions into adulthood and the availability of alternative learning or work opportunities between educational levels. In some countries, the duration of the transition between upper secondary and tertiary education is influenced by structural and policy factors beyond students’ choices. In Austria, Finland, Israel, Korea, Lithuania and Switzerland military or civil service – usually required of young men – commonly delays the start of tertiary education.
On average across OECD countries and economies, 44% of new tertiary entrants had delayed their entry by a year or more after finishing school, but this rate is notably higher among students who graduated from vocational upper secondary programmes. While 42% of students from general tracks delayed their entry into tertiary education, the share reaches 58% among those from vocational tracks. This suggests that students in vocational education may be more likely to gain work experience, complete additional qualifications or pursue other transitional activities before continuing their studies. In Denmark, Lithuania and Portugal, the difference between vocational and general programme graduates exceeds 35 percentage points (Figure B3.4).
Taking time between upper secondary and tertiary education can yield positive academic and personal outcomes when the gap is well-structured and supported. Evidence suggests that students who delay their entry into tertiary education often outperform their peers who transition directly, particularly among those with weaker academic performance at the end of upper secondary education (Gap Year Association, 2023[7]). Some OECD and partner countries have introduced innovative or compensatory programmes to support meaningful transitions during this period. In Luxembourg, the Diplom+ programme helps recent graduates gain skills and improve their employability or academic preparedness during this period (Government of Luxembourg, 2024[8]). In Peru, targeted scholarships and social support schemes like Beca 18 help vulnerable students transition into tertiary education (PRONABEC, 2025[9])These examples suggest that well-designed transition mechanisms – particularly for students from disadvantaged backgrounds – can mitigate the risks associated with long or unstructured time gaps, improving access, equity and student success at the tertiary level.
Extended transitions between upper secondary and tertiary education may also carry academic and financial costs. Long breaks can disrupt academic momentum and make it more challenging for students to reintegrate into structured learning environments. Extended gaps may also increase demands on public support systems, as individuals may require financial aid or unemployment benefits during this period. For governments, delayed entry into tertiary education can reduce the flow of skilled individuals into the labour market. Some countries have implemented policies to limit the length of the transition. In Norway, for example, regulations incentivise students to enter tertiary education within three years of completing upper secondary education, with 50% of study places reserved for applicants under the age of 21 (Sandsør, Hovdhaugen and Bøckmann, 2021[10]). In Denmark, similar incentives were in place from 2009 to 2019 to encourage students to limit gap years to no more than two years, although this policy has since been discontinued (Government of Denmark, 2016[11]).
In per cent
For data, see Table B3.4 (on line). For a link to download the data, see Tables and Notes section.
Tertiary completion rates by upper secondary programme orientation
Creating strong pathways from upper secondary into tertiary education requires building suitable access routes and ensuring that students are well prepared for further studies. By definition, general upper secondary programmes are designed to equip students with the skills needed for post-secondary and tertiary education, but vocational programmes can vary in their emphasis on preparation for further studies. Some vocational graduates may be left poorly prepared to complete a tertiary programme. On the other hand, VET graduates may have an advantage over their peers from general education: when pursuing studies within the same field as their vocational qualification and where they might have relevant work experience, they could be particularly well prepared and motivated to succeed in their studies.
Completion rates within the theoretical duration of bachelor’s programmes remain low across most countries and with marked differences by upper secondary programme orientation. On average across countries and economies with available data, 42% of students who entered a bachelor’s programme from a general upper secondary track completed it within the theoretical duration, compared to 39% of those from a vocational upper secondary track. In most systems, students from vocational programmes are less likely to complete on time. The gap is particularly large in France (36% compared to 5%), the French Community of Belgium (28% compared to 14%) and Slovenia (53% compared to 29%), suggesting that students from vocational pathways may face greater difficulties adjusting to the academic demands of tertiary education. Only a small number of countries – Denmark, Israel, Norway and Türkiye) – report completion rates of above 50% for both groups within the expected timeframe (Figure B3.5).
When allowing an additional three years beyond the theoretical duration, overall completion rates improve significantly, although differences by programme orientation persist. The OECD average completion rate rises to 71% for students from general programmes and in many countries and economies, the gap narrows considerably with the extended time window. However, in the French Community of Belgium, completion remains comparatively low even after three additional years, especially among students from vocational pathways (36%). These findings underline the importance of flexible study pathways and adequate academic support, particularly for students whose prior preparation may not fully align with the requirements of tertiary education (Figure B3.5).
One important piece of context is the share of bachelor’s students who have a vocational background. For example, in Lithuania, 47% of students from vocational upper secondary programmes graduate within the theoretical duration of the programme in which they entered. However, these students represent only around 1% of entrants into bachelor’s programmes. A number of factors may explain the low share of VET graduates among bachelor’s students. In some countries, such as Norway, only general upper secondary programmes grant direct access to bachelor’s or equivalent programmes, with few exceptions. In Estonia, upper secondary vocational programmes can grant access to higher education, but admission to bachelor’s programmes often requires results from national examinations, which are mandatory in general education but not in vocational education. As a result, access may be more limited in practice for vocational graduates, depending on the specific admission criteria set by tertiary education institutions. The data also refer to full-time students, so do not fully capture participation patterns in countries where VET graduates commonly pursue bachelor’s programmes part-time (Table B3.5, available on line).
In Austria, in contrast, a large share of bachelor’s level students have a vocational background and their completion rates are higher than for those with general upper secondary education (Table B3.5, available on line). This reflects Austria’s large upper secondary VET system, which offers a strong progression pathway from upper secondary education (year 1-3 of Berufsbildende Höhere Schulen, BHS) into short-cycle tertiary programmes (year 4-5 of BHS) and universities of applied sciences, as well as to other universities albeit to a lesser extent.
Delays in completion also increase the financial burden for both students and public budgets. Each additional year spent in tertiary education entails higher public expenditure, particularly in countries where tuition fees are low and public subsidies are high. Students from vocational tracks are more likely to combine work and study, and to be sensitive to financial pressures, which can increase their risk of dropping out if their studies extend too far beyond the theoretical timeline. Policies that improve guidance, better match students to appropriate tertiary programmes and expand the availability of professionally oriented tertiary options can contribute to more efficient study pathways and greater equity in tertiary education outcomes. To address this, France has introduced quotas for students from vocational tracks in advanced technicians programmes, ensuring better access to tertiary pathways adapted to their needs and increasing their chances of timely completion (Government of France, 2024[12]).
In per cent
For data, see Table B3.5 (on line). For a link to download the data, see Tables and Notes section.
The data in this indicator cover formal education programmes that represent at least the equivalent of one semester (or half of a school/academic year) of full-time study and take place entirely in educational institutions or are delivered as combined school- and work-based programmes.
General education programmes are designed to develop learners’ general knowledge, skills and competencies, often to prepare them for other general or vocational education programmes at the same or a higher education level. General education does not prepare people for employment in a particular occupation, trade, or class of occupation or trade.
Vocational education and training (VET) programmes prepare participants for direct entry into specific occupations without further training. Successful completion of such programmes leads to a vocational or technical qualification that is relevant to the labour market.
Full completion (of ISCED level 3) without direct access to first tertiary programmes at ISCED level 5, 6 or 7: programmes with duration of at least 2 years at ISCED level 3 and that end after at least 11 years cumulative study since the beginning of ISCED level 1. These programmes may be terminal (i.e. not giving direct access to higher levels of education) or give direct access to ISCED level 4 only.
Full completion (of ISCED level 3) with direct access to first tertiary programmes at ISCED level 5, 6 or 7: any programmes that give direct access to first tertiary programmes at ISCED level
Partial level completion refers to programmes representing at least 2 years at ISCED level 3 and a cumulative duration of at least 11 years since the beginning of ISCED level 1, and which are part of a sequence of programmes at ISCED level 3 but are not the last programme in the sequence.
Insufficient for level completion refers to programmes that do not meet the duration requirements for partial or full level completion and therefore result in an educational attainment at the level below the level of the programme. This category includes short, terminal programmes (or a sequence of programmes) with a duration of less than 2 years at ISCED level 3 or which end after less than 11 years of cumulative duration since the beginning of ISCED level 1.
Full-time students in the indicator on gap year or completion rates refer to students who entered the given tertiary programme with full-time status. They may have switched status during their studies.
The theoretical duration of programmes is the regulatory or common-practice time it takes a full-time student to complete a level of education.
Gap year refers to a break, typically lasting up to at least one year, taken by students between the completion of upper secondary education and the start of tertiary education.
Except where otherwise noted, figures are based on headcounts, because it is difficult for some countries to quantify part-time study. Net enrolment rates are calculated by dividing the number of students of a particular age group enrolled in all levels of education by the size of the population of that age group. While enrolment and population figures refer to the same period in most cases, mismatches may occur due to data availability in some countries, resulting in enrolment rates exceeding 100%.
For more information see the OECD Handbook for Internationally Comparative Education Statistics (OECD, 2018[13]) and Education at a Glance 2025 Sources, Methodologies and Technical Notes (https://doi.org/10.1787/fcfaf2d1-en).
Data on enrolment refer to the 2022/23 academic year and are based on the UNESCO-Institute of Statistics (UIS)/OECD/Eurostat data collection on education statistics administered by the OECD in 2024. Data for some countries may have a different reference year. For more information see Education at a Glance 2025 Sources, Methodologies and Technical Notes (https://doi.org/10.1787/fcfaf2d1-en).
The UNESCO Institute of Statistics (UIS) provided data for Argentina, China, India, Indonesia, Saudi Arabia and South Africa.
Data on completion rates refer to the academic year 2022/2023 and were collected through a special survey undertaken in 2024. Data for some countries may have a different reference year, please refer to Education at a Glance 2025 Sources, Methodologies and Technical Notes (https://doi.org/10.1787/fcfaf2d1-en).
References
[7] Gap Year Association (2023), Gap year data and benefits, https://www.gapyearassociation.org/data-benefits/.
[11] Government of Denmark (2016), Now the study progress reform is being relaxed, Ministry of Higher Education and Science, https://ufm.dk/aktuelt/nyheder/2016/nu-bliver-fremdriftsreformen-lempet.
[12] Government of France (2024), Code de l’éducation: Article D612-31, Légifrance, https://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/codes/article_lc/LEGIARTI000049113522.
[8] Government of Luxembourg (2024), Diplom+, une formation après le lycée, Ministère de l’Éducation nationale, de l’Enfance et de la Jeunesse, https://men.public.lu/fr/grands-dossiers/systeme-educatif/diplomplus.html.
[5] Kis, V. (forthcoming), “Progression pathways from vocational education and training”, OECD Education Working Papers, OECD Publishing, Paris.
[3] Kuczera, M. and S. Jeon (2019), Vocational Education and Training in Sweden, OECD Reviews of Vocational Education and Training, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/g2g9fac5-en.
[2] OECD (2023), OECD Economic Surveys: Brazil 2023, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/a2d6acac-en.
[13] OECD (2018), OECD Handbook for Internationally Comparative Education Statistics 2018: Concepts, Standards, Definitions and Classifications, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264304444-en.
[6] OECD (2018), Seven Questions about Apprenticeships: Answers from International Experience, OECD Reviews of Vocational Education and Training, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264306486-en.
[1] OECD/Eurostat/UNESCO Institute for Statistics (2015), ISCED 2011 Operational Manual: Guidelines for Classifying National Education Programmes and Related Qualifications, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264228368-en.
[9] PRONABEC (2025), Beca 18, Programa Nacional de Becas y Crédito Educativo, https://www.pronabec.gob.pe/beca-18/.
[10] Sandsør, A., E. Hovdhaugen and E. Bøckmann (2021), “Age as a merit in admission decisions for higher education”, Higher Education, Vol. 83/2, pp. 379-394, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-020-00662-8.
[4] The Swedish Parliament (2022), “Svensk författningssamling”, https://svenskforfattningssamling.se/sites/default/files/sfs/2022-04/SFS2022-275.pdf (accessed on 3 July 2025).
To download the data for the figures and tables in this chapter, click StatLink above.
To access further data and/or other education indicators, please visit the OECD Data Explorer: https://data-explorer.oecd.org/.
Data cut-off for the print publication 13 June 2025. Please note that the Data Explorer contains the most recent data.
Table B3.1. Enrolment rates of 15-19 year-olds, by level of education (2023)
1. Year of reference differs from 2013: 2014 for Croatia and Estonia.
2. Year of reference differs from 2023: 2022 for Indonesia and Saudi Arabia.
Table B3.2. Profile of upper secondary students (2023)
1. Year of reference differs from 2023: 2022 for Argentina and Saudi Arabia.
2. Year of reference differs from 2013: 2014 for Croatia; and 2015 for South Africa.
Table B3.3. Profile of post-secondary non-tertiary students (2023)
1. Year of reference differs from 2013: 2014 for China; and 2015 for Spain.
2. Year of reference differs from 2023: 2022 for India and Saudi Arabia; and 2021 for China.
a – category not applicable; b – break in series; d – contains data from another column; m – missing data; x – contained in another column (indicated in brackets). For further control codes, see the Reader’s Guide.
For further methodological information, see Education at a Glance 2025: Sources, Methodologies and Technical Notes (https://doi.org/10.1787/fcfaf2d1-en)
Note: For notes on this table and a link to download the data, see Tables and Notes section above.
Percentage of vocational and female students, average age in years, and distribution by type of programme
Note: For notes on this table and a link to download the data, see Tables and Notes section above.
Percentage of vocational and female students, average age in years, and distribution by type of programme
Note: For notes on this table and a link to download the data, see Tables and Notes section above.