This chapter reviews a career development framework explicitly designed to address inequalities in assisting youth in their career development within primary and secondary education and their transitions to work. The framework has been developed by the Canadian province of New Brunswick in collaboration with the OECD and provides a model for use by practitioners and other stakeholders in addressing the role that inequalities can be expected to play in hindering the development of students through the different stages of their schooling.
Challenging Social Inequality Through Career Guidance
Insights from International Data and Practice
Abstract
This paper explores the extent to which social inequalities impact on the transitions of young people into employment and how they shape participation in career development activities undertaken as secondary school students. It assesses the impact of inequalities by analysis of OECD PIAAC data, exploring the transitions of similarly qualified young people into employment, controlling statistically for other factors that typically shape the success of transitions in order to isolate the impact of socio-economic status, gender and migrant status on employment outcomes. In this analysis, the paper also draws on wider studies, including those that explore variations in outcomes linked to ethnicity, sexuality and gender identity. Within this data review, it is possible to identify a range of negative aspects of early labour market experiences that point towards students sharing specific characteristics facing additional barriers in transforming their accumulated human capital into economic success. Across a range of indicators including NEET rates, labour market segmentation, earnings and other forms of job quality, disadvantage can be identified.
Governments turn to career guidance to support students as they make decisions about their career plans and the investment that they make in education and training to achieve their ambitions. Additionally, educational institutions, to varying degrees across countries, provide students with support to navigate their transitions. Through interventions linked to recruitment skills or understanding of how the labour market operates, students are provided with knowledge and skills designed to enable the successful activation of human capital in the labour market.
However, data from PISA 2018 illustrates strong patterns in the engagement of young people in career development activities. Most strikingly, routinely across OECD countries it is low SES students, who can often expect to leave education early and possess weaker family-based resources linked to transitions, who can expect to engage less in career development by the age of 15 than their high SES peers. Patterns of disadvantage are also apparent in relation to gender and migrant status. Both girls and students from migrant backgrounds for example commonly engage less frequently than boys in development activities with employers and people in work (Covacevich et al., 2021[1]).
Such patterns of engagement in career development activities at age 15 are significant because OECD analysis of longitudinal datasets in 10 countries has revealed strong links between teenage participation in activities where they explore and experience potential futures in work and better employment outcomes at the age of 25. Notable within these career readiness indicators are activities that bring students into direct contact with workplaces, employers and people in work. The analysis also shows that teenage attitudes about their futures in work can also be related to better outcomes. Students who actively engage in processes of career exploration and reflection can be expected to be better placed to turn their human capital into employment that pays more and is more personally satisfying (Covacevich et al., 2021[1]).
The analysis in this paper draws links between patterns of disadvantage in engagement in the adult labour market and within teenage career development provision to identify a range of interventions that can be expected to address the power that social inequalities possess in shaping individual transitions. Such responses cluster around four themes which can be seen, to differing degrees, to be relevant to each of the three aspects of inequality reviewed in this paper:
Providing more intensive support
Developing professional capacity and providing dedicated resources
Building social capital with families and the world of work
Developing critical understanding of personal relationships to the labour market
Within this paper, examples of current and recent practice from OECD countries are drawn upon to illustrate how inequalities are being addressed in ways that can be expected to reduce the influence of personal characteristics on employment outcomes. In this, it cannot be expected that enhanced guidance systems will remove all barriers preventing equitable, meritocratic entry into labour markets which provide very different rewards for workers. As noted in this paper, exceptionally strong evidence exists of discrimination within recruitment. Moreover, this paper recognises (if it does not explore) that families and institutions have very different access to financial resources that impact on career development. As Ashton and Ashton illustrate by way of example (2022[2]), UK private fee-paying schools have invested heavily in resources linked to the performing arts in recent years, providing substantial advantages to students seeking professions in these fields.
It is clear that guidance systems in nearly all countries can do better in recognising and addressing inequalities within the design and delivery of guidance systems. The interventions discussed in each of the chapters provide numerous examples of practice that can be employed by countries, but so far the paper has not tried to provide a framework for policy in this area. This final chapter looks at how the Canadian province of New Brunswick has developed a framework for policy and practice which may be inspirational to other countries. The province is actively seeking to address inequalities as a core part of the provincial Career Education Framework which now underpins careers work in all schools.
Over the last generation, many numbers of countries have sought to articulate their expectations of student career development within schooling. In the 1990s, the United States and Canada led innovation in developing career development frameworks to guide the work in its schools (Hooley et al., 2013[3]; NCDA, 2004[4]). In this wake, frameworks were launched in Australia (MCEECDYA, 2010[5]) (updated in 2022 (National Careers Institute, 2022[6]), England (LSIS, 2013[7]) and (CDI, 2021[8]), Ireland (NCGE, 2017[9]), Scotland (Education Scotland, Skills Development Scotland and the Scottish Government, 2015[10]), Norway (Bakke et al., 2021[11]) and Malta (Gravina and Camilleri, 2020[12]). These frameworks are typically developed in consultation with professionals working in the field. They commonly have a strong emphasis on the development of career development skills, typically expressed as competencies (“I know how to…”) that reflect increasingly sophisticated understandings of self and society as students grow older.
Some frameworks go into great detail about their expectations. The first Australian framework for example included 328 competencies, each of which was linked to between 8 and 17 ‘performance indicators’ which school staff were expected to adjust to local contexts (Hooley et al., 2013[3]). The Canadian Blueprint for Life/Word Design included a 391-page overview document (Haché, Redekopp and Jarvis, 2006[13]) alongside a 243-page implementation guide (Haché and Schiffart, 2002[14]). In Canada, over time, and perhaps in part because of the complexity of the framework, use of the framework has fallen into disuse.
A major concern raised with regard to the development of frameworks, such as the Canadian Blueprint, relates to the weakness of research evidence on which frameworks have been built. As Hooley et al. note (2013[3]), initial career development frameworks could not “claim to be based on an empirically demonstrated analysis of the elements that lead an individual to career success.” At their time of production, such data was limited. This situation however has changed in recent years.
5.2.1. About the New Brunswick Career Development Framework
The New Brunswick Career Development Framework was published in 2023 as a collaboration between the New Brunswick Department of Education and Early Childhood Development and the OECD Career Readiness team. The Framework was adopted following extensive consultation and applies to all Anglophone and Francophone schools within the province. It was developed in light of five important developments which have accentuated the importance of career development within education and cast new light on the core characteristics of more effective delivery (New Brunswick Department of Education, 2023[15]). In an accompanying Rationale document, these trends are described as follows:
1. increasing participation rates of young people in upper secondary and tertiary education have led to the need for greater student decision-making about investments in education and training;
2. continued evidence of young people, notably Indigenous students, students with disabilities, students from lower SES backgrounds and students from migrant backgrounds, facing challenges in their transitions into desirable work in spite of growing levels of academic achievement;
3. challenges to effective career decision-making have increased as labour markets have become more dynamic due to the automation and digitalisation of occupations, employment becoming more precarious and demand for skills changes in light of climate change;
4. international practice has developed in the adoption of career development frameworks;
5. substantial new analysis of longitudinal data evidencing better employment outcomes linked to participation in school-age career development has become available (2023[15]).
Structure of the Framework
The New Brunswick Framework draws heavily on the OECD’s 2021 review of longitudinal datasets in 10 countries, including Canada.1 This analysis explored statistical relationships between teenage participation in career development, typically at age 15, and employment outcomes, typically at age 25 (lower rates of young people Not being in Education, Employment or Training [NEET], higher wages and/or greater job satisfaction). It confirmed 11 Career Readiness Indicators of better employment outcomes linked to teenage career development after account was taken of a range of other factors that influence outcomes, including gender, SES, migrant status/ethnicity and education achievement (see Table 5.1). The indicators cluster into three fields: exploring, experiencing and thinking about potential futures in work (Covacevich et al., 2021[1]).
The New Brunswick Framework adopts this same structure. The Framework is arranged around how students explore, experience and think about their potential futures in work (‘three Big Ideas’) and clusters related outcome areas with corresponding career development items describing specific student-centred activities, attitudes and experiences for each of five stages of education along a continuum, beginning with Early Childhood Education and ending with Grade 12:
Early Childhood Education (ages 2 to 5)
Grades K-2: Primary Block (ages 5 to 8)
Grades 3-5: Elementary Block (ages 8 to 11)
Grades 6-8: Middle Block (ages 11 to 14)
Grades 9-12: High School Block (ages 14-18)
5.3.1. Providing more intense support
While the Framework does not explicitly discuss matters of student and school funding, it does point strongly towards the need for targeted provision that will build on a universal shared entitlement to address additional barriers faced by students with shared characteristics. Indeed, the framework is located within a wider approach to educational development that adopts Universal Design for Learning principles which assume that the needs of individual learners will differ and variation in practice is likely to be required to ensure equitable outcomes for learners (New Brunswick Education and Early Child Development[16])
Ensuring a firm foundation of career guidance for all students
The Framework integrates the OECD career readiness indicators to ensure that universal foundational provision incorporates those aspects of guidance that can be most confidently expected to provide students with effective career development. As noted above, data from PISA 2018 highlights the fact that many students fail to engage in important career development activities by the age of 15. Disadvantage is apparent with regard to each of three primary aspects of inequality considered within this paper, most notably in relation to student socio-economic status (SES). The New Brunswick Framework articulates a clear expectation that all students will engage in a firm foundation of guidance and so provides a mechanism for measuring actual participation levels by student characteristics.
In keeping with the approaches behind the development of the OECD career readiness indicators, the New Brunswick Framework explicitly aims to encourage forms of the human, social and cultural capital that shape access to employment opportunities (Brown, Hooley and Wond, 2020[17]; Jones, Mann and Morris, 2016[18]; Tomlinson et al., 2022[19]; 2013[20]). In the development of human capital, students are encouraged from an early age to reflect on the relationship between their choices and investments in their education and progression towards parts of the labour market which they perceive to be more fulfilling. More than that, students are encouraged and supported to consider gaining first-hand experience of work through career-connected learning, part-time working and volunteering. Importantly, the framework encourages them to reflect upon the insights and skills developed in work and how they may relate to their own futures.
Workplace experiences provide ample opportunity for the development of social capital, both in terms of access to trusted information about the operation of the labour market, its opportunities and challenges and with regard to practical support such as recommendations, references and offers of employment after the completion of secondary education. Combined with workplace experience, the Framework assumes that students will come into regular contact with people in work through workplace visits, but also through other means (such as career talks and job fairs) where students have opportunity initially to hear from and then to engage with people in work about their jobs and careers.
Within the Framework, a strong focus is on encouraging students to discuss and reflect what they have learned from their experiences. Here opportunity exists to develop cultural capital, being the understanding of how different parts of the labour market operate, their cultures and the vocational identities which they most value. Through this process, young people can gain confidence in their sense of agency through education and towards careers of interest (Jones, Mann and Morris, 2016[18]; Stanley and Mann, 2014[21]).
5.3.2. Developing professional capacity and providing dedicated resources
In Canada at a national level, the Council of Ministers of Education have adopted a framework for student transitions based on 11 benchmarks for policies, programmes and implementation strategies that include an explicit recognition of the need for provinces to address social inequalities. Benchmark 4 of the framework states:
Policy and programming recognise, and are tailored to, the diverse and specific needs of students: Services and programming to support transitions are tailored to individual student needs and interests. Student diversity is considered, programs are respectful of cultural perspectives (e.g., the Indigenization of curriculum), address attitudinal barriers that implicitly or explicitly limit career choice (e.g., young women’s entry into STEM careers). Wraparound supports (e.g., supports that are community-based, culturally relevant, individualized, strength-based, and family-centered) are made available to disadvantaged/marginalised groups (e.g., Indigenous youth, immigrant youth, low-income students, and learners with a disability). Career-education programming actively seeks to challenge stereotypes and raise aspirations among disadvantaged and under-represented groups (CMEC, 2017[22]).
The New Brunswick Career Education Framework aligns with this federal approach and sits within a family of provincial policies which also explicitly recognise that discrete groups of students should anticipate greater levels of support. The New Brunswick Framework includes a number of items that prompt guidance counsellors, teaching staff, students and their families to consider whether individual students may be in need of additional support. In this, the province draws upon an adaptation of a Response to Intervention model (McIntosh et al., 2011[23]) used widely across educational provision to identify students in greater academic need. The model is based upon three categories of intervention: interventions aimed at all students (Tier 1), interventions aimed at some students in small groups, for example a group working on the development of social and emotional competencies (Tier 2), and interventions aimed at a few students delivered on an individual basis, perhaps through one-to-one counselling (Tier 3).
In this, the New Brunswick model follows in the steps of the Irish School Guidance Framework (NCGE, 2017[9]) which uses the same approach to highlight the need for stronger interventions for certain groups of students primarily linked to age (i.e. key transition points) and psychological well-being. As discussed below, the New Brunswick model however goes further to explicitly address structural inequalities within the Framework, enabling and encouraging access to enhanced provision. A specific outcome area of the Framework addresses potential need in relation to named potential barriers.
In order to facilitate Tier 2 and 3 support for students, New Brunswick is developing a range of resources within its Hopeful Transitions programme (New Brunswick Education and Early Childhood Development[24]). Hopeful Transitions represents an approach to guidance that explicitly aims to identify and interrupt inequities to provide greater opportunity and agency for all. It recognises that students can be marginalised for multiple reasons and that their disadvantages (such as language, ethnicity, gender identity, socio-economic background, mental health, physical challenges) may be hidden. Consequently, the educational community is strongly encouraged and enabled to avoid a one-size-fits-all approach and recognise that transition planning is as unique to each learner as it is student-centred. Hopeful Transitions includes an online tool (currently in development) that supports the facilitation of transition planning for each learner across grades 6-12 based on the Response to Intervention model through resources, lessons, activities, interventions, checklists, and guides.
In addition to including a dedicated outcome area related to student understanding of additional supports available to help in the achievement of preferred career pathways, the New Brunswick Career Education Framework includes a number of other items that link directly to the barriers identified in quantitative analysis of early labour market outcomes and career development reviewed earlier in this paper linked to student socio-economic status (SES), gender and migrant background/ethnicity.
For example, New Brunswick students can expect considerable practical support as they prepare to enter the labour market and attempt to exchange accumulated knowledge and skills for desirable paid employment. Students are required to complete and discuss a detailed Career Life Plan with their school and family, identifying ‘specific resources and supports needed for post-secondary life’ (Grades 9-12). They are provided moreover with opportunities to develop the knowledge and skills needed to access work, including the creation of a resumé and cover letter, participation in a real or mock job interview and opportunity to practice networking skills.
5.3.3. Building social capital with families and the World of Work
The nurturing and recognition of social capital is also built into the New Brunswick Framework. As early as Grades K-2 for example, it is anticipated that students ‘can name people whom I can count on when I need help.’ From this age onwards, it is expected that students will seek out, connect with and understand the value of people who can provide practical support, whether in terms of accessing information and experiences or providing encouragement and emotional support.
Leveraging institutional social capital
The New Brunswick Framework assumes that school counsellors will play an important role in student career development. From the ages of 5 to 8, it is expected that students will ‘have heard from a school counsellor about future career pathways’ and that counsellors will help older students to plan effectively for their futures (Grades 6-12). While in some school systems it will be taken for granted that students interact with counsellors, this is not always the case. PISA 2018 shows that on average across 18 OECD countries for which data are available only 57% of students by the age of 15 had spoken to a career advisor whether in or out of school. The New Brunswick Framework anticipates that student career development is not just the responsibility of the career guidance practitioner, but that the wider school community will provide resources of value to individual students. Students are expected to talk with school staff about the world of work (from Grades K-2) with discussions becoming more focused and practical over time. In such a way, the Framework foregrounds the school as a resource for students who may lack family and community-based support of relevance to individual career development and transition.
Building social capital through career-connected learning
The role of the school is particularly important in enabling connections between students and people in work. In New Brunswick, career-connected learning provides students from Grades K-2 with the opportunity to engage in ‘real-world authentic experiences’ such as visiting workplaces and (from Grades 6-8) participating in experiential learning opportunities. Beginning in Grades 3-5, it is expected that students will have heard from a ‘diverse range of people (including people underrepresented in their career pathway) about different post-secondary pathways’. By Grades 9-12, students are expected to ‘have been able to speak with people working in careers that I am most interested in to learn more about my options in pursuing my preferred career pathway.’ Through such experiences, it is anticipated that students will by Grades 6-8 have ‘made a connection with someone that I can learn from that shares my interests/passions (i.e. a respected knowledge holder’). In this way, New Brunswick schools challenge the serendipity of family-based social networks and support the building of students’ social capital through educational institutions in ways that explicitly inform and enable successful transitions (Jones et al., 2018[25]).
Valuing family and community resources
While the primary institution referenced in the New Brunswick framework is the school, the document also highlights the importance of family. Students are expected to have talked to their families about their potential futures in work from a young age, initially simply discussing the variety of career pathways (Grades K-2), moving onto specific career pathways of interest (Grades 3-5) and then plans for the future and how they will be achieved (Grades 6-12). Such an expectation, within a province with a large Indigenous population, explicitly extends beyond immediate family relations to include elders within the community. The Framework also encourages students to reflect on their roles within the family as they contemplate their future plans. From Grades 3-5, the Framework expects students to learn how engaging in and contributing to family activities can be part of preparing for future career pathways, notably by helping students to reflect upon their interests and passions and to draw upon family-based experience as they prepare for their transitions out of secondary education.
5.3.4. Developing critical understanding of personal relationships to the labour market
Beginning young
Studies show that children develop career-related assumptions from a young age, linked notably to gender and SES, strongly shaping young people’s perceptions of what is possible for them to consider in terms of career ambition (Chambers et al., 2018[26]; Gottfredson, 2005[27]; OECD, 2021[28]). In relation, longitudinal data show that how young people think about their futures in work is positively associated with better employment outcomes (Covacevich et al., 2021[1]) Consequently, while the New Brunswick framework begins in Early Childhood Education, at this stage the emphasis is not on career development per se. Rather, it focuses on the underlying competencies that enable a sense of curiosity, social engagement and decision-making that will ultimately shape career development. From Grades K-2 (ages 5 to 8), expectations are articulated primarily in terms of supporting a growing curiosity about the adult world of work and its relation to education. Career development items include for example:
I can tell you about some of the different roles that adults do at work, at home, and in my community, and whether I would like to do them
I can tell you how learning is important for the future
I can identify skills that will be helpful in life and work
I have discussed problems that different careers help to solve
I can imagine how career pathways may change in the future
I understand that people work in different ways (e.g. permanent/full-time, seasonal, self-employment, on call, temporary employment
I have learned how to access and use digital technologies to explore career pathways
I have learned that there are different types of post-secondary education/training/community opportunities
As noted elsewhere in this chapter, the framework also includes expectations that students at this age will begin their first-hand exploration of the working world through a ‘real-world authentic experience (e.g. visiting a workplace’). By beginning such career exploration at a young age, opportunity exists to help all students to extend their conceptions of what might be thinkable for themselves in terms of future employment while actively enabling them to see links between how they engage in education with access to imagined futures.
Developing critical perspectives on education-to-work transitions
In providing students with a realistic understanding of the labour market, the Framework is designed moreover to underpin psychological resiliency within transitions (Koivisto, Vuori and Nykyri, 2007[29]) In the Framework’s supporting rationale document, attention is drawn to growing concern over poor mental health among young people which both contributes to poor outcomes and can be a result of them (New Brunswick Department of Education, 2023[15]). Drawing on conceptions of critical consciousness, the framework anticipates that students will leave education and go into the labour market with their eyes open to its challenges as well as its opportunities, particularly with regard to social inequalities and so enabling individual students to become better equipped to deal with its economic and psychological challenges (Diemer, 2009[30])
Students for example are expected to learn about how the structure of labour market can work against good transitions for many young people in spite of their own best intentions:
I have learned why it might be harder for some people to secure their desired careers (Grades 6-8)
I can explain why some people might face additional barriers in securing their desired career pathways (Grades 9-12)
In addition, students are expected to be critical in their understanding of how the operation of the labour market influences individual experiences, but also to identify resources that can be of value to smoother transitions. These competencies encourage learners to think about the diversity of experiences that people have in the labour market and open the door for non-normative conceptions of success. They also encourage learners to think beyond individual approaches to career development and consider the possibility of changing their career environment:
I have learned that not everybody works in a full-time permanent job and that people are working in different ways because they want to or because they have no choice (Grandes 6-8)
I have learned that there are protections that exist to ensure workplaces are free from discrimination (Grades 6-8)
I have shared my ideas on how inequities may be solved (Grades 6-8)
I can identify how individual and collective actions can help create a fairer working world (including the role of labour unions) (Grades 9-12)
I have learned about the legislative protections that exist to ensure employment processes (recruitment, promotion, assignment, and termination) are free from discrimination (Grade 9-12)
Raising and broadening aspirations
An important responsibility of the school as articulated in the framework is to enable students to engage with the wider community in the context of career exploration. From Grades K-2, students are encouraged to engage people around them in conversations about the world of work and their own plans, so building their access to sources of new and trusted information about the world of work. They are also expected from this early age to have ‘visited a location outside of my school and have learned what activities people do there’ and to have visited a workplace. As students grow older, they are expected to have visited multiple worksites and to have actively reflected on whether the activities they observe are of personal interest. Importantly, the framework requires schools to enable students to hear from ‘a diverse range of people’ in work and post-secondary education and training. Students are also expected to reflect on the range of pathways open to them, including self-employment and work-integrated learning opportunities that can lead to employment in the skilled trades. Through such interactions, students can be expected to raise and broaden their interests in future careers (Rehill, Kashefpakdel and Mann, 2017[31]; Rehill, Kashefpakdel and Mann, 2017[32]; OECD, 2023[33]) with benefits likely to be greatest for low SES students (Mann, Percy and Kashefpakdel, 2018[34]).
Challenging the internalisation of stereotypes
Stereotypical thinking about the sorts of employment that are appropriate for different types of people to undertake serves to restrict the opportunities open to young people and begins very young (Chambers et al., 2018[26]). Consequently, children in New Brunswick are expected to begin developing the ‘capacity to ask critical questions in relation to stereotypes represented in popular culture’ from Early Childhood. The Framework encourages students to discuss and ask critical questions about why certain groups are underrepresented in different career pathways. New Brunswick expects students from Grades 3-5 to participate in career events where they hear from people underrepresented in their career pathway. Importantly, the document expects students by Grade 9-12 to ‘have had a chance to speak with people like me who are underrepresented in their profession about their experiences.’ In such a way, students are given the opportunity to explore whether workplaces may be hostile to someone of their characteristics and how barriers to progression can be overcome.
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← 1. In Canada, researchers at the University of Quebec reviewed the Youth in Transition Survey which initially collected data from young people at age 15 in 2000 and then collected data on their outcomes (having taken into account control variables) at ages 25 and 30 (Covacevich et al., 2021[1])