Africa's Development Dynamics 2025

5. Infrastructure and productive transformation in East Africa

Abstract

This chapter addresses how infrastructure contributes to productive transformation in East Africa (Comoros, Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Madagascar, Mauritius, Rwanda, Seychelles, Somalia, South Sudan, Sudan, Tanzania and Uganda). It begins by assessing the infrastructure investment need and current financing in the region and its countries. The chapter then analyses the degree to which regional and national infrastructure plans are co-ordinated and contribute to productive transformation. Finally, it examines the region’s transport corridors, public‑private partnership units and skills development programmes.

In brief

East Africa’s infrastructure investment need is the largest of all African regions. To close the gap with their peer countries in other world regions, East African countries require an investment of USD 42 billion per year until 2040, equivalent to 8.6% of the region’s gross domestic product (GDP) in 2024. Such an investment would increase East Africa’s GDP growth by 6.0 percentage points.

Currently, countries in the region have varying access to financing for infrastructure. Some East African governments spend far more on infrastructure than the African average (Comoros at 7% of GDP, Tanzania at 5% and Uganda at 4.2%). Yet, others allocate significantly more funds to debt servicing than to infrastructure (Madagascar 2.6 times more, Kenya 3.6 times more and Somalia 24.4 times more). Official development finance (ODF) and private participation in infrastructure (PPI) are larger in East Africa than in most other African regions. However, these funds are distributed unevenly across countries, with Kenya attracting 26% and 30% of the regional totals in ODF and PPI, respectively.

More strategic regional co-ordination of policies could vastly improve East Africa’s infrastructure development:

• Most East African countries have pertinent national-level or sector-specific infrastructure plans, but regional co-ordination through the Regional Infrastructure Master Plan of the Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD) is hampered by financing and capacity shortages.

• East Africa’s development corridors have begun to achieve tangible regional integration outcomes. Greater harmonisation of complementary national policies (especially in trade) and adequate funding for maintenance could boost their effectiveness. Major funders, such as the African Development Bank (AfDB) and the European Union (EU), are vital partners for most corridors in the region.

• Major skills development programmes could more directly target regional priorities, covering transport in addition to energy and the digital sector.

East Africa regional profile

Figure 5.1. Annual infrastructure investment needed for East Africa to achieve the productive transformation levels of benchmark countries by 2040

Note: GDP = gross domestic product. Infrastructure investment needs refer to modelled estimates of the total expenditures required to build new infrastructure to match the infrastructure levels of peer countries that perform well in productive transformation while also maintaining existing infrastructure. See Annex 1.A for details.

Source: Data sources for the investment needs estimations are listed in Annex 1.A.

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Figure 5.2. Average physical infrastructure stocks and access across selected East African countries compared to Africa

Note: Transport = kilometres (km) of paved roads and railways per 100 km² of non-desert land area. Digital = per cent of the population aged 15+ with Internet access. Energy = installed energy capacity as watt per capita. Water = per cent of the population with access to drinking water. For transport and energy stocks, the averages for East Africa and Africa are population-weighted. For transport and energy stocks, values for East Africa and Africa reflect aggregated totals relative to population or area, depending on the indicator. For digital and water access, the values for East Africa and Africa represent unweighted averages of country values. The selected countries are presented based on data availability.

Source: Transport and energy indicators’ sources are reported in Annex 1.A. Water: Drinking water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) estimates, from UNICEF (2024[1]), Drinking water, sanitation and hygiene in households by country, 2000-2022 (database), https://data.unicef.org/topic/water-and-sanitation/drinking-water/; Digital: from Gallup (2020[2]), Gallup World Poll 2020 (database), https://www.gallup.com/analytics/213617/gallup-analytics.aspx.

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East Africa has a higher infrastructure investment need than any other African region

East African countries require significant investments in infrastructure to support productive transformation. With the exception of Mauritius and Seychelles, East African countries have a lower stock of energy infrastructure than the African average, and the region ranks slightly below the African average for transport, digital and water infrastructure. Mauritius (an upper middle-income country) and Seychelles (a high-income country) have the highest levels of physical stock and access for any type of infrastructure in the region, while least-developed East African countries such as Madagascar and Somalia rank lowest (Figure 5.2). To close the gap with their peer countries that have high levels of productive transformation in other world regions (Annex 1.A), East Africa’s investment need amounts to around USD 42 billion per year until 2040, equivalent to 8.6% of the region’s GDP in 2024 (Figure 5.1; Annex 1.A). This is the highest value of all African regions and 3 percentage points higher than the average value for Africa (5.6%). The large investment need is driven by the four largest economies, which together account for 92% of the region’s total investment need (Ethiopia 32%, Tanzania 27%, Sudan 18% and Kenya 15%). Investing USD 42 billion per year until 2040 is estimated to increase the region’s annual long-term GDP growth by 6.0 percentage points (see Chapter 1).

Some East African governments spend far more on infrastructure than the African average, while others are hamstrung by sovereign debt obligations. East Africa has the second highest government spending on infrastructure of the five African regions (1.9% of GDP), below Southern Africa (2.4%) but significantly above North Africa (1.2%) and Central Africa (1.1%). The relatively high-value results from individual countries’ budgetary emphasis on infrastructure, including Comoros (7% of its GDP), Tanzania (5%) and Uganda (4.2%). Ethiopia’s government, in line with its explicit emphasis on infrastructure-led development (Chipanda, 2025[3]), spent more on infrastructure (2.5% of GDP) than the African average (1.8%) in 2019-20; however, this value is far below the country’s peak of 4.5% in 2013.1 Madagascar, Kenya and Somalia spend 2.6, 3.6 and 24.4 times more, respectively, on debt servicing than on infrastructure (Figure 5.3).

Figure 5.3. Government spending in infrastructure and debt servicing in East Africa

Note: GDP = gross domestic product. The indicator in Panel B is calculated based on an average of available data over the past five years for public infrastructure spending (2019-20) and debt servicing (2019-23). Median values are displayed for Africa and East Africa in Panel B to account for extreme cases. The selected countries are presented based on data availability.

Source: Authors’ calculations based on ICA (2022[4]), Infrastructure Financing Trends in Africa 2019-2020, and World Bank (2024[5]), International Debt Statistics (database), https://www.worldbank.org/en/programs/debt-statistics/ids.

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Official development finance and private participation in infrastructure are larger in East Africa than in most African regions (largely driven by Kenya), while the share of official development assistance that considers gender equality objectives has remained stagnant since 2014. From 2019 to 2023, the region received USD 18.4 billion in official development finance allocated to infrastructure, compared to USD 4.9 billion in private participation in infrastructure. East Africa had 75 large infrastructure projects with private investors between 2010 and 2023, mainly in energy (46 projects), digital (14) and transport (13). An investment spree in digital infrastructure projects with private participation in 2023 has elevated East Africa to the region with the most projects and largest investment volume (USD 1.9 billion) in this sector (Figure 5.4). In contrast, official development finance (ODF) has put greater emphasis on transport and storage, as well as on water supply and sanitation (60% of total ODF) (Figure 5.5). With an average of USD 963 million per year in official development finance, Kenya accounts for 26% of the region’s total. The investment value of private participation in infrastructure also centres on Kenya, attaining 30% of the regional total, while the number of projects is more evenly spread across East Africa’s larger, market-oriented economies (22 projects out of 75 for Kenya, 13 for Uganda, 8 for Rwanda and 8 for Tanzania). The percentage of official development assistance that incorporates gender equality objectives rose significantly from 2010-13 (19%) to 2014-18 (32%) but has remained stagnant in 2019-23 (32%).2

Figure 5.4. Infrastructure investments with private participation in East Africa, 2013-23

Note: RHS = right-hand side. The selected countries are presented based on data availability.

Source: World Bank (2024[6]), Private Participation in Infrastructure (database), https://ppi.worldbank.org/en/ppi.

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Figure 5.5. Official development finance disbursements targeting infrastructure in East Africa, 2019-23

Note: RHS = right-hand scale. Official development finance disbursements include official development assistance (ODA) and other official financial flows that do not meet the conditions for eligibility as ODA (either because they are not primarily aimed at development, or because they have a grant element of less than 25%). No data available for Seychelles.

Source: OECD (2025[7]), Creditor Reporting System (database), https://www.oecd.org/en/data/datasets/development-finance-statistics-data-on-flows-to-developing-countries.html.

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Regional co-ordination could make East Africa’s infrastructure policies more effective

Most East African countries have pertinent infrastructure plans, while regional co‑ordination is limited

East African countries typically have at least one infrastructure-related plan that explicitly targets objectives related to productive transformation. Seychelles, Somalia and South Sudan have adopted broad-based infrastructure plans. While Seychelles uses its plan to emphasise sectors that are strategic for a small island country (air transport and tourism), Somalia and South Sudan focus on broad-based access goals across all types of infrastructure. In contrast, Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda and Tanzania have chosen sector-specific plans to target specific challenges in their transport, digital and energy sectors. Uganda has incorporated infrastructure within its national development strategy. Certain national strategies explicitly link with cross-border and regional integration goals. This is the case for Kenya (for energy markets), Tanzania (for regional corridors or the regional standardisation of digital infrastructure) and South Sudan (for railway connections).

As their capacities vary, East African countries have different targets to support the development and implementation of their infrastructure-related plans. Some focus on increased private participation via public-private partnerships, while others seek to involve multilateral and development partners (i.e. Seychelles and South Sudan) (AfDB, 2013[8]; AfDB, 2015[9]). Several plans (e.g. those of Kenya and Rwanda) explicitly emphasise the importance of climate mitigation and gender-sensitive infrastructure development (MMEIPA, 2025[10]; MININFRA, 2021[11]) (Table 5.1; Chapter 1).

The IGAD Regional Infrastructure Master Plan (IRIMP) pursues regional co-ordination but is hampered by several challenges. By 2050, the IRIMP aims to create an integrated, region-wide transport, energy and digital infrastructure network. The plan specifically focuses on transitioning nine of East Africa’s transport corridors into development corridors to more holistically target job creation, climate resilience and gender equality (see Chapter 2; Table 5.1). However, IRIMP has faced challenges such as the heterogeneity of IGAD member states’ energy markets, difficulties in securing financing given some member states’ high sovereign debt levels, and limited private sector investment due to political and macroeconomic uncertainty. The plan’s effective implementation depends on IGAD’s mandate to prioritise projects across the region; it could be supported through harmonised monitoring of and reporting on the performance of corridors (see Chapter 2).

Table 5.1. Selected infrastructure development plans and their objectives related to productive transformation in East Africa

Type of plan	Countries (implementing entity)	Plan	Objectives related to productive transformation
Regional	Djibouti, Eritrea Ethiopia, Kenya, Somalia, South Sudan, Sudan, Uganda	IGAD Regional Infrastructure Master Plan (2020-50)	Develop a strategic regional framework for development in transport (including nine corridors), energy, digital and water infrastructure Upgrade transport corridors into development corridors to attract foreign direct investment and to facilitate regional and global value chains and the movement of people Increase climate resilience and the inclusion of women and youth Harmonise policies and regulations related to integrated transport, communications, energy systems and resource management to operationalise the African Continental Free Trade Area
National – sectoral	Ethiopia (Ministry of Transport and Logistics)	Transport Master Plan (2022-52)	Support key economic sectors (e.g. agriculture, tourism and mining) through reduced transport costs and better passenger and freight transport Strengthen regional integration with IGAD countries and regional trade, in particular through development corridors and for regional value chains (e.g. raw materials, manufacturing) Improve rural-urban linkages, reduce poverty and boost agricultural production
	Kenya (Ministry of Energy and Petroleum)	National Energy Policy 2025-2034	Promote the power market and ensure energy security by strengthening regional integration and the modernisation of energy infrastructure Diversify the energy mix through the development of renewable and non-renewable energy sources, reducing reliance on imports (e.g. coal) Mitigate climate change and foster gender mainstreaming into the energy sector
	Rwanda (Ministry of Infrastructure)	National Transport Policy and Strategy for Rwanda (2021)	Support economic activities and promote trade by reducing transport costs for rail, roads and inland waterways Support major rail corridors (Northern and Central Corridors) for regional integration Enhance transport infrastructure specifically in support of rural agriculture (e.g. ropeways along hillsides) Increase gender mainstreaming in transport and mitigate climate change
	Tanzania (Ministry of Information, Communication and Information Technology and National ICT Technical and Steering Committees)	National ICT Policy (2023)	Foster the Fourth Industrial Revolution and provide universal access to reliable, affordable digital infrastructure, including for rural areas Create job and entrepreneurial opportunities via digital innovation, especially for youth Strengthen integration to regional and global markets by aligning digital infrastructure and telecom services with international, regional and national requirements
National – infrastructure	Seychelles (High-Level Committee in national government, in collaboration with AfDB)	Infrastructure Action Plan	Support the fisheries and tourism as the two pillars of Seychelles’ economy Enhance maritime and air transports to strengthen regional integration and trade (including the rehabilitation and refurbishment of Seychelles International Airport Terminal) Increase energy capacity by modernising existing and building new energy infrastructure (including new power stations in Mahé and Praslin)
	Somalia (Inter-Ministerial Infrastructure Coordination Mechanism)	National Infrastructure Strategy (SNIS) 2019-2063	Improve universal access to essential services such as energy, water and telecommunications, including irrigation for agricultural production Support regional integration and trade with IGAD countries and countries from the Horn of Africa through transport corridors (railways, air, roads) Promote job creation
	South Sudan (national government in collaboration with AfDB)	Infrastructure Action Plan	Strengthen regional integration by enhancing road and rail networks (including the expansion of the railway linking South Sudan to Kenya and Uganda) Ensure energy and water access, in particular for agriculture Develop hydropower and petroleum resources and seek opportunities for exporting energy Develop digital infrastructures and regional backbone network links
National – within the national development plan	Uganda (Office of the Prime Minister, National Planning Authority, and Ministry of Finance, Planning, and Economic Development)	National Development Plan IV (2025/26 -2029/30) (includes development programmes for the transport, energy and digital sectors)	Provide access to affordable and reliable digital infrastructure and increase national broadband coverage from 55% in 2023/24 to 70% by 2029-30, with a minimum speed of eight megabits per second Ensure energy supply and diversification (solar, hydropower, nuclear) and support strategic sectors such as agriculture, mining and tourism Develop an efficient multi-modal transport network to reduce transport costs and harness untapped opportunities (e.g. tourism with air transport)

Note: Eritrea’s membership in IGAD is currently suspended. IGAD = Intergovernmental Authority on Development. ICT = information and communication technologies.

Source: IGAD Secretariat (2022[12]); governments of Ethiopia (2022[13]), Kenya (2025[10]), Rwanda (2021[11]), Seychelles (2015[9]), Somalia (2018[14]), South Sudan (2013[8]), Tanzania (2023[15]) and Uganda (2024[16]).

National public-private partnership units tend to have qualified personnel, and development partners lead the major skills programmes

Several East African countries have public-private partnership infrastructure units (PPP units) with relatively high employee capacity, according to the Benchmarking Infrastructure Development survey by the World Bank (2025[17]) (see Chapter 2). For instance, four out of six countries for which data are available (Djibouti, Ethiopia, Madagascar and Mauritius) require that staff both meet sufficient or detailed qualifications and establish training measures for personnel.

Major skills development programmes in East Africa emphasise specific skills in the energy and digital sectors. East Africa has a developed network of technical and vocational education and training (TVET) and skills providers engaged in infrastructure around emerging technical (green and digital) and transferable (managerial and entrepreneurial) skills. High-profile programmes that operate across several East African countries are typically driven by development partners, such as the World Bank and the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) (Table 5.2). Although 29% of all global project preparation funds are active in Africa, few offer technical assistance beyond the conceptualisation phase (IGAD Secretariat, 2022[12]).

Table 5.2. Selected skills and capacity development programmes in infrastructure in East Africa

Programme	Main features	Partners	Types of skills promoted
East Africa Skills for Transformation and Regional Integration (EASTRIP) Project (Ethiopia, Kenya and Tanzania)	Offers training for technicians in transport, energy, and information and communications technology (as well as manufacturing, tourism and agriculture) Has developed some 370 accredited or industry-certified programmes since 2018 Supports 16 Regional Flagship TVET Institutes, which feature industry advisory boards and monitor graduate employment data	TVET Centres of Excellence across the region and the World Bank	Technical; digital
Energy Regulation Centre of Excellence (ERCE) (regional, based in Tanzania)	Seeks to build a pool of experts in the East African Community to develop integrated, competitive conventional and renewable energy markets	Regional institutions, research centres and development partners	Technical; soft; managerial
Build4Skills project (Kenya, Senegal and South Africa)	Uses construction sites mainly financed by MDBs to provide work-based training to TVET students Aims at integrating traineeships as a requirement in tendering documents for infrastructure projects of MDBs	GIZ-led, in co‑operation with MDBs, and national ministries of education	Technical; green; soft (work-readiness training, leadership and self-confidence, occupational health and safety)
Solar Hands-on training and International Network of Exchange (SHINE) (Ghana, Nigeria and Uganda) (2023-26)	Focuses on solar panel technology through three pillars: research (e.g. skill supply/demand); curricula development (e.g. action plans of each of the African TVET schools) and capacity building Develops market-oriented skills through training, webinars and short stays in the three African host countries, thus gaining local knowledge	European-African consortium, including TVET and private actors, co-funded by the EU	Technical; green; digital; entrepreneurial
Miundo Misingi Hub (Kenya)	Offers training in infrastructure project finance and public-private partnerships Partners with the Institute for Sustainable Infrastructure for projects to obtain the Envision accreditation and sustainability rating	Private and public stakeholders	Technical; green

Note: TVET = technical and vocational education and training. MDB = multilateral development bank.

Source: Build4Skills (2022[18]), EFTP et banques multilatérales de développement : Kenya, Mongolie, Pakistan, Sénégal, Afrique du Sud; EASTRIP (2025[19]), “East Africa Skills for Transformation and Regional Integration Project”; ERCE (2025[20]), “Advancing energy regulation in Africa”; SHINE (2025[21]), “About the project”; Miundo Misingi (2025[22]), “About Miundo Misingi Hub”.

East Africa’s development corridors can widen their scope beyond transport and benefit from harmonised policies

Most of East Africa’s corridors focus on transport, and their effectiveness hinges on better policy harmonisation and greater political stability. East African corridors target similar productive transformation objectives, such as regional integration, trade facilitation through the reduction of transport costs and economic diversification. Beyond such broad goals, individual corridors differ in their focus (e.g. urban growth, logistics efficiency, environmental sustainability or digital connectivity). In addition to sector-specific private sector participation, major funders, such as the AfDB and the EU, are vital partners for most corridors and other transnational infrastructure projects in the region. Lessons from corridor implementations include the importance of harmonised policy frameworks and institutional capacity (especially for trade policies), the consideration of ongoing maintenance, and (for the Mombasa-Kisangani and Madagascar-Indian Ocean corridors) the necessity of political stability3 (Table 5.3). Despite these contextual challenges, several transport corridors have had tangible positive impacts, including reductions in travel time and logistics costs, improved income levels, and increased trade volumes.

Household incomes in the Central Corridor’s project area have risen by 20%, and transport costs have dropped by 65% (AfDB, 2023[23]).

Launched in early 2025, the Zambia-Tanzania-Kenya Power Interconnector Project offers a link between the Southern African Power Pool and the Eastern African Power Pool to improve the region’s energy security and reduce Zambia’s reliance on hydropower. As an EU Global Gateway flagship project, it covers both the development of infrastructure and institutional capacity building (Directorate-General for International Partnerships, 2025[24]).

Table 5.3. Selected transport and development corridors in East Africa

Type of corridor	Envisioned impacts on productive transformation and regional integration	Lessons and impacts	Examples of corridors	Participating countries	Partners
Transport	Enhance connectivity between countries (especially landlocked countries and ports) Promote regional trade and economic integration; reduce transport costs and time Encourage economic diversification Focus on urban growth and development Support environmental sustainability (e.g. green infrastructure)	Importance of co‑ordinated regional planning and policy harmonisation (e.g. trade) Need for maintenance Complementary capacity building for trade facilitation Political stability as a necessary condition Multimodal integration of transport Need for harmonisation of transportation standards	Dar es Salaam-Nairobi-Addis Ababa-Berbera/Djibouti Corridor (road, rail, logistic hubs)	Djibouti, Ethiopia, Kenya, Somalia, Tanzania	National governments, AfDB, World Bank, Cities Alliance, EU, private infrastructure investors
			Mombasa-Kisangani Corridor (road, rail, trade facilitation)	DR Congo, Kenya, Rwanda, Uganda	National governments, AfDB, TradeMark East Africa, EU, AFD, logistics and transport companies
			Central Corridor (port, road, rail, inland container terminals)	Burundi, DR Congo, Rwanda, Tanzania, Uganda	National governments, AfDB, EU, TradeMark East Africa, JICA, GIZ, AUDA-NEPAD, private infrastructure investors
			Cairo-Khartoum-Juba-Kampala Corridor (road, rail, river transport)	Egypt, South Sudan, Sudan, Uganda	National governments, AfDB, EU, NEPAD-IPPF, AUDA-NEPAD, IGAD
			Northern Corridor (road, rail, trade facilitation)	Burundi, DR Congo, Kenya, Rwanda, Uganda	National governments AfDB, TradeMark East Africa, EU, UNEP, logistics and transport companies
Transport; development	Strengthen connectivity and trade Promote regional economic integration	Political stability as a necessary condition Importance of co‑ordinated regional planning and policy harmonisation	Madagascar-Indian Ocean Corridor (ports and airports; energy and digital connectivity)	Comoros, France (Réunion), Madagascar, Mauritius, Seychelles	National governments, Indian Ocean Commission, AU, EU, private infrastructure investors

Note: DR Congo = Democratic Republic of the Congo. AfDB = African Development Bank. EU = European Union. AFD = Agence Française de Développement. JICA = Japan International Cooperation Agency. GIZ = Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit. AUDA = African Union Development Agency. NEPAD = New Partnership for Africa’s Development. IPPF = Infrastructure Project Preparation Facility. IGAD = Intergovernmental Authority on Development. UNEP = United Nations Environment Programme. AU = African Union.

Source: AUDA-NEPAD (2023[25]), “Connecting East Africa through the Green Infrastructure Corridors for Intra-African Trade Programme”; AfDB (2021[26]), Unlocking Investments for Infrastructure Projects in Africa; UNECE (2023[27]), “Trans African Corridors for transport and trade facilitation and their connection to the Transeuropean Transport Networks, Role of Rail, Corridor 11: Diagnostic Study”.

References

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[1] UNICEF (2024), Drinking water, sanitation and hygiene in households by country, 2000-2022 (database), https://data.unicef.org/topic/water-and-sanitation/drinking-water/ (accessed on 17 January 2025).

[29] UNICEF (2021), Balancing Competing Priorities in the Era of Covid-19 – Ethiopia Budget Brief 2020/21, https://www.unicef.org/esa/media/10431/file/UNICEF-Ethiopia-2020-2021-National-Budget-Brief.pdf.

[17] World Bank (2025), The World Bank Benchmarking Infrastructure Development (BID) (database), https://bpp.worldbank.org/en/global (accessed on 6 March 2025).

[5] World Bank (2024), “International Debt Statistics (IDS)”, worldbank.org (website), https://www.worldbank.org/en/programs/debt-statistics/ids (accessed on 23 January 2025).

[6] World Bank (2024), Private Participation in Infrastructure (database), https://ppi.worldbank.org/en/ppi (accessed on 15 March 2025).

Notes

← 1.  The strongly decreasing value for Ethiopia can mainly be explained by its public expenditure not keeping pace with GDP growth. For instance, total government spending decreased from 17.8% of GDP in 2013 to 14.5% in 2020 and to only 9.5% in 2024 (IMF, 2025[30]). The country’s infrastructure spending in absolute terms only slightly increased (UNICEF, 2021[29]) while national GDP doubled from 2013-20.

← 2.  Authors’ calculation based on OECD (2025[28]).

← 3.  Documentation for the Mombasa-Kisangani corridor suggests that the corridor has been hampered by frequent government reshuffles of some participating countries, inconsistent policies and outright conflict in the eastern parts of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The Madagascar-Indian Ocean corridor has mostly been affected by frequent political transitions, contested elections and inconsistent legal frameworks.