This chapter identifies how infrastructure development can contribute to productive transformation in Central Africa (Burundi, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Republic of the Congo, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, and São Tomé and Príncipe). The chapter first examines infrastructure investment needs and current financing in Central Africa as a whole and in the individual countries. Next, it looks at the degree to which regional and national infrastructure plans contribute to productive transformation. It then underlines the importance of planning, budgeting and monitoring capacities for infrastructure development in the region.
Africa's Development Dynamics 2025
Infrastructure, Growth and Transformation
Abstract
Investment in transport and digital infrastructure can accelerate Central Africa’s productive transformation. Up to now, infrastructure gaps have severely limited intra-regional trade, which accounted for only 1.6% of Central Africa’s total exports in 2023. To close this gap, annual investments of USD 15 billion by 2040 are needed, mainly in transport (74%) and digital (18%) infrastructure. This level of investment could enable the region to reach productivity levels seen in comparable developing countries and boost gross domestic product (GDP) growth by an average of 6.2 percentage points per year. However, financing remains a significant hurdle: between 2016 and 2020, Central Africa mobilised about USD 6 billion annually, equivalent to only 7% of total commitments to infrastructure development in Africa.
Strategic prioritisation and effective governance are essential to improve the allocation and mobilisation of infrastructure financing. Progress towards developing regional infrastructure has been hindered by low-quality planning, overlapping regional memberships and weak commitment by national actors. A unified, cross-sectoral infrastructure strategy focused on priority value chains and carefully selected, bankable projects can help attract more financing, as demonstrated by Phases 1 and 2 of the Integration Projects initiative of the Central African Economic and Monetary Community (CEMAC). A supportive institutional framework with strong budgeting, implementation and monitoring capacities is also critical to building investor confidence. In 2023, the public-private partnership units or similar agencies in only three out of six surveyed countries aligned infrastructure projects with private participation to national priorities. Most projects lacked robust financial, social and environmental sustainability assessments.
Note: GDP = gross domestic product. Infrastructure investment needs refer to modelled estimates of the total expenditures required to build new infrastructure to match the infrastructure levels of peer countries that perform well in productive transformation while also maintaining existing infrastructure. See Annex 1.A for details.
Source: Data sources for the investment needs estimations are listed in Annex 1.A.
Note: Transport = kilometres (km) of paved roads and railways per 100 km2 of non-desert land area. Digital = per cent of the population aged 15+ with Internet access. Energy = installed energy capacity as watt per capita. Water = per cent of the population with access to drinking water. For transport and energy stocks, the averages for Central Africa and Africa are population-weighted. For transport and energy stocks, values for Central Africa and Africa reflect aggregated totals relative to population or area, depending on the indicator. For digital and water access, the values for Central Africa and Africa represent unweighted averages of country values.
Source: Transport and energy indicators’ sources are reported in Annex 1.A. Access to drinking water: Drinking water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) estimates, from UNICEF (2024[1]), Drinking water, sanitation and hygiene in households by country, 2000-2022 (database), https://data.unicef.org/topic/water-and-sanitation/drinking-water/. Digital: from Gallup World (2020[2]), Gallup World Poll (database), https://www.gallup.com/analytics/213617/gallup-analytics.aspx.
Central African countries require significant infrastructure investments to drive productive transformation. To achieve the levels of productive transformation observed in developing peer countries in other world regions, Central African countries will need to invest approximately USD 15 billion per year by 2040 (Annex 1.A). This figure represents the lowest investment need of any African region in absolute terms, which is due to the relatively small sizes of Central African economies and low maintenance requirements resulting from limited physical stocks of infrastructure. However, it is still equivalent to 6.1% of the region’s GDP in 2024, higher than the continental average of 5.6% (Figure 4.1). The Democratic Republic of the Congo (DR Congo) accounts for 64% of the total investment needs, followed by Chad (12%) and Cameroon (8%). Reaching these investment targets could increase the region’s annual GDP growth by an average of 6.2 percentage points. Still, between 2016 and 2020, Central Africa mobilised the lowest share of infrastructure-related finance across African regions, averaging USD 6 billion per year (or 7% of the region’s total commitments) (ICA, 2022[3]).
Increasing investments in transport and digital infrastructure will be key to connecting economic hubs in the region. Central African countries remain below the continental average in both the quantity and quality of infrastructure across all sectors (Figure 4.2). Limited transport and digital connectivity remains a significant obstacle to regional integration, hindering efforts to bridge the large distances between fragmented economic hubs, often separated by environmentally sensitive areas such as the forests in the Congo River Basin. Notably, 16% of the region’s road network is paved, and only about 20% of the population has access to the Internet (AfDB, 2023[4]). These infrastructure gaps limit regional trade, which accounted for only 1.6% of Central Africa’s total exports in 2023. Reflecting these challenges, transport and digital infrastructure account for 74% and 18%, respectively, of the region’s required investments (Figure 4.1).
Rising debt burdens constrain the ability of Central African governments to invest in infrastructure. Central Africa records the lowest public infrastructure spending across the continent, averaging 1.1% of GDP in 2019-20, a level similar to that of North Africa (1.2%) but significantly lower than Southern Africa (2.4%). Low investment levels can be partially attributed to high debt burdens, as Central African countries spend 3.5 times more on debt servicing – ongoing loan repayments and interest payments for sovereign debt – than on infrastructure investment. This is akin to the median ratio in North Africa (which spends 3.6 times more) but higher than the ratios observed in East and West Africa (2.5 times more) and Southern Africa (1.6 times more). Overall, median debt service grew from 3.0% of government expenditure in 2010 to 11.1% in 2024, with spikes as high as 25% in the Republic of the Congo. Countries allocating higher shares of their GDP to infrastructure, such as Cameroon (3.0%) and the Central African Republic (2.4%), dedicate amounts to debt servicing that are similar to infrastructure spending (Figure 4.3). In contrast, the DR Congo and Gabon, which dedicate less than 1% of their GDP to infrastructure expenditure, spend 7 to 9 times more on debt servicing than on infrastructure development. While Gabon saw its debt service rise from 13.6% of government expenditure in 2010 to 46.6% in 2020, limited public investments in the DR Congo might reflect a prioritisation of other sectors in government spending.
Note: GDP = gross domestic product. The indicator in Panel B is calculated based on an average of available data over the past five years for public infrastructure spending (2019-20) and debt servicing (2019-23). Median values are displayed for Africa and Central Africa in Panel B to account for extreme cases.
Source: Authors’ calculations based on ICA (2022[3]), Infrastructure Financing Trends in Africa 2019-2020 and World Bank (2024[5]), International Debt Statistics (database), https://www.worldbank.org/en/programs/debt-statistics/ids.
Private participation in infrastructure investments is limited, focusing only on a few countries. Private participation in infrastructure in Central Africa is the lowest across Africa, with only USD 6.4 billion invested between 2016 and 2023, mostly in the sectors of energy (49%) and transport (39%) (Figure 4.4). Cameroon, the DR Congo and Gabon attracted 94% of the value invested and 75% of Central Africa’s projects. Weak governance is often cited as a significant challenge in the region, with legal, political and institutional uncertainty discouraging potential investors. Reports on private capital activity in Africa suggest that Central African countries registered only 3 private capital deals in 2024 compared to 129 in Southern Africa, 105 in West Africa, 99 in East Africa and 77 in North Africa (AVCA, 2025[6]). According to the Worldwide Governance Indicators – a compilation of data on governance quality – Central Africa ranked the lowest across African regions in 2023 in areas such as control of corruption, regulatory quality or government effectiveness (World Bank, 2025[7]). Based on one study, improving institutional quality could increase private investments in infrastructure by as much as 1.5 percentage points of GDP in countries such as Gabon (Chinzara, Dessus and Dreyhaupt, 2023[8]).
Note: RHS = right-hand scale.
Source: World Bank (2024[9]), Private Participation in Infrastructure (database), https://ppi.worldbank.org/en/ppi.
Relative to the size of its population, Central Africa receives only limited development finance for infrastructure. Official development finance (ODF) averaged USD 944 million per year between 2019 and 2023, equivalent to 0.6% of the region’s annual GDP. It stagnated at about USD 800 million per year in 2020, targeting primarily transport and energy (Figure 4.5). In 2019-23, in per capita terms, Central Africa received approximately USD 5 million per million inhabitants, compared to around USD 8-9 million in East, Southern and West Africa and as much as USD 17 million in North Africa. Allocation is unequal within the region, with Cameroon and the DR Congo capturing 62% of total ODF over the period. In contrast, fragile countries like Chad and the Central African Republic, which, respectively, recorded the second and fourth largest investment needs in the region, accounted for only about 11% of total disbursements.
Gender considerations in infrastructure projects are more prevalent in Central Africa than elsewhere in the continent. Thirty-five per cent of the official development assistance for infrastructure provided by members of the OECD Development Assistance Committee over 2020-23 integrated gender objectives in some form, the highest share of all African regions (OECD, 2025[10]). This emphasis could result from the relatively low number of projects in Central Africa, prompting donors to pay more attention to gender issues and maximise development impact.
Note: RHS = right-hand scale. Official development finance disbursements include official development assistance (ODA) and other official financial flows that do not meet the conditions for eligibility as ODA (either because they are not primarily aimed at development, or because they have a grant element of less than 25%).
Source: OECD (2025[11]), Creditor Reporting System (database), https://www.oecd.org/en/data/datasets/development-finance-statistics-data-on-flows-to-developing-countries.html.
Focusing on development corridors and enhancing co-ordination across all levels of government can help with prioritising infrastructure projects
Central Africa’s regional infrastructure planning has been fragmented, slowing down implementation. Regional infrastructure development efforts have relied on multiple sectoral plans of bodies whose members differ: the Economic and Monetary Community of Central Africa (CEMAC), the Economic Community of Central African States (ECCAS) and the East African Community (EAC).1 Their sectoral plans sometimes lack a cross-sectoral vision on infrastructure and clear links to productive transformation (Table 4.1). Despite prioritisation efforts, the implementation of regional programmes has mostly stalled. This is exemplified by the selection, in 2008, of 55 priority transport projects from the initial list of 184 projects in the Consensual Transport Master Plan for Central Africa (PDCT-AC) framework. By 2015, only 36 of the 55 priority projects had been implemented or had secured financing (ECA, 2015[12]). Similarly, evaluations of regional water infrastructure projects conducted in 2018 showed that Central Africa was lagging behind all other African regions in its implementation of cross border water management systems (AMCOW, 2018[13]). Uncertainties in institutional, political and macroeconomic contexts, as well as the limited national ownership and commitments in regional projects, have discouraged public and private investors, leaving many programmes at a standstill.
In DR Congo, the Grand Inga Dam project illustrates the difficulty of financing and accelerating the implementation of cross-border projects in Central Africa. The plan is to expand the dam, although two dams, Inga I and II, already exist and currently operate below their maximum capacity due to insufficient maintenance. This shows the need to strengthen infrastructure governance and budget planning. The Grand Inga Dam will become the largest hydroelectric power station in the world, with a 40 to 70 gigawatt capacity and an overall estimated cost of USD 80 billion. However, the project has been delayed multiple times since its inception following the withdrawal of several international partners over disagreements and governance concerns (Copperbelt Katanga Mining, 2025[14]).
The Ruzizi hydropower station project between Burundi, the DR Congo and Rwanda aims to strengthen the integration of energy infrastructure in the region. It has been selected as a priority project under the Programme for Infrastructure Development in Africa Priority Action Plan 2 (PIDA PAP2). It also benefits from the support of international partners such as the European Commission through the European Union’s Global Gateway. However, political tensions and security concerns could delay financing and implementation (AEP, 2025[15]).
Source: Authors’ compilation based on regional and national development plans.
Further prioritising projects can help channel finance more efficiently and increase mobilisation. In 2019, CEMAC member states adopted a first cross-sectoral programme outlining 11 priority projects to bolster regional integration, estimated at EUR 3.3 billion. To ensure sufficient financial backing, these priority projects were selected based on a criterion of bankability, after feasibility studies, risk assessments and environmental evaluations were completed. In addition, in 2020, CEMAC organised a first donor roundtable with potential international funders during which EUR 3.9 billion were mobilised. About 63% of the funds were provided by regional development finance institutions (the African Development Bank [AfDB], the Development Bank of the Central African States [BDEAC] and Afreximbank) (CEMAC, 2023[16]). By the end of 2024, 80% of the priority projects had begun, with an implementation rate of 67%, marking encouraging progress (Republic of Cameroon, 2024[17]). Building on this momentum, CEMAC member states defined a second set of 13 priority projects, originally estimated at EUR 8.8 billion, for which EUR 9.2 billion were mobilised in 2023 (CEMAC, 2023[16]). Similarly, the prioritisation of projects drawn from existing regional plans in continental initiatives, such as PIDA), could accelerate their implementation (PIDA, n.d.[18]).
The development of data centres within the ECCAS region is one of the priorities laid out in the Consensual Master Plan for the Development of Electronic Communications Infrastructure in Central Africa established in 2019. Estimated at USD 92.5 million, the project was included in PIDA PAP2 in 2020. The initiative encompasses the construction of six new data centres in Burundi, the Central African Republic, Chad, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, and São Tomé and Príncipe. It also involves the enhancement of existing facilities in Cameroon, the Republic of the Congo and the DR Congo (PIDA, n.d.[19]).
Upgrading transport corridors into development corridors could help revive the implementation of regional projects and boost value chains. In 2020, ECCAS member states called for an overhaul of the PDCT-AC to move from a transport corridor to a development corridor approach. The purpose is to strengthen the focus on the development potential of regional infrastructure and enhance cross-sectoral co-ordination, with support from international partners, such as the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa, the AfDB and the European Commission (UNECA, 2020[20]) (Table 4.2). This is the case of the Lobito Corridor, which connects the DR Congo with Southern African countries and aims to encourage the development of critical mineral value chains through infrastructure development, trade and customs facilitation measures, and education and training for job creation (see Chapter 3 for further details). Similarly, with additional support measures, the Libreville-Kribi-Douala-N'Djamena transport corridor could significantly strengthen the maize, rice and livestock value chains in the region by connecting areas of production to urban centres with high consumer demand (UNECA, 2021[21]).
The function of the Libreville-Brazzaville-Pointe Noire-Bangui-N’Djamena Corridor is to connect the Central African Republic, Chad, the Republic of the Congo and Gabon through road infrastructure. The corridor will feature bus stations, weighing stations, toll booths and border control points to ensure its efficient management. In 2022, Arise Integrated Industrial platforms (ARISE-IIP) engaged with the Government of the Republic of the Congo in a public-private partnership to develop industrial zones in Pointe-Noire and Ouésso and a mineral port. The aim is to support the local transformation of raw minerals, timber and agriproducts and make them high-added value products. ARISE-IIP offers an example of promising projects to complement transport corridors and unlock their full potential as development corridors (ARISE IIP, 2022[22]).
Note: DR Congo = Democratic Republic of the Congo. AFD = Agence Française de Développement. AfDB = African Development Bank. EU = European Union. EIB = European Investment Bank. ECCAS = Economic Community of Central African States. PPP = public-private partnership. CHEC = China Harbour Engineering Company. CEMAC = Central African Economic and Monetary Community. AU = African Union.
Source: AfDB (2023[4]), Cross-Border Road Corridors: Expanding Market Access in Africa and Nurturing Continental Integration; EU (2023[23]), EU-Africa: Global Gateway Investment Package - Strategic Corridors; AfDB (2019[24]), Cross-Border Road Corridors: The Quest to Integrate Africa.
Better co-ordination between regional and national plans could extend economic benefits beyond large urban centres. National infrastructure priorities are established through various policy documents, such as national development plans that integrate infrastructure development objectives (in the Central African Republic and Equatorial Guinea), dedicated national infrastructure development plans (in Burundi, Cameroon and Gabon) or sector-specific infrastructure plans (in São Tomé and Príncipe) (Table 4.3). At the sub-national level, increased co-ordination between local government entities can help tap latent opportunities. In Cameroon, for example, improving transport infrastructure between Douala, Edéa and Kribi and enhancing skills could contribute to developing the country’s nascent pharmaceutical value chains by supporting activities such as research and development, the manufacturing of pharmaceutical products and active ingredients, and packaging (UNECA, 2021[21]). To be effective, local governments require sufficient co-ordination and capacity. In 2022, United Cities and Local Governments of Africa rated the average quality of the institutional environment offered to subnational governments in Central African countries as the lowest across the continent (UCLG/Cities Alliance, 2021[25]).
Cameroon's Priority Investment Programme 2024-2026 outlines a strategic roadmap to bolster national development through targeted infrastructure projects. This triennial plan, managed by the Ministry of Economy, Planning, and Regional Development, encompasses 72 projects, including 43 ongoing and 29 new initiatives. The programrme aligns with the country's Vision 2035 and the National Development Strategy 2020-2030 as well as regional infrastructure development plans, including projects such as the extension of the railway network from Ngaoundéré (Cameroon) to N’djamena (Chad).
Better capacities for planning, budgeting and monitoring can accelerate infrastructure project implementation
Current institutional and financial capacities are often insufficient to ensure the successful implementation of infrastructure development plans. In the context of the PDCT-AC, limited capacities have constrained countries' abilities to produce feasibility studies, which in turn have discouraged potential donors and investors. Except in Cameroon, the PDCT-AC also lacked national institutions responsible for monitoring the implementation of development plans, thereby depriving policymakers of information on the state of progress and the difficulties encountered. Delayed payment of members' contributions has further constrained the functioning of the Operational Monitoring Committee in charge of overseeing the implementation of the PDCT-AC (UNECA, 2015[26]).
In 2022, the Public Investment Management Assessment conducted in the DR Congo revealed weaknesses throughout the life cycle of infrastructure projects, including a lack of a clear legal framework for project evaluation and selection, institutional fragmentation leading to an unclear allocation of roles as well as an implementation of projects based on finance availability rather than approved budget (IMF, 2022[27]). Among the reforms adopted in 2023 to address these challenges, the Public Investment Management Decree introduced a Planning, Programming, Budgeting, and Monitoring-Evaluation system and the use of a consolidated Public Investment Program database, assigning unique identification codes to projects throughout their life cycle (Government of the DR Congo, 2024[28]).
Strengthening regulatory frameworks could stimulate private sector participation to support regional and national infrastructure projects. National infrastructure plans highlight the importance of public-private partnerships (PPPs) by giving them priority for large public infrastructure projects (such as in Burundi and Cameroon) and establishing conditions for private sector development (such as in the Central African Republic). Still, except for Cameroon, which established its PPP unit in 2006, Central Africa’s PPP institutional ecosystem is relatively young, with the first PPP units emerging in 2016-17 (Table 4.3). As of 2023, only three out of six countries in the region ensured alignment between PPP projects and national priorities, while the use of financial, social or environmental sustainability assessments of PPP projects remains limited in most countries.
Effective mechanisms for skills development can strengthen infrastructure ecosystems in the region and promote inclusive job creation. Programmes that develop infrastructure-related abilities focus primarily on technical skills and, to a lesser extent, green, digital and project management skills (Table 4.4). Two of these projects are directly linked to the implementation of national infrastructure plans, notably Gabon’s National Infrastructure Master Plan and São Tomé and Príncipe’s energy plan. Some countries also actively promote gender inclusiveness in infrastructure. In Gabon, for instance, the Transgabonaise, which connects Libreville to Franceville, has created over 1 000 direct and indirect jobs – of which 35% are held by women – and 600 people have received training for self-employment to create income-generating activities beyond infrastructure (Meridiam, 2023[29]; EU, 2025[30]).
Note: This table is based on a survey by the World Bank entitled the Benchmarking Infrastructure Development (BID) 2023 which cover six of the nine countries in the Central African region. The survey identifies nine choices under assessments conducted: cost-benefit analysis, fiscal affordability, risk identification, comparative procurement assessment, procurement strategy, financial viability/bankability, market sounding, environmental impact and social impact.
Source: World Bank (2025[31]), The World Bank Benchmarking Infrastructure Development (BID) (database), https://bpp.worldbank.org/en/global.
Note: ICT = information and communications technology. UNIDO = United Nations Industrial Development Organization. CEMAC = Central African Economic and Monetary Community. EU = European Union. ECCAS = Economic Community of Central African States. ITU = International Telecommunications Union.
1. This includes the East African Centre for Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency (EACREEE) in Uganda, the ECOWAS Centre for Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency (ECREEE) in Cabo Verde, the Regional Centre for Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency (RCREEE) in Egypt and the SADC Centre for Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency (SACREEE) in Namibia.
Source: Ndiaye, Mbele and Sylla (2024[32]), ”Building roads to build peace: Our experience in the Central African Republic”; GCF (2021[33]), Readiness and Preparatory Support: Proposal Template: Building institutional capacity for a renewable energy and energy efficiency investment programme for Sao Tome and Principe; CEREEAC (2025[34]), “Our work”, cereeac.org (website); PAGIRN-PPTIC (2025[35]), pagirn-pptic.cm (home page); EU Delegation to Cameroon and Equatorial Guinea (2021[36]), Atelier sous-régional de lancement de l’Observatoire régional des « pratiques anormales » sur les principaux corridors d’Afrique centrale faisant partie intégrante du Programme d’Appui à la Gouvernance des Infrastructures Nationales et Régionales; Bechtel (2021[37]), Gabon National Infrastructure Plan
References
[15] AEP (2025), “EIB explores financing options for hydroelectric project in DRC”, africa-energy-portal.org (website), https://africa-energy-portal.org/news/eib-explores-financing-options-hydroelectric-project-drc (accessed on 5 May 2025).
[4] AfDB (2023), Cross-Border Road Corridors: Expanding Market Access in Africa and Nurturing Continental Integration, African Development Bank, Abidjan, https://www.afdb.org/en/documents/cross-border-road-corridors-expanding-market-access-africa-and-nurturing-continental-integration.
[24] AfDB (2019), Cross-Border Road Corridors: The Quest to Integrate Africa, African Development Bank, Abidjan, https://www.afdb.org/fileadmin/uploads/afdb/Documents/Publications/Cross-border_road_corridors.pdf.
[13] AMCOW (2018), Status Report on the Implementation of Integrated Water Resources Management in Africa: A Regional Report for SDG Indicator 6.5.1 on IWRM Implementation, African Ministers’ Council on Water, https://unepdhi.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/2/2020/05/2018_Status_Report-IWRM-Africa_Web_EN.pdf.
[22] ARISE IIP (2022), “ARISE IIP signs an MOU with the Republic of Congo”, ariseiip.com (website), https://www.ariseiip.com/arise-iip-signs-an-mou-with-the-republic-of-congo/ (accessed on 10 May 2025).
[6] AVCA (2025), African Private Capital Activity Report, https://www.avca.africa/media/fcpjt4s3/2024_avca_african_private_capital_activity_report_apca_public.pdf.
[37] Bechtel (2021), “Gabon National Infrastructure Plan”, bechtel.com (website), https://www.bechtel.com/projects/gabon-national-infrastructure/ (accessed on 23 April 2025).
[16] CEMAC (2023), Cahier du Participant, Economic and Monetary Community of Central Africa, https://projets-integrateurs-cemac.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/10/Cahier-du-Participant_CEMAC.pdf.
[34] CEREEAC (2025), “Our work”, cereeac.org (website), https://www.cereeac.org/our-work (accessed on 15 May 2025).
[8] Chinzara, Z., S. Dessus and S. Dreyhaupt (2023), “How Institutional Reforms Can Attract More Private Investment”, International Finance Corporation Working Paper, https://www.ifc.org/content/dam/ifc/doc/2023/working-paper-infrastructure-in-africa.pdf.
[14] Copperbelt Katanga Mining (2025), “Grand Inga Dam Project Faces Major Delays Despite Huge Potential for Africa’s Energy Future”, copperbeltkatangamining.com (website), https://copperbeltkatangamining.com/grand-inga-dam-project-faces-major-delays-despite-huge-potential-for-africas-energy-future/ (accessed on 15 May 2025).
[12] ECA (2015), Annual Report 2015, United Nations Economic Commission for Africa, Addis Ababa, https://hdl.handle.net/10855/22770.
[30] EU (2025), “Gabon Global Gateway Investment Forum”, eeas.europa.eu (website), https://www.eeas.europa.eu/delegations/gabon/gabon-global-gateway-investment-forum_fr? (accessed on 6 June 2025).
[23] EU (2023), EU-Africa: Global Gateway Investment Package - Strategic Corridors, European Union, https://international-partnerships.ec.europa.eu/system/files/2023-10/GG_Factsheet_Africa_Strategic%20Corridors.pdf.
[36] EU Delegation to Cameroon and Equatorial Guinea (2021), Atelier sous-régional de lancement de l’Observatoire régional des « pratiques anormales » sur les principaux corridors d’Afrique centrale faisant partie intégrante du Programme d’Appui à la Gouvernance des Infrastructures Nationales et Régionales, https://www.eeas.europa.eu/sites/default/files/discours_cdd-opa-pagirn_111121_bon.pdf.
[2] Gallup (2020), Gallup World Poll (database), https://www.gallup.com/analytics/213617/gallup-analytics.aspx (accessed on 15 January 2025).
[33] GCF (2021), Readiness and Preparatory Support: Proposal Template: Building institutional capacity for a renewable energy and energy efficiency investment programme for Sao Tome and Principe, Green Climate Fund, https://www.greenclimate.fund/sites/default/files/document/20211215-sao-tome-and-principe.pdf.
[28] Government of the DR Congo (2024), “Journal Officiel de la République du Congo” N° 14, https://www.sgg.cg/JO/2024/congo-jo-2024-14.pdf.
[3] ICA (2022), Infrastructure Financing Trends in Africa 2019-2020, The Infrastructure Consortium for Africa, Abidjan, https://www.afdb.org/sites/default/files/documents/publications/04112022ift_africa_report_2019-2020-2_english.pdf.
[27] IMF (2022), République Démocratique du Congo : Évaluation de la gestion des investissements publics – PIMA et PIMA Changements climatiques, International Monetary Fund, https://infrastructuregovern.imf.org/content/dam/PIMA/Countries/DRC/documents/DRC%20PIMA%20-%20French%20version.pdf.
[29] Meridiam (2023), “Meridiam in Gabon: A Long-term Commitment to Creating Sustainable Local Jobs”, meridiam.com (website), https://www.meridiam.com/news/meridiam-in-gabon-a-long-term-commitment-to-creating-sustainable-local-jobs/ (accessed on 10 May 2025).
[32] Ndiaye, P., F. Mbele and A. Sylla (2024), “Building roads to build peace: Our experience in the Central African Republic”, World Bank blogs (website), https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/transport/road-rehabilitation-in-the-central-african-republic (accessed on 10 May 2025).
[11] OECD (2025), Creditor Reporting System (database), https://www.oecd.org/en/data/datasets/development-finance-statistics-data-on-flows-to-developing-countries.html (accessed on 15 March 2025).
[10] OECD (2025), GenderMarkers: Aid (ODA) activities targeting gender equality and women’s empowerment (database), https://data-explorer.oecd.org/vis?lc=en&df[ds]=DcdDisseminateFinalDMZ&df[id]=DSD_GNDR%40DF_GENDER&df[ag]=OECD.DCD.FSD&av=true&dq=DAC_EC..1000..2.0%2B1%2B2%2B10%2B99.C.Q._T..&lom=LASTNPERIODS&lo=2&to[TIME_PERIOD]=false (accessed on 30 May 2025).
[35] PAGIRN-PPTIC (2025), pagirn-pptic.cm (home page), https://pagirn-pptic.cm/ (accessed on 10 May 2025).
[19] PIDA (n.d.), “Approved project: Développement des Infrastructures des Data Center sous-tendant l’économie numérique”, pp2.au-pida.org (website), https://pp2.au-pida.org/approved-project/entry/zeocy/ (accessed on 5 May 2025).
[18] PIDA (n.d.), “PIDA PAP 2 Approved Projects”, pp2.au-pida.org (website), https://pp2.au-pida.org/approved-projects/ (accessed on 5 May 2025).
[17] Republic of Cameroon (2024), Extraordinary Heads of State Summit, https://www.prc.cm/files/7c/2d/14/fbdd11107e4223299256c28960358cb8.pdf.
[25] UCLG/Cities Alliance (2021), Assessing the Institutional Environment of Cities and Subnational Governments in Africa, UCLG Africa, Rabat, Cities Alliance, Brussels, https://www.citiesalliance.org/sites/default/files/2022-05/CitiesAlliance_Assessing%20Inst.%20Environment%20of%20Cities%20and%20Subnal.%20Govs%20in%20Africa_EN.pdf.
[21] UNECA (2021), Economic Opportunities Along the Central African Road-Corridor, United Nations Economic Commission for Africa, https://www.uneca.org/sites/default/files/SROs/Central-Africa/Economic-opportunities-CA-road-corridor/Economic-Opportunities-Along-the-Central-African-Road-Corridor_21April2021.pdf.
[20] UNECA (2020), “A rendezvous to transform Central Africa’s routes into development trajectories”, archive.uneca.org (website), https://archive.uneca.org/stories/rendezvous-transform-central-africa%E2%80%99s-routes-development-trajectories? (accessed on 5 May 2025).
[26] UNECA (2015), Trente et Unième Session du Comité Intergouvernemental d’Experts de l’Afrique Centrale : Développer l’Industrie Forestière pour la Transformation Structurelle des Economies d’Afrique Centrale, United Nations Economic Commission for Africa, https://archive.uneca.org/sites/default/files/uploaded-documents/SROs/Central-Africa/ICE31/cie_2015-sro-ca-initiatives_sous_regionales_pdct-ac.pdf.
[1] UNICEF (2024), Drinking water, sanitation and hygiene in households by country, 2000-2022 (database), https://data.unicef.org/topic/water-and-sanitation/drinking-water/ (accessed on 17 January 2025).
[31] World Bank (2025), The World Bank Benchmarking Infrastructure Development (BID) (database), https://bpp.worldbank.org/en/global (accessed on 6 March 2025).
[7] World Bank (2025), “Worldwide Governance Indicators”, worldbank.org (website), https://www.worldbank.org/en/publication/worldwide-governance-indicators (accessed on 29 May 2025).
[5] World Bank (2024), “International Debt Statistics (IDS)”, worldbank.org (website), https://www.worldbank.org/en/programs/debt-statistics/ids (accessed on 23 January 2025).
[9] World Bank (2024), Private Participation in Infrastructure (database), https://ppi.worldbank.org/en/ppi (accessed on 15 March 2025).
← 1. CEMAC includes Cameroon, the Central African Republic, Chad, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon and the Republic of the Congo. ECCAS is made up of all Central African countries, as well as Angola and Rwanda. The EAC comprises Burundi and the DR Congo, as well as Kenya, Rwanda, Somalia, South Sudan, Tanzania and Uganda.