Nearly half of the countries and economies with available data have a non-selective admission system for first degrees in public and private institutions. Such open admission allow all applicants meeting the minimum qualification level required to be admitted, providing a broad access to tertiary education.
The most widely used types of examination used for admission to first degree tertiary education are national or central examinations, taken towards the end of upper secondary education, and entrance examinations administered by tertiary institutions.
The share of applicants who are accepted to tertiary programmes ranges from 34% in Scotland (United Kingdom) to 95% in France. In three-quarters of countries and economies with available data, close to 60% (or more) of applicants are accepted, while in the remaining quarter, less than half (42% or less) of applicants are accepted.
Education at a Glance 2025
Context
Increasing numbers of students are enrolling in tertiary education across OECD countries. This expansion in enrolment reflects a variety of factors. More students are achieving the minimum educational attainment required to enter tertiary institutions, which increases the potential demand for tertiary education (see Chapter B3 in OECD (2024[1])). At the same time, the positive relationship between educational attainment and opportunities in the labour market may further enhance demand, especially in countries with high unemployment rates or when there is an economic crisis: the strong personal financial incentives to invest in education could encourage individuals with a secondary qualification to continue their studies (see Chapters A3 and A4).
Tertiary enrolment is also affected by the number of places available within tertiary educational institutions. Given the rising demand for tertiary education, educational institutions and policy makers face new challenges in ensuring there are enough student places. In the meantime, increased demand could result in increased competition to enter tertiary education. Decisions about the number of places available in the different fields of study are more strongly linked to the needs of the labour market in some countries than in others. Ensuring a match between the skills of the tertiary-educated population and labour-market demand may have an impact on enrolment and how selective admissions to different fields of study are in tertiary education.
Admission systems to tertiary education may be designed to balance different objectives. In some cases, admissions criteria may be used to ensure applicants have the skills to successfully complete the educational programme in question (see Chapter B5). In other cases, having fewer criteria may help to provide more widespread access to tertiary education, meeting equity concerns.
Analysis of the national criteria and admission systems for students to apply for and enter first degree tertiary programmes highlights differences between open and selective admission systems and the proportions of applicants who successfully meet the criteria and processes. However, the analysis here does not cover the selectivity that may occur during studies, such as students dropping out of a programme if they fail intermediate tests or do not progress at the desired pace.
OECD, partner and accession countries and other economies
Note: First degree tertiary programmes within countries and economies with open admissions systems can still be subject to limitations on the number of places available, either by field of education or institution. These limits may affect all fields of education or types of institutions, only some, or none at all. Similarly, for those with selective systems, limits may be set with reference to field of study and/or institutions. As such, a country or economy with a selective system may still report no limits (none) for one of these dimensions.
For data, see Table D6.1. For a link to download the data, see Tables and Notes section.
Other findings
Regardless of whether their admission systems are selective or not, in most countries and economies there is only a limited number of places available to enter a given field of study, in both public and private institutions. Thus, even in non-selective systems, some applicants may not be accepted (although they may go on to be accepted for different fields).
Students are required to apply directly to public tertiary institutions in almost half of countries and economies, while the remainder use a centralised system or a combination of both approaches. Centralised systems are less frequently used for admissions to private tertiary institutions.
Selective institutions may take factors other than examination results into account when accepting applications, although to differing extents. The most commonly used criteria for admission to public tertiary institutions are academic performance, candidate interviews, the results of foreign language proficiency tests and high achievements in well-known external competitions.
Organisation of admission systems to first degree tertiary programmes
Selective versus open admission systems
How students are admitted to first degree tertiary programmes reflects the way tertiary education is structured and organised within countries. Most education systems except for England and Scotland (United Kingdom) have public tertiary institutions, and most tertiary students are enrolled in public institutions on average across OECD countries (see Figure B1.4 in Education at a Glance 2022 (OECD, 2022[2])). Private tertiary institutions are almost as widespread, with only Denmark and Greece not having any government-dependent or independent private institutions offering first degree tertiary programmes. Government-dependent private institutions are part of the tertiary education landscape in less than half the countries and economies with available data (Table D6.1).
The use of open (or non-selective) admission system to tertiary programmes – where all applicants who achieve the minimum required educational attainment level are admitted – is common but not the main practice among both public and private tertiary institutions. Nearly half of countries and economies with available data for public institutions (15 out of 33) have at least some institutions with open admission systems (Figure D6.2). The use of open admissions systems in private tertiary institutions is similar: 7 out of 15 countries and economies with government-dependent private institutions and 10 out of 30 with independent private institutions report that at least some of these tertiary institutions use open admission systems (Table D6.1).
The use of selective admission systems – where applicants need to meet additional specific criteria and/or succeed in a competitive process to be admitted – is more widely implemented across countries and economies with available data, for admission into both public and private tertiary institutions (Figure D6.2 and Table D6.1).
Countries and economies can be divided into three groups according to how open or selective their admission systems are: those that use open admission for all first degree tertiary programmes, those that use selective admissions, and those that use a combination of open and selective admission. In this last group, the balance between open and selective admissions varies, with some countries close to open admission for all first degree programmes and others where admission is largely selective. Whatever the type of admission system used, there may be some limitations on students’ entry into first degree tertiary programmes, either because the number of places in some or all programmes is limited, or because students are assessed or tested before they can enter these programmes (see the section on constraints below).
Centralised versus direct applications to tertiary institutions
Figure D6.2 outlines how different countries and economies combine the different types of admission systems (open or selective) and processes (centralised and/or direct) to first degree tertiary programmes in public institutions. In close to half of countries and economies with available information, students apply directly to the institutions, while in around one-third, they apply through a centralised system. The remaining countries and economies combine a centralised application system with direct applications to public tertiary institutions (Figure D6.2 and Figure D6.3).
Note: This figure only includes countries and other economies with available information on open or selective admission system.
1. Year of reference: 2023.
For data, see Table D6.1. For a link to download the data, see Tables and Notes section.
Where a centralised system is used (either as the only system or in combination with direct applications), applicants may be limited in the number of preferences they can specify, and in the number of offers they can receive following their applications. Applicants are limited to one preference when applying to public institutions in Brazil, three in Slovenia, and four in the Netherlands, but can specify ten or more in Chile, France, Germany, Norway, Sweden and Türkiye and multiple preferences within a limited number in Australia. In Greece there is no maximum number of applications. Regardless of the maximum number of applications, applicants receive just one offer in most countries with a centralised system. However, there is no limit on the number of offers made in Korea, which uses a combination of centralised and direct applications to public tertiary institutions (Table D6.1).
Applications to private tertiary institutions are less likely to be processed through a centralised application system. However, a central system is the only (or main) way to apply to private institutions in a few countries. This is the case in Chile, Finland and Slovenia for government-dependent private institutions, while in the Netherlands and Türkiye this process is used for independent private institutions. In Hungary and Scotland (United Kingdom), a centralised application process is used for both types of private institutions (Table D6.1).
Applications are made directly to private institutions in slightly less than half of the countries with government-dependent private institutions, and in most countries and economies with independent private institutions. However, one-quarter of countries with these types of tertiary institutions combine a centralised application system with direct applications (Table D6.1).
OECD, partner and accession countries and other economies
For data, see Table D6.1. For a link to download the data, see Tables and Notes section.
Constraints on students entering tertiary programmes
Limits on the number of places in particular fields of study or institutions
Open admission systems promote broad access to higher education but they may still impose some limits on the number of places available to students in first degree tertiary programmes. In most countries and economies with available data, the number of places available is only limited for some fields of study, for both public and private institutions (Figure D6.1). These limits may reflect increasing demand for specific sought-after fields of study. They may also be a way to align educational outcomes with labour-market needs to better prepare highly skilled graduates for the job opportunities available and prevent an oversupply of professionals in sectors such as dentistry, medicine and architecture. For example, in Italy, although open admission to first degree tertiary programmes is the general rule, exceptions exist to limit the number of student places (at national level) in medicine, dentistry, veterinary medicine, architecture, health professions and primary education science (from the academic year 2025/26 a new Ministerial Decree regulates access to medicine, dentistry and veterinary medicine for public Universities and overcomes the previous admission rules). Universities can also autonomously establish admission limits, for internal and structural reasons. Other areas also experience strong demand. In the Netherlands, for example, there are a fixed number of places in parts of study fields within social sciences, journalism and information; engineering, manufacturing and construction; and health and welfare (for other specific country examples see Education at a Glance 2025 Sources, Methodologies and Technical Notes (https://doi.org/10.1787/fcfaf2d1-en)).
Limited enrolment by field of study is common in selective admission systems for both public and private institutions. Among the countries and economies using selective admission systems, all have some limitations on the number of student places. These limits are usually set for all fields of study rather than just some (Figure D6.1and Table D6.1).
Among countries and economies with open admission systems, nearly half of those with available data implement limits on the number of student places, which are applied to specific public and private educational institutions. These limits help to balance available resources and maintain high educational standards for the tertiary students admitted to those institutions. In contrast, among countries and economies with selective admission systems, almost all have limited enrolment for both public and private tertiary institutions and these limits generally apply to all institutions rather than just specific ones. In Austria and England (United Kingdom), all with selective systems, there are no limits to student places in independent private institutions (Figure D6.1 and Table D6.1).
Candidates for tertiary education are usually young people who have completed or just graduated from upper secondary education, although some might take one or more gap years before applying to or entering tertiary education (see Chapter B3). All such graduates from upper secondary education who wish to enter tertiary education are expected to follow the same application and admission system. However, some countries and economies adapt their procedures for candidates in specific or exceptional circumstances. These circumstances might relate to individuals returning to education after a long time, or to candidates with special educational needs, refugee status or with exceptional talent.
Whatever the type of admission systems used (open or selective), most countries and economies with available data (26 out of 36) take into account at least one of these characteristics in their admission systems for public tertiary institutions. Individuals with special educational needs have specific admission systems in at least 18 countries and economies, but mostly for a restricted number of places. In the Flemish Community of Belgium, Brazil, Lithuania, Luxembourg and the Netherlands, there is no specific restriction on the number of student places for these applicants. Individuals with refugee status, exceptional talent or who have been out of education for a long period, are also offered specific admission criteria for public institutions in at least 14 countries and economies. In Australia, the Flemish Community of Belgium, Finland, Israel, Japan and New Zealand, there are alternative routes into first degree tertiary programmes for all these circumstances (Table D6.1).
Similar patterns are observed for admission to private tertiary institutions, but in fewer countries: 12 countries and economies recognise one of these exceptional circumstances in their admission system to government-dependent private institutions, and 17 do so for admission to independent private institutions, regardless of whether they have open or selective admissions systems to these types of tertiary institutions (Table D6.1).
Qualification and performance requirements to enter first degree tertiary programmes
In all countries and economies, access to first degree tertiary programmes (in public or private institutions) requires a minimum qualification level, which is usually an upper secondary qualification (ISCED 3) from a general or vocational programme (Table D6.5, available on line). Nevertheless, education systems may offer alternative routes to access first degree tertiary programmes which offer increased flexibility or inclusiveness for candidates with exceptional circumstances (such as the recognition of returning to education after a long time, special educational needs, refugee status or exceptional talent), described in Box D6.1.
Governments may also require upper secondary graduates to meet some minimum academic performance level to access a first degree tertiary programme, whether for a specific institution or field of study (Table D6.5, available on line). For example, in Chile (which has a selective admission system), the minimum academic performance requirement applies only to students entering programmes designed to prepare them for a career in teaching. Students need to have reached a certain level in the Prueba de Acceso a la Educación Superior (PAES) to access public or private tertiary institutions attached to the Centralised Access System to higher education, but the only requirement for students to enrol in independent private institutions is to have completed upper secondary education (see Education at a Glance 2025 Sources, Methodologies and Technical Notes (https://doi.org/10.1787/fcfaf2d1-en)).
In about one-third of the countries and economies with available information (12 out of 35), the government sets minimum academic performance requirements for students graduating from general upper secondary programmes to enter some fields of study, while in 9 out of 35, there are minimum academic performance requirements to enter some tertiary institutions. In France, Greece, Israel, Lithuania, Norway and Portugal, these minimum academic performance requirements are applied to all fields of study and all tertiary institutions. For candidates graduating from vocational upper secondary programmes, 9 out of 31 countries and economies set minimum academic performance requirements to enter some fields of study, and 7 set them to enter tertiary institutions. In Greece, Israel, Lithuania, Norway, Portugal and Türkiye, these performance requirements relate to both field of studies and to tertiary institutions, and apply to candidates graduating from both general and vocational programmes (Table D6.5, available on line).
The use of examinations and tests to determine access to first degree programmes
Examinations and tests are common tools in both open and selective admission processes. They can be used either to assess whether students meet the minimum requirements to access first degree tertiary programmes, or to select students for these programmes. Admission systems use a range of types of examinations or tests: national or central examinations (standardised tests at the national or central level of the education system), first degree tertiary programme entrance examinations (standardised examinations at the national level specifically for use in the admission process, either as a minimum requirement or for selection, such as the Ecole préparatoire in France and the Scholastic Assessment Test in the United States), non-national/central standardised examinations and non-national/central non-standardised examinations. Countries and economies vary widely in the types of examinations they use and how they use them as criteria for access to tertiary education or for granting financial support such as scholarships.
The most widely used examinations for entry into first degree tertiary programmes (in both public and private institutions) are national/central examinations taken towards the end of upper secondary education, and entrance examinations administered by tertiary institutions. Non-national central standardised and non-standardised examinations are more often administered in countries with independent private institutions. While the non-national/central standardised examinations are administered to students and may replace or complement the entrance examinations at some higher educational institutions, the non-national non-standardised tests are administered to secondary school students or applicants to specific first degree tertiary programmes (Table D6.2).
Most countries and economies with available data on public tertiary institutions (32 out of 34) use at least one examination for students who wish to pursue tertiary studies. Eleven countries use a maximum of two types of examination and five countries (Brazil, Czechia, Finland, Germany and New Zealand) use three. Examinations are also administered to students applying to private institutions. In 13 out of 14 countries with available data, at least one type of examination is used for admissions to first degree tertiary programmes at government-dependent private institutions. For independent private institutions, 23 countries out of 30 with available data use at least one type of examination (Table D6.2).
Examination requirements to enter first degree tertiary programmes
Examinations for candidates to first degree tertiary education are used for different purposes in the admission process. In more than two-thirds of the countries and economies with available data, tests or examinations, whether national/central examinations, standardised tests at upper secondary level or tertiary programme entrance examinations are compulsory for entering at least some fields of study in public tertiary institutions (Table D6.2).
Admission systems for public tertiary institutions use national or central examinations in 18 countries and economies, but for different purposes. In 15 of them, candidates are required to pass the examination to meet the minimum eligibility criteria for applying to any first degree tertiary programme (Figure D6.4). The exceptions are Denmark, Estonia and New Zealand, where it is only compulsory for some candidates, but the results might be considered in the application process for other candidates either in all cases or at the discretion of tertiary institutions (Table D6.2).
Entrance examinations are used in 13 countries and economies but are mostly not a compulsory requirement for access to first degree tertiary programmes except in Brazil and Spain. In both these countries all candidates’ results are considered during the application process for first degree programmes, however in Brazil, there are three different types of examination offering admission. Each educational institution independently determines how to allocate the available places and the type of examination used to access those places. In some countries the results of these type of examinations are considered in the application process while in others they are used only at the discretion of tertiary institutions. Very few countries use the other two types of examinations for entry to public institutions (eight countries use non-national non-standardised examinations and six use non-national standardised examinations). Among countries that use only one type of examination, national or central examinations and entrance examinations are the most common (Table D6.2).
Access to private institutions follow a similar pattern, with the only difference being that fewer countries and economies use entrance examinations: eight report using entrance examinations for admission to independent private institutions, compared to 13 for admission to public institutions (Table D6.2).
Although all types of examinations play a central role in admissions to first degree tertiary programmes (in both public and private institutions), education systems may incorporate holistic criteria into their selection process. These might be merit-based criteria (including candidates’ academic performance, candidates’ interviews, applicant letters or recommendations) or based on candidates’ personal backgrounds. This diversity of criteria allows applicants to be assessed more comprehensively (Box D6.2).
National/central examinations refer to examinations for students at the end of upper secondary level, OECD partner and accession countries and other economies
Note: This figure only includes countries and other economies with available information. These did not provide answers for all categories.
For data, see Table D6.2. For a link to download the data, see Tables and Notes section.
Use of the results of examinations for decision on admission
In five countries with selective admission systems to public tertiary institutions (Denmark, Greece, Hungary, Lithuania and Portugal) as well as in two with open admission systems where there are limited places in specific tertiary programmes in public institutions (Israel and New Zealand), the results of national examinations are always considered in admission decisions for selective institutions. In four further countries with a selective admission system to public tertiary institutions (Brazil, Czechia, Estonia and Romania) and in the Netherlands, which has an open system, examination results are considered at the discretion of individual tertiary institutions (Table D6.2).
Among countries using entrance examinations for selection process in the admission to first degree tertiary programmes in public institutions, only four always use the results for selective institutions (Chile, Israel, Lithuania and Spain), while in four others (Brazil, Luxembourg, Sweden, and the United States), the results are used at the discretion of tertiary institutions. The results of non-national/standardised or non-national/non-standardised examinations are mostly used at the discretion of public tertiary institutions (Table D6.2).
Use of results of examinations for decisions about scholarships or financial assistance
Examination results can play a role in decisions about the scholarships or financial aid that students receive, although this is not consistent across all countries and all types of examination. In most countries and economies, the results of national/central examinations are not considered in decisions to grant scholarships to applicants to either public or private tertiary institutions. The results are sometimes or always considered as part of the criteria for financial assistance in six countries which have both public and private institutions (Hungary, Israel, Italy, Lithuania, New Zealand and Slovenia), in Romania (only for public institutions) and in England (United Kingdom) and Türkiye for independent private institutions (Figure D6.4 and Table D6.2).
Similarly, in seven countries (Brazil, Chile, Israel, Korea, Lithuania, Luxembourg and the United States) the results of entrance examinations to first degree tertiary programmes are sometimes or always used to determine funding support for candidates to be enrolled in public tertiary institutions (or private institutions where these exist). In contrast, only in Australia, England (United Kingdom) and Germany the results from non-national/central standardised examinations may sometimes be used in decisions about scholarships or financial assistance to students, for public and/or private institutions (Table D6.2).
Many tertiary systems implement a range of measures to support candidates for first degree tertiary programmes, covering financial support for students, promoting different fields of study or under-represented groups, or other diverse campaigns to ensure more equitable access to higher education (Box D6.3).
Admissions to tertiary education can be based on multiple criteria beyond the results of examinations. These criteria can be grouped into merit-based factors (academic performance, applicant letters, interviews, recommendations, the results of foreign language proficiency tests or exceptional performance in well-known external competitions), socio-economic background (ethnicity, family income or graduating from educational institutions in rural areas) and other personal characteristics (health requirements, criminal records, past work experience, past service or voluntary work). The use of these additional factors varies across education systems and reflects policy efforts to promote equity and inclusive access to tertiary education.
The most common type of criteria used to determine entry into public tertiary institutions are merit-based criteria. The most common of these is academic performance in secondary school, used by 24 out of 34 countries and economies, with both open or selective admission systems. Other commonly used merit-based criteria are candidate interviews, the results of foreign language proficiency tests and high achievements in well-known external competitions, used by at least 18 countries each (Table D6.3).
A significant number of countries and economies consider candidates’ socio-economic and personal characteristics when determining access to first degree programmes in public institutions. For instance, 9 countries take family income into consideration and at least 14 countries use health requirement and past work experience (including voluntary work) when selecting candidates (Table D6.3).
Multiple criteria may be considered as part of the admission process. In Australia, Israel, Korea, the Netherlands, New Zealand and the United States, at least ten criteria (merit-based, socio-economic and personal characteristics) are taken into account when selecting candidates for tertiary public institutions. At the other end of the scale, Mexico, Norway and Spain only use one criterion – academic performance in secondary education – while the Flemish and French Communities of Belgium and Switzerland take none of these criteria into account (Table D6.3).
The criteria used in admission systems for government-dependent and independent private institutions do not differ much from those used in public institutions. Academic performance in secondary school, candidate interviews and the results of foreign language proficiency tests are also the most frequently used criteria in the admission process to first degree programmes in private tertiary institutions (Table D6.3).
Governments use various initiatives to support or increase participation in first degree tertiary programmes, whether this involves reducing the financial barriers related to tuition fees, providing financial support to students, or through measures with other specific purposes. Figure D6.5 illustrates the use of a number of support measures designed to promote access to tertiary education among countries and economies with available data.
Financial support to students is a common practice, with all countries and economies offering at least one of the seven financial aid measures considered to some or all students. About half of the countries and economies with available data (17 out of 36) use at least five different measures to financially support students. Scholarships and/or grants are most widely employed, available to all students in more than one-third of countries and economies with available data, and to at least some students in 21 of these countries (Figure D6.5 and Table D6.7, available on line).
For data, see Table D6.7, available online. For a link to download the data, see Tables and Notes section.
Student loans and other support for living costs are also available in about two-thirds of the countries and economies, while study allowances or stipends and means-based subsidies are available in more than half. Other measures such as reduced tuition fees and tax allowances/reductions/credits are less widely used. Except for Mexico, which only uses scholarships and other grants to households, all countries and economies implement multiple measures to support at least some students financially. For all the measures considered, countries vary as to whether they offer them to all students or just some of them (Figure D6.5 and Table D6.7 available on line).
Measures to reduce the financial barriers related to tuition fees are implemented by 31 out of 36 countries and economies. Free or capped tuition fees are the most common of these measures, implemented in about 40% or more countries and economies. In about one-quarter of these 31 countries and economies, these measures benefit all students, whereas in the other 15%, they are only available to some. Among the 31 countries and economies that reported having implemented any measures to mitigate tuition fees, two-thirds only implemented one (Figure D6.5 and Table D6.7, available on line).
Campaigns to boost participation are also common and are implemented in more than half of the 36 countries and economies with data. Of these, campaigns to promote of certain subjects or occupations are the most common, used by nearly three-quarters of them. Campaigns to attract students to tertiary education in general, improve gender equality and promote the participation of under-represented groups are used in at least 20 countries and economies. Most of them implement several or even all of the measures considered, but six of them only use one (Table D6.7, available on line).
Applicants and applications to first degree tertiary programmes
The total number of applicants to first degree of tertiary programmes depends on the size of the population in each country, as well as the number of people who would like to enrol at this level and meet the minimum requirements to apply. The total number of applications can also vary widely as the number made by a single applicant can vary across countries, depending on whether there is a centralised application system or if candidates need to apply separately to each tertiary institution (see above). Figures on the number of applicants and applications need to be interpreted with caution. For example, in the Flemish Community of Belgium, the numbers of applicants and applications are not available, as there is an open admission system for all programmes. Reporting the total number of applicants, excluding duplications, may be difficult in systems where candidates apply directly to tertiary institutions. In Greece for example, the total number of applicants does not exclude those who have already successfully applied to one institution but have sat the compulsory national examination again in order to apply for a place in a different one. Which institutions are considered may also introduce some biases in the data on the number of applicants. In Luxembourg for instance, the data are limited to public institutions. In Lithuania, the number of applicants is based on data from all public tertiary institutions but only those private ones that participate in the centralised admission system. For further details see Education at a Glance 2025 Sources, Methodologies and Technical Notes (https://doi.org/10.1787/fcfaf2d1-en)).
Number of applicants by acceptance status
There are 20 countries and economies with available data on the number of applicants to first degree tertiary programmes (in public and private institutions combined). Of these 19 have data on the distribution of applicants by acceptance status (whether the applicant received at least one offer and whether or not they have taken up the offer and started studying). The proportion of accepted applicants (studying or not) varies widely across countries and economies, ranging from just 34% of applicants in Scotland (United Kingdom) to 95% in France. In three-quarters of countries and economies with available data, close to 60% (or more) of applicants are accepted, while in the remaining quarter, less than half (42% or less) are, although those who are not accepted may apply and be accepted in later years. The breakdown by acceptance status (whether studying or not) is not available in Slovenia, a country with a high proportion of accepted applicants (8 out of 10 applicants are accepted) despite a selective admission system (Figure D6.6).
The share of accepted applicants to first degree tertiary programmes who are studying exceeds 75% in Czechia, France, Greece, the Slovak Republic and Spain. Despite having similarly high proportions of accepted applicants, these countries’ admission systems differ widely. France has an open admission system with selection limited to some fields of study or institutions (among public institutions, which account for most of the students). The Slovak Republic also has an open admission system, but without any limited places for either fields of study or particular institutions. Czechia, Greece and Spain operate selective admission systems with limitations on the number of places available in different institutions or fields of study. At the other end of the scale, 35% (or less) of applicants are accepted and studying in Finland, Scotland (United Kingdom) and Sweden, all of which have selective admission systems with limited numbers of student places (Figure D6.6 and Table D6.4).
1. Year of reference: 2023.
For data, see Table D6.4. For a link to download the data, see Tables and Notes section.
The share of applicants who are accepted but not studying ranges from 1% in Spain to 27% in Norway. In most countries accepted applicants are significantly more likely to be studying than not, with the difference between the two groups exceeding 15 percentage points (Figure D6.6 and Table D6.4).
In all countries and economies with available data on applicants by gender, there are more female applicants than male applicants. The share of female applicants varies from 51% (in Luxembourg) to 71% (in the Flemish Community of Belgium). The highest shares of female applicants are in Australia, Estonia, the Flemish Community of Belgium, Lithuania and Sweden, where at least six out of ten applicants are women. The proportion of male and female applicants is nearly equal in a few countries (Finland, France and Luxembourg). Among the rest, most applicants are women (at least 55%), and the gap between female and male applicants is not more than 17 percentage points (Table D6.4). As women comprised 56% of first-time entrants into tertiary education across OECD countries in 2022 and constitute a majority of new entrants in every OECD country [see Chapter B4 in (OECD, 2024[1])], the proportion of applicants who are accepted and studying is similar for men and women.
Number of applications by their results
The proportion of accepted applications (i.e. applications resulting in an offer for a student place in the chosen field of study) also varies widely, from 8% in Sweden to around 80% in Slovenia. In slightly less than half of countries and economies with available data, one in two applications are accepted. The lowest proportions of accepted applications are observed in Chile (9%), Hungary (22%) and the Nordic countries of Denmark (28%), Norway (17%) and Sweden (8%). In these three Nordic countries, this results from the fact that applicants can only receive one offer of admission, regardless of the number of applications. Most of these have a selective admission system limiting places for at least some fields of study. Norway is the only country in this group with an open admission system, but it limits the number of students places in all fields of study and all tertiary institutions. Conversely, in England (United Kingdom), Israel, Luxembourg, the Slovak Republic and Slovenia, at least six out of ten applications are accepted. However, no patterns are apparent for the admission systems or limits on places within institutions or fields of study among these countries and economies. Nevertheless, in some countries applicants can submit a large number of applications, but can only be accepted to a limited number of these applications, which can explain some of the differences between countries (Table D6.4).
In slightly over half of the countries and economies with available data on the distribution of applications by field of study, health and welfare receives the largest proportions of applications. In the Flemish Community of Belgium this field (which combines applicants for medicine and dentistry) receives nearly all applications, accounting for at least 9 out of 10 applications. In the majority of countries and economies, at least one in five applications are directed to this field. Business, administration and law is the broad field of study receiving the second largest share of applications, accounting for at least one in ten applications across all countries (Table D6.4).
The application process refers to the process by which applicants express their interest in enrolling in a tertiary programme through the submission of applications.
An applicant is individual who makes a formal application to enrol in at least one first degree tertiary programme.
An application is a form or collection of forms that an applicant uses to apply for enrolment in a specific tertiary programme.
A standardised examination or test refers to a test that is administered and scored under uniform conditions across different schools so that students’ scores are directly comparable. In some cases, it also refers to multiple choice or fixed answer questions as this makes it easy to score the test uniformly. However, with the use of rubrics and the calibration of test examiners (who manually score open-ended responses), standardised tests can go beyond multiple choice and fixed answers.
National/central examinations are standardised tests that have a formal consequence for students, such as their eligibility to progress to a higher level of education or to complete an officially recognised degree. They assess a major portion of what students are expected to know or be able to do in a given subject. Examinations differ from assessments in terms of their purpose. National assessments are mandatory but, unlike examinations, they do not have an effect on students’ progression or certification.
Other (non-national/central) standardised examinations are standardised tests that are administered and scored under uniform conditions across different schools at the state/territorial/provincial/regional or local level so that student scores are directly comparable.
Entrance examinations are examinations not administered by upper secondary schools that are typically used to determine, or help to determine, access to tertiary programmes. These examinations can be devised and/or graded at the institutional level (i.e. by individual tertiary institutions or a consortium of tertiary institutions), or by private companies.
First degree tertiary programmes refer to first degree bachelor's programmes or applied higher education programmes and first degree master's programmes as defined in ISCED 2011.
Open admission: An open or unselective admission system (as opposed to a selective system) to tertiary programmes refers to a system in which all applicants with the required minimum attainment level can enrol in the programme, without the need to meet other criteria.
A selective system to tertiary programmes refers to a system in which all applicants are not guaranteed a place in a tertiary programme. In a selective system, a selection process may take place in which tertiary institutions select applicants based on certain set of criteria. In a selective system, there are a fixed, limited number of student places available (i.e. numerus clausus).
Public tertiary institution: An institution is classified as public if it is: 1) controlled and managed directly by a public education authority or agency of the country where it is located; or 2) controlled and managed by a government agency directly or by a governing body (council, committee etc.), most of whose members are either appointed by a public authority of the country where it is located or elected by public franchise.
A government-dependent private tertiary institution is one that either receives at least 50% of its core funding from government agencies or one whose teaching personnel are paid by a government agency – either directly or through government
An independent private tertiary institution is one that receives less than 50% of its core funding from government agencies and whose teaching personnel are not paid by a government agency.
This chapter is based on a survey on application and admission to first degree tertiary programmes that captured qualitative information on application and admission systems to first degree tertiary programmes and the number of applicants and applications to these programmes. Thirty-six OECD and partner countries and economies contributed to this survey (Australia, Austria, Brazil, Chile, Czechia, Denmark, England [United Kingdom], Estonia, Finland, France, the Flemish and French Communities of Belgium, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Israel, Italy, Japan, Korea, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Mexico, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Scotland [United Kingdom], the Slovak Republic, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Türkiye and the United States).
For more information please see the OECD Handbook for Internationally Comparable Education Statistics (OECD, 2018[3]) and Education at a Glance 2025 Sources, Methodologies and Technical Notes (https://doi.org/10.1787/fcfaf2d1-en).
Data presented in this chapter are from the 2024 OECD-NESLI survey on application and admission to first degree tertiary programmes data collection and refer to the academic year 2023/24 (or the academic year 2024) for both qualitative information on admission systems and quantitative data on the number of applicants and applications.
References
[1] OECD (2024), Education at a Glance 2024: OECD Indicators, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/c00cad36-en.
[2] OECD (2022), Education at a Glance 2022: OECD Indicators, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/3197152b-en.
[3] OECD (2018), OECD Handbook for Internationally Comparative Education Statistics 2018: Concepts, Standards, Definitions and Classifications, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264304444-en.
To download the data for the figures and tables in this chapter, click StatLink above.
To access further data and/or other education indicators, please visit the OECD Data Explorer: https://data-explorer.oecd.org/.
Data cut-off for the print publication 13 June 2025. Please note that the Data Explorer contains the most recent data.
Table D6.1. Organisation of the admission system and application process to first degree tertiary programmes (2024)
Note: Columns showing the authority responsible for setting limitations (Columns 3 and 5), the alternative routes available (Columns 12 to 15), information related to government-dependent private institutions (Columns 16 to 30) and information related to independent private institutions (Columns 31 to 45) are available for consultation on line.
1. Year of reference: 2023.
Table D6.2. Type of examinations used to determine entry/admission into first degree tertiary programmes (2024)
Note: Columns showing whether results are used in decisions about scholarships or financial assistance (Columns 5, 9, 13 and 17), information related to government-dependent private institutions (Columns 18 to 34) and information related to independent private institutions (Columns 35 to 51) are available for consultation on line. When referring to the results considered in the application process, "Only at instit. discr" means that these results may be considered at the discretion of individual tertiary educational institutions. When referrring to the resuls considered in the selection process (for selective systems), "Only at instit. discr" means that there is a possibility these are taken into account by individual selective tertiary educational institutions.
1. Year of reference: 2023.
2. There are two different "first degree tertiary programme entrance examinations", Further information is available in Table D6.6.
Table D6.3. Additional criteria used for admission to first degree tertiary programmes (2024)
Note: Columns showing information on other merit-based criteria, other socio-economic circumstances of applicants, other characteristics of applicant taken into consideration for admission to students places in first degree tertiary programmes in public institutions (Columns 7, 11 and 16), information related to government-dependent private institutions (Columns 17 to 32) and information related to independent private institutions (Columns 33 to 48) as well as rows showing the data for graduates from vocational upper secondary programmes are available for consultation on line.
1. Year of reference: 2023.
Table D6.4. Distribution of applicants and applications to first degree tertiary programmes (2024)
Note: Columns showing applicants by gender (Columns 4 and 5) are available for consultation on line.
1. Year of reference: 2023.
2. The distribution of applicants by gender does not add up to 100% as a small proportion of applicants cannot be classified by gender.
3. The distribution of applicants by gender includes those who have withdrawn their applications (they are excluded from the distribution of applicants by their acceptance status).
4. The distribution of applications by field of study does not add up to 100% as some applications cannot be classified by field of study.
5. The field of information and communication technologies is included in all other fields of study.
6. The distributions of applicants and applications by acceptance status do not add up to 100% as some applications or applicants cannot be classified by acceptance status.
a – category not applicable; b – break in series; d – contains data from another column; m – missing data; x – contained in another column (indicated in brackets). For further control codes, see the Reader’s Guide.
For further methodological information, see Education at a Glance 2025: Sources, Methodologies and Technical Notes (https://doi.org/10.1787/fcfaf2d1-en).
Note: For notes on this table and a link to download the data, see Tables and Notes section above.
Note: For notes on this table and a link to download the data, see Tables and Notes section above.
Note: For notes on this table and a link to download the data, see Tables and Notes section above
In per cent
Note: For notes on this table and a link to download the data, see Tables and Notes section above.