The annual update of the OECD Database on Export Restrictions on Critical Raw Materials shows that export restrictions on critical raw materials, essential for the energy and digital transitions, defence and advanced manufacturing, continued to increase in 2024. New export restrictions introduced in 2024 were imposed by a more diverse group of countries, pointing to broader adoption among resource-rich economies, particularly in Africa and Asia. Growth tapered to a 0.6% annual growth rate but restrictions have reached historically high levels and risen fivefold since 2009.
Export restrictions on critical raw materials
The growing use of export restrictions on critical raw materials that are essential for the energy and digital transitions, as well as for defence and advanced manufacturing, poses significant risks to supply chain resilience and economic security. The OECD monitors the use of these restrictions in order to contribute to a better understanding of why countries resort to such measures and their impact on international markets.
Key messages
Export restrictions adopted in 2024 were imposed by a more geographically diverse set of countries than in previous years, pointing to a broader adoption of such measures by resource-rich developing economies, particularly in Africa and Asia.
Over the period 2009‑2024, export restrictions on ores and minerals — the raw materials located upstream in critical raw material supply chains — increased more rapidly than those in other segments of the supply chain. They increased nearly twice as fast as restrictions on materials such as metals or chemical compounds, which are more refined forms of CRMs.
Between 2022 and 2024, on average, approximately 16% of global trade in critical raw materials faced at least one export restriction, up from about 12% in 2009-2011. Several materials critical to industrial and energy-transition supply chains, including cobalt, manganese, graphite and rare-earth elements, face particularly high exposure to export restrictions: around 70% of global exports of cobalt and manganese were subject to at least one export restriction in 2022 2024. Similarly high levels of exposure were also observed for graphite (47%), rare-earth elements (45%), and tin (41%).
While export taxes and licensing requirements remain the most common restrictive measure for critical raw materials, recent years have seen a sharp increase in quantitative restrictions such as export prohibitions. Since 2019, export prohibitions—the most restrictive measures— have become increasingly prominent, reflecting more assertive policies and efforts to retain value domestically. In 2024, export prohibitions accounted for about one-quarter of newly introduced measures, with export quotas adding another 12%
Context
Export restrictions on ores and minerals have increased more rapidly than other materials
Export restrictions on critical minerals and other raw materials vary not only across countries but also across different material categories. Although export restrictions on ores and minerals have increased more rapidly than other segments, waste and scrap - used in recycling to recover metals for batteries, electronics and industrial production - are now the most frequently restricted category. This reflects both environmental concerns and growing interest in the circular economy as a source of metals and minerals.
OECD Inventory of Export Restrictions on Critical Raw Materials
The aim of the OECD Inventory of Export Restrictions on Critical Raw Materials is to improve the transparency of the use of these export restrictions. The Inventory covers information on 80 exporting countries and 65 commodities. It is the most comprehensive inventory of its kind related to minerals, metals and wood.
This interactive data visualisation tool includes export restricting measures covered in the Inventory for all major minerals exporters and are combined with production figures, known mineral reserves and trade flows. Try it now to see how trade in raw materials stacks up in your country.
The "Trade in Raw Materials" visualization represents a subset of the OECD Inventory of export restrictions on critical raw materials (complete database) which also includes 6 wood products. A detailed methodological note for the Inventory is also available.
Data sources: Exports restrictions are restrictions in place from 2009 to 2024. OECD Members self-report data on restrictions they apply, while data for other exporter countries are collected by experts and subsequently verified by the concerned country’s authorities. In both cases only data substantiated from official sources as verified by the OECD Secretariat are included in the database.
Raw materials are more prone to be targeted in industrial policy and geopolitical rivalries
Given the uniqueness and concentration of production of some raw materials, market power dynamics can come into play and be exploited for economic and non-economic reasons, e.g. via restrictions on output or trade. Raw materials are generally used to produce other goods, i.e. they are positioned “upstream” in domestic and international supply chains. This means that disruptions or policies that affect their supply can have important systemic ramifications which can be used as a reason for state intervention, usually in the form of subsidies, and restrictions on exports or foreign ownership, to support downstream domestic sectors. This occurs despite the mixed evidence as to the efficacy of such policies. Given its systemic importance, raw materials are also more prone to be targets of economic coercion and political rivalries.
